Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 The Role Of Computer In Writing Process .............................................................................. 2
1.2 Use of Computer For Presentation ......................................................................................... 2
1.3 Technical Report Writing ........................................................................................................ 2
1.4 For Literature Research........................................................................................................... 2
1.5 Use Of Computer In Geology .................................................................................................. 2
1.6 Use Of Computer For 3D Modelling........................................................................................ 2
1.7 For Geological Data Bank ........................................................................................................ 2
1.8 Use Of Computer For Subsurface Analysis ............................................................................. 2
1.9 Geological Mapping By Computer .......................................................................................... 2
1.10 ArcGIS ...................................................................................................................................... 2

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 COMPUTER FOR A GEOLOGIST

1. INTRODUCTION
The involvement of computers in earth sciences education increased dramatically in
the latest decade. At present, several courses in geology utilize software and Computer Based
Training (CBT) that help in interpreting and describing the most complicated concepts in
very simple ways. Without the aid of computers, instructors need to put great efforts to
simplify geologic concepts and assist students understanding. In addition, students have to
spend long time to visualize, calculate, assimilate different geological processes, and interpret
a great deal of geological phenomena.
To achieve excellence in teaching, computer utilization was established in early 1980s
in ESD. At that time, only a few geology courses took advantage of computer development
like Computer Applications in Geology and Hydrogeology. Since that date, academic
programs in the Department continue to enhance teaching methods and make them more
efficient. For example, many textbooks selected for teaching sophomore- and junior-level
courses in geology are supplied with CD-ROMs that have a wide range of illustrations,
video-clips, and figures that explain different geological concepts. In addition, a collection of
software is, nowadays, available in the Department for different teaching and research
purposes. The internet resources and Web-base instructions are, also, important tools used in
ESD to augment the teaching process.

These are following uses of computer.

1.1 The Role Of Computer In Writing Process
1.2 Use of Computer For Presentation
1.3 Technical Report Writing
1.4 For Literature Research
1.5 Use Of Computer In Geology
1.6 Use Of Computer For 3D Modelling
1.7 For Geological Data Bank
1.8 Use Of Computer For Subsurface Analysis
1.9 Geological Mapping By Computer
1.10 ArcGIS

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 THE ROLE OF COMPUTER IN WRITING PROCESS

INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, computers offer many specialties to use in the writing process. They have
prompts to keep writers on the point, highlight possible spelling mistakes, and offer a
communication channel for corresponding with friends and colleagues. Regardless of the
writing medium, all good writing moves through an authoring cycle that begins with thinking
about or discussing the topic and making prewriting notes. After the prewriting, writers can
work on writing as an initial draft. When writers revise and edit, they can take their peers’,
teachers’, and editors’ ideas about the papers.
In the writing process, computer and computer software can be valuable tool for many
students. In addition to this, word processing, speech recognition, speech feedback, word
prediction, and other varieties of software packages may help students with learning
disabilities to participate in well-developed classroom writing programs.

PREWRITING
Daiute described two composing styles. The first one is Mozartian style. In this kind
of plan, writers write clearly, and revise their sentences while they are writing. The second
composing style is Beethovian. When writers follow this plan, they write quickly and freely,
but make extensive revision. Many writers use both of these composing styles to complete
the writing task.
Generally, writers prefer to plan before writing. “Planning is one of the most
important processes in writing. Students can use computers effectively to plan their writing.
They can prepare a list of words or ideas. Then, they can rearrange these words in related
clusters. Students can do same activity with pencil and paper, but computers can offer them
more features. For example, they can easily organize their list of words. Teachers can also
make some prescribed sections, headings, and even introductory sentences on computers.
Because of the flexibility of the word processing programs, students can make changes
easily.

COMPOSING
The composing process requires flexibility and speed to organize ideas. Word
processors give writers more freedom than paper and pencil based writing because writers
can compose text sequentially, follow an outline, or insert ideas at any point in a text.
Writers can compose quickly on the computer and store the text for later changes. In
addition, automatic insertion and editing commands can simplify the writers’ task. The
computer stores the entire discussion. Participants can print out the discussion and they can
use different network channels.
Discussion can occur between two participants or among the entire class. Teacher can
see the writing of an individual or of a group student on a channel. In addition, when teacher
make revisions other students can see this.

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REVISING AND EDITING
There is no doubt that computers can simplify the revising process. Delete, insert, and
move commands allow writers to rearrange text without recopy it. Due to this easy revising,
some writers never consider a paper to be finished. In the editing process, writers pay
attention to details such as spelling and punctuation. Word processing programs, spelling
checkers, on-line dictionaries, and on-line style and grammar manuals are useful in this
process.

