M ATHS O LYMPIAD C OURSE

NUMBER T HEORY : LECTRUE 1

DIVISIBILITY OF I NTEGERS
1. DEFINITION :
An integer  a  0  divides b, if  x  x  Z  s, t, b = ax, a/b = a divides b or ‘b’ is divisible by a or b is a multiple
of a. a | b  a does not divide b.
2. PROPERTY OF DIVISIBILITY :
1. a|b and b|c  a|c.

a | a  b
2. a|b, a|c  a|xb + yc, x, y  Z   Imp.
a | a – b
3. a|b; a|b + c  a|c
4. a|b; a|b – c  a|c } Imp.
5. a|b & b|a  a  b
6. a|b  b = 0 or a  b . If a, b > 0 then a < b
7. a|b  a|bc, c  Z
8. a|b iff ma|mb where m  0
NOTE

 
1. x  y x 2 n 1  y 2 n 1 V n  N 0  N 0  w 
  
 whole no. 
Proof : if n = 0 then it is obvious.
if n  1, we have
x2n + 1 + y2n + 1 = (x + y) (x2n – x2n – 1 y + x2n – 2 y2 ..... + y2n)
2. x – y|xn – yn; x  N
Proof : n = 1 it is obvious.
for n  2; xn – yn = (x – y) (xn–1 + xn–2 y + xn–3 y2 + .... yn–1)
3. LECTURE EXAMPLES :
Example 1. Show that 11997 + 21997 + .... + 19951997 is divisible by 1997.

Solution. 
1  1996  
1997


1997
(21997 + 19951997) + .... + (9981997 + 9991997)

Every bracket is of the form  ai  bi  is divisible by (ai + bi); Here ai  bi  1997 V i

2 n 1 2 n 1

 Each bracket is divisible by 1997, hence the sum.

Example 2. Prove that a – c|ab + cd iff a – c|ad + bc
Solution. Taking a – c|ab + cd;
We can write ab + cd = b (a – c) + cd – ad + bc + ad

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 MATHS OLYMPIAD C OURSE
N UMBER THEORY : L ECTRUE 1
D IVISIBILITY OF I NTEGERS
 ab + cd = b (a – c) – d (a – c) + (bc + ad)
ab + cd = (a – c) (b – d) + (bc + ad)
 (ab + cd) – (bc + ad) = (a – c) (b – d)  a – c|ad + bc
NOTE
If a|x and a|x – y then a|y
Example 3. Prove that : 6|n3 + 5n
Solution. 6|n3 + 5n  n3 + 5n = n3 – n + 6n
= n(n – 1)(n + 1) + 6n

divisibility by 3!  i.e. ‘6’.

Example 4. P.T. 6|a + b + c iff 6|a3 + b3 + c3 ; a, b, c  N
Solution. If 6|a + b + c  6|a3 + b3 + c3
Let 6|a + b + c; Taking a3 + b3 + c3 – (a + b + c)
= a3 – a + b3 – b + c 3 – c

a  a  1 a  1
=   + b(b – 1) (b + 1) + c(c – 1)(c + 1)

divisible by 2 and 3 both

= divisible by 6.
 If a|x and a|x – y  a|y
Example 5. Prove that 641|232 + 1 Imp.

Solution. 641 = 54 + 24 = 5  27  1 divides both

54.228 + 232 and 54.228 – 1. Then it also divides their difference 232 + 1.

 n  1
2

Example 6. Find all natural numbers n, such that is an integer.

n7

 n  1 n 2  2n  1 n  n  7   5n  35