CONCLUSION
Computers can make writers’ job easier in the writing process. In the prewriting
phase, students can use computers effectively to plan their writing. If students use prewriting
activities such as concept maps, and outlines, they can break down the larger tasks into
smaller ones.
Computers are very attractive for students. Due to this reason, they can spend so much
time for prewriting activities. In the composing phase, word processors can give writers more
freedom than paper and pencil based writing because writers can compose text sequentially,
follow an outline, or insert ideas at any point in a text.
Computers can simplify the revising process. Revising on the computer is easy, but
quality of the revising depends on the nature of the changes that are made by students. In the
editing process, writers pay attention to details such as spelling and punctuation. Word
processing programs, spelling checkers, on-line dictionaries, online style and grammar
manuals are useful for the editing. Students make most appropriate revising when they use
online prompting and word processing.

USE OF COMPUTER FOR PRESENTATION

A presentation program is a software package used to display information in the form
of a slide show. It has three major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and
formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images, and a slide-show system
to display the content. Presentation software can be viewed as enabling a functionally-
specific category of electronic media, with its own distinct culture and practices as compared
to traditional presentation media.

Presentations in this mode of delivery are pervasive in all aspects of business

communications, especially in business planning, as well as in academic conference and
professional conference settings, and in the knowledge economy generally, where ideas are a
primary work output. Presentations may also feature prominently in political settings,
especially workplace politics, where persuasion is a central determinant of group outcomes.

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 TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

Managing Report Writing

Four phases are involved in report writing

 Gathering Data
 Analyzing and sorting results
 Outlining Report
 Writing and Revising the Report

Parts of a Technical Report

 Abstract or summary
 Acknowledgements
 Title page
 Table of Contents
 List of figures graphs and tables
 Introduction
 Body
 Conclusion
 Bibliography
 References
 Appendix

Steps For Writing Effective Report Abstracts

 Reread your report with the purpose of abstracting in mind. Look specifically for
these main parts: purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and
recommendations.
 Write a draft. Do not merely copy key sentences from your report.
 Revise your rough draft to correct weaknesses in organization and coherence, drop
superfluous information, add important information originally left out, eliminate
wordiness, and correct errors in grammar and mechanics.
 Carefully proofread your final copy.

FOR LITRATURE RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION
One of the skills a scientist must possess is the ability to identify a problem,
search the scientific literature for all the work previously done on that problem,
synthesize that literature into a coherent understanding of the problem, and then
present those findings to others in a written and/or oral report. The purpose of this
course is for you to learn these essential skills and knowledge.

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 The literature is enormous, diversified, and found in several disciplines.
Today there are computer search systems such as GEOREF, but they are expensive
and require a good grasp of the problem first.
Comparisons of computers versus non computer contexts for learning have
become less frequent since the research of the 1980s, yet it is still apparent that there
are those who want a “back to the basics” approach to education in the 21st century
as exemplified. . New technologies have revolutionized how we complete even the
most basic tasks in life and computers have become a ubiquitous aspect of everyday
activity.

Source of Literature
Sources of literature include
 Databases (references to journal articles)
 Peer-reviewed journals
 Theses and dissertations
 Books, but note, tend to be published sometime after research on which they are
based, and more recent research is often available.
 Internet o Google Scholar or Government websites
 Funded research reports, discussion papers, government policies, websites ,
Conference literature ,Newspapers ,Statistics ,Library catalogues.

USE OF COMPUTER IN GEOLOGY

The first category includes courses that utilize computer software in laboratory
demonstration and hands-on through problem-solving procedures and data analysis.
Examples are courses of Structural Geology, Mineralogy and Optics, Petrology,
Sedimentation and Stratigraphy and Petroleum Geology. In these courses, problems that use
to be solved manually and consume extensive time become automated and less time
consuming. Stereographic projection and directional data plot in Structural Geology, Ternary
plots in Petrology, and stratigraphic sections and well logs in Petroleum Geology are
examples of such problems. Programs that are used to solve problems in Structural Geology
include, for example, SPLOT , ROCKPIX , and ROCKWARE . The ROCKWARE package,
also, contains several other tools that are used to help students solve problems in
Sedimentation and Stratigraphy, Hydrogeology, Engineering Geology as well as Geological
Mapping Techniques.
A second category includes those courses that depend heavily on the computer and
cannot be taught without its power. Geologic media characterization and flow simulation
courses fall in this classification. Examples of these courses are: Applied Geostatistics,
Groundwater Modeling, Computational Methods in Geology, Remote Sensing and GIS
Applications in Geology and Hydrogeology. Details about some of these courses and
software used to teach them are provided in the next section.

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 The last category is courses that use computer software, textbooks’ complimentary
CDs, and the internet as supplementary tools. Educational software greatly helps students to
understand different concepts and solve variety of problems. Compact disks (CDs) guide
students to learn about and explore different geological processes and systems. Earth by
Tarbuck and Lutgens , Geology Today by Murck and Skinner , Understanding Earth by Press
and Siever , and Manual of Mineralogy by Klien and Hurlbut, are examples of the textbooks
that use CDs to enhance teaching Physical Geology and Mineralogy courses.

USE OF COMPUTER FOR 3D MODELLING

Software Used programs

These are following Soft wares used for 3D Modelling in Computer

 Office software
 Adobe Acrobat 9 Pro
 CAD software
 AutoCAD
 Trimble Sketch Up
 Rock Works
 Vulcan
 Surpac
It was chosen SKP because it is free, easy, versatile and intuitive to use. It is possible
to use the same in different contexts and, on the other hand, is a tool that lets you download a
lot of three-dimensional models of the public gallery, which means it can be used by teachers
from different areas of knowledge. On the other hand, it seems that due to the same reasons
of ease of use and versatility, PDF3D is a good choice for displaying three-dimensional
elements. It is thought that it could become a standard, as it has happened with the pdf file
format for reading documents.
AR, computer programs, like PDF3D, or graphic design programs, such as SKP
among others, allow students to handle and watch digital objects from different points of
view and ways. Differences due to the technologies and their possibilities of use are
observed. All of these technologies are similar regarding zoom and turns, with minor
differences between them.
AR being perhaps the most striking because of its impact when students can see on
screen the two realities, virtual and real, at the same time. However, regarding the
management of them, SKP and PDF3D models are more versatile as they have direct buttons
to obtain the views and profiles, whereas in AR, there must be as many different models as
profiles is wanted to show on the screen. On the other hand, AR models have presented some
problems of flicker frozen image on the screen with relatively current equipment, though
major limitations are not observed, provided that they have a good distribution and lighting.

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  WinGSLIB (Geostatistical Software Library for Windows, Ver. 1.3.1 ) which
is a collection of FORTRAN programs that include statistical tools, 2- and 3-D
spatial models, estimation procedures, conditional simulation routines, and
plotting and printing utilities
 SURFER (Ver. 8), which is used to model topography or geologic attribute
distribution, is considered one of the most powerful surface-modeling
packages. It is dependent on applying mathematical, statistical and
geostatistical techniques to generate the required map and girding system.

FOR GEOLOGICAL DATA BANK

INTRODUCTION
Computer workstation-based interpretational software has revolutionized how
geophysical, geologic and engineering data are interpreted by the petroleum industry. Major
computer technologies, including near super-computing capabilities on interactive desktop
workstations, complex networking, high capacity mass storage devices, 3-D visualization
software, and large digital databases, have radically changed the petroleum industry's
approach to exploration and development. Emphasis within the petroleum industry is now on
powerful interpretational software that minimizes repetitive tasks, integrates technologic
disciplines, maximizes analysis and simulation, and increases the number of mistakes (dry
holes) that are drilled on the desk instead of in the field. These powerful computer aided
interpretational systems have yet to be widely used by environmental professionals.

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)

Data was acquired using a GSSI SIR System 8 GPR unit with a 500-MHz transducer.
The data were downloaded from the unit and converted into SEGY format for data
integration and interpretation within the workstation environment. The vertical (time) and
horizontal (distance) scales for GPR data differ considerably from seismic reflection data.
Because the GPR data length is in nanoseconds, rather than milliseconds, it was necessary to
time-scale the sample interval of the data by a factor of 1x106 for viewing purposes. The
horizontal spacing (CDP) for this data set is approximately 1.2 cm per CDP point.

2-D and 3-D near-surface seismic reflection and vertical seismic profiling
Near-surface 2-D seismic reflection profiles, a 3-D seismic reflection patch, and two
vertical seismic profiles were collected at the Siefkes Study Site. Seismic Line One images
the subsurface between the two ground-water monitoring wells. Seismic Line Two is
perpendicular to Line One and is located near well P. The single-fold 3-D seismic patch is
centered on the two seismic lines in order to maximize velocity information for normal move-
out (NMO) corrections. The two vertical seismic profiles (VSP) were collected at wells P and
DA. The VSP data provided basic velocity functions for the seismic data interpretation
process and, more importantly, time-depth information to depth-tie the seismic reflection data
to known subsurface stratigraphic units.

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Pseudo-seismic profiling
Stratigraphic interpretation from wireline logs is typically drawn from multiple log
traces or from cross plots of log data. Both techniques can readily depict vertical changes in
lithology or reservoir quality, but lateral relationships are not easily visualized. Significant
improvement in the geologic interpretation of wireline log data can be achieved through color
image transformation and treatment of the transformed data as "seismic" traces for the
purposed of processing, interpretation and display. Such transforms can combine data from
porosity, gamma and density tools generating a color coded "cross plot log" for each well. A
well-designed color transformation of wireline log data from multiple wells maximizes both
spatial and compositional information content and provides a readily interpretable image of
the subsurface geology. The transformed image, in either 2-D or 3-D, can be treated as
"seismic" data, easing the data-handling burdens through the use of computerized techniques
designed for interpretation of seismic data.

Drilling Logs
When drilling boreholes, the project geologist should maintain a log that describes
each borehole. The E & E Geotechnical Logbook contains records for boreholes.
 Borehole/well number
 Project name
 Site location
 Dates and times that drilling was started and completed
 geologist's name
 Drill rig type used to drill the borehole

CONCLUSIONS
In order to improve site investigations, environmental professionals need to consider
application of near-surface geophysical and geologic methods coupled with the visualization
and analysis power of computer workstation-based interpretational systems. Improved
understanding of the subsurface geology is an important consideration for development of
adequate sampling strategies and the design of workable remediation systems.
Computer workstation-based interpretational software provides the tools to handle mass
quantities of data for improved site characterization. Changes in computer technologies have
allowed integration of once discrete professional skills and technologies. Major computer
technologies include near super computing capabilities on interactive desktop workstations,
complex networking, high capacity mass storage devices, 3-D visualization software, and
large digital databases. Engineers, geologists, geophysicists and other environmental
professionals will more likely meet at a computer terminal than at a conference table and
communicate over the network rather than in formal meetings.

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 USE OF COMPUTER FOR SUBSURFACE ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION
Hydrological uses of computers are increasing monotonically with the passage of
time. We are now into the third phase of the "computer revolution" where "problems are
being routinely defined that could not even have been conceived without the existence of
computers. Certainly, available supercomputers continue on this "revolutionary" path. There
are two rather obvious trends in the use of supercomputers. First, the size of problems which
becomes feasible continues to increase in magnitude. Here the word "size" refers not only to
computer-related limitations, e.g., speed or number of processors, amount of memory,
input/output and physical storage capacity, but also to the complexity level of the models
investigated. Second, smaller, more routine analyses are carried out much more rapidly and
accurately, sometimes in real time.

Particle Tracking
Nomeactive solute transport can be modeled quite effectively by using particle-
tracking techniques. All approaches to date are based on the dilute solute assumption i.e., the
water flow model is solved separately to give the groundwater velocity field. This velocity is
then used to provide the deterministic motion of the "solute" particles in the simulation, with
an additional random component providing the dispersive mechanism.
 GMS (Ver. 3.1) and Visual MODFLOW (Ver. 2.8.2) are user-friendly and
widely accepted groundwater flow/transport packages. Both programs help
performing calibration, verification, and simulation tasks and output the
results on a screen or to a printer. The packages simulate the behavior of
groundwater and contamination in the saturated and unsaturated geologic
media.
 VS2DT (Ver. 2.5) is a software program that simulates complicated
groundwater flow and contaminant transport in the vadose zone. It generates
different output files that represent moisture content, water saturation and
pressure head distribution in either one or two dimensions.

GEOLOGICAL MAPPING BY COMPUTER

INTRODUCTION
The use of computers in many aspects of geological instruction has been increasing
over the last decade. A notable exception to this trend involves field methods courses. This is
unfortunate in that these courses are commonly the capstone of the geology curriculum. Any
computer applications that are used in field methods courses rely on analysis, interpretation,
and presentation of data collected by conventional means in the field. Consequently, the
original data must be entered into the computer application by hand before any type of

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analyses or interpretations may be undertaken. In many instances, this is unavoidable, in that
there is no way to download the field data to a computer.
Maps are as important to earth scientists as the conventions for scales and notes are to
the musician, for they are compact and efficient means of expressing relationships and
details. Although maps are a familiar part of every geologist’s training and work, surprisingly
little thought has gone into the mechanics and philosophy of geologic map making.
Maps are displays of items of information. Data that are not in suitable form must be
transformed in order to make map production Possible. Statistical data, for example, do not
usually possess information about the location of each data point in space, but scatter plots or
contour plots are frequently generated from data of this type, by arbitrarily considering two
variables to represent ‘east’ and ‘north’ and then either plotting data point locations or
contouring the value of some other associated variable.
One-dimensional maps are commonly used by geologists: the geological section is the
basic tool of much field work. The direction is usually vertical and the mapped variable may
be either categorical, as in stratigraphic sections showing the rock types and formations
present in some locality, or continuous, as with electric log measurements of resistivity, etc.,
down a drill hole.
GS+ (Geostatistics for the Environmental Sciences, Ver. 3.17) is a user-friendly
windows program that covers most of the important geostatistical tools. Components of the
package are: descriptive statistics, semivariogram analysis, block and punctual ordinary
kriging, and 2D and 3D mapping.

GEOLOGICAL AND LITHOLOGICAL MAPS

The classical ‘geological’ map displays the rock types present in a region, the level of
tectonic activity, or some similar attribute. It is concerned with variation in three dimensions,
but with sampling limited to two in most cases. They may be of two types: area coverage
maps showing which rock types are to be found in any particular area and ‘posting’ maps
indicating the values of particular parameters at observed locations. These values may be the
rock type observed at each outcrop ; the orientation of any faulting; or any of a wide variety
of possible parameters.

TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
Contour maps are widely used to represent surficial topography. Geologists often
need to proceed beyond this and map buried topographic surfaces. These may well have once
represented the earth-air contact (or, more commonly, the earth-water contact) but they have
been buried and frequently deformed by folding or faulting. Consequently computer
contouring techniques have been developed by many individuals, and many maps of this type
have been and are being produced with varying degrees of success.

COMPUTER-BASED DATA HANDLING

Computer-based storage and retrieval of geological information has a long history.
Some of the major geological topics covered include geochemistry, geological field mapping
, geophysics, hydrogeology, hydrology, geophysical logs, mineral and fuel deposits,
mineralogy, oceanography, palaeontology, petrology and lithology, stratigraphy, and

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petroleum and gas wells. The computer topics discussed include bibliographic files,
bibliographies, data codes and coding, computer systems, curating, data display, data files,
data recording, digitizing, indexes and indexing, data standards, surveys and questionnaire.
While much other work has been done, clearly a major effort has been made in the handling
of computer files of geological data acquired in the field and intended for some form of
geographical display.

CONCLUSIONS
We have discussed some of the major types of geological map and how various
workers are attempting to automate different procedures. We can summarize by saying that
contour type map production by computer is alive, well, and hopefully moving towards
second-generation techniques. These will probably involve taking the topology or
neighbourhood relationships of data points into account. Data transformation (often
statistical) prior to display is fairly widely used, but again spatial relationships are not
normally considered. In lithology mapping, topology is being seriously examined by a few
workers, but automation is rare beyond selective data point posting. This last, along with the
necessary field data acquisition and management, is progressing steadily.

ArcGIS

INTRODUCTION
The geographic information system is a system for the management, analysis, and
display of geographic information .The geographic information is represented by series of
datasets that model geography using simple generic data structure.
A GIS (Geographic Information System) is a powerful tool used for computerized
mapping and spatial analysis. A GIS provides functionality to capture, store, query, analyze,
display and output geographic information.

Definition of GIS
A computer-based system that stores geographically referenced data, links it with
non-graphic attributes (data in tables) allowing for a wide range of information processing
including manipulation, analysis and modeling. A GIS also provides for map display and
production.

Components of ArcGIS
Arc Map, Arc Catalog, and Arc Toolbox
ArcGIS Desktop is comprised of a set of integrated applications, which are accessible
from the Start menu of your computer: ArcMap and ArcCatalog.

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 • ArcMap is the main mapping application which allows you to create maps, query
attributes, analyze spatial relationships, and layout final projects.
• ArcCatalog organizes spatial data contained on your computer and various other
locations and allows for you to search, preview, and add data to ArcMap as well as manage
metadata and set up address locator services (geocoding).
• ArcToolbox is the third application of ArcGIS Desktop. Although it is not
accessible from the Start menu, it is easily accessed and used within ArcMap and ArcCatalog.
ArcToolbox contains tools for geoprocessing, data conversion, coordinate systems,
projections, and more. This workbook will focus on ArcMap and ArcCatalog.

Software Products
ArcMap is made up of three software product levels: ArcView, ArcEditor, and
ArcInfo. These products share a common architecture but provide increasing levels of
functionality. ArcView provides the base mapping and analysis tools. ArcEditor provides all
ArcView capability and includes additional processing and advanced editing. ArcInfo
provides all ArcEditor capability plus advanced analysis and processing. While these levels
are crucial to consider when purchasing software, it is also important to be aware of the
limitations of the level you are using. We are using the ArcInfo level.

Common GIS File Types

 Geodatabase
The personal geodatabase, or geographic database, file is called the “modern
container for GIS data” and is specific to ArcGIS. Geodatabases define, manage, process and
store all the types of data that can be used in ArcGIS (i.e., feature, rasters, relationships,
measurements, attributes, etc) inside either a Microsoft Access database or a full relational
database (SQL Server, Oracle, Informix or DB2).
 Shapefiles
ArcGIS shapefile format is a widely adopted standard and comprises three or more
associated files. Be careful copying this data to a disk. You must get all of the files associated
with a single layer. They will have a variety of file extensions: .shp, .shx, .dbf and sometimes
others. If you are copying shapefiles, we recommended that you use the ‘File’ > ‘Data’ >
‘Export Data’ function in ArcMap or through ArcCatalog. This will automatically copy all
files associated with a layer. Also, be aware that some of these files may be very large in size.
 Layer
According to ESRI, the layer file (.lyr) stores symbology, symbology classifications,
labeling properties, scale dependency, and definition. If you save something in this format it
means that, unlike shapefiles, colors and other characteristics are saved and will appear the
same every time you open it.
 Coverages

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 A coverage stores a set of thematically associated data considered to be a unit. It usually
represents a single layer, such as soils, streams, roads, or land use. In a coverage, features are
stored as both primary features (points, arcs, polygons) and secondary features (tics, links,
annotation).” Source: ESRI Data Dictionary.
 CAD (computer-aided design)
A computer-based system for the design, drafting, and display of graphical information.”
Although most commonly used to support engineering, planning, and illustrating activities,
these files can be used in a GIS. Source: ESRI Data Dictionary.
 Image formats

ArcGIS accepts and uses a variety of image files (.tiff, .jpg, .jp2, .png, etc).

 Text files
(with x,y coordinates)

ArcGIS Terminology

Team Definition Example

View A collection of themes Washington, DC
Theme A single layer of data Housing
Attribute A defined characteristic of Year Built
a theme
Value A specific quality or 1920
quantity assinged to an
attribute , for a specific
instant.

 Mapping by Quantity: Color Maps

These maps are ideal for showing all sorts of data including both numerical and
descriptive text.

 Mapping by Quantity: Dot Maps

The dot or dot density map. It is ideal for mapping numerical data.

 Chart Maps
This third type of analysis overlays a chart onto our map. It is a good mapping
technique when you want to display and compare multiple values or values for each layer
object.

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 REFERENCES

 Merriam, D F (ed) (1981) Computer Applications in the

Earth Sciences : An Update of the 1970s. Plenum
 Anderson, M.P., Ward, D.S., Lappala, E.G., and Prickett T.A. (1993)
Computer Models for Subsurface Water. In D. Maidment (ed.)
Handbook of Hydrology. New York: McGraw Hill.
 ROCKPIX, Ver. 5.05 (1989). USA: PETMAR Trilobite Breeding
Ranch.
 ROCKWARE, Ver. 3 (1995). Colorado: RockWare Software.
 SPLOT, ver. 2.01 (1988). USA: Darton Software
 Bailey, M., O’Grady-Jones, M., & McGown, L. (1995). The impact of
integrating visuals in an elementary creative writing process.
Chicago, IL: Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the
International Visual Literacy Association (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED391492).
 Kirkman, John. Good Style: Writing for Science and Technology. E
& FN Spon, London. 1992
 http://134.117.206.17/www/resources/report_writing/pages/vidcover.
htm
 Bear, J., and A. Verruijt, Modeling Groundwater Flow and
Transport, 414 pp., D. Reidel, Hingham, Mass., 1987.
 Rogerson. A (1988) Problem solving. modelling and applications of
mathematics. Proceedings of the Sixth ICME Congress. Budapest
 Bouillé, F. (I 976). ‘Graph theory and digitization of geological
maps’, Math. Geol., 8, 375-393

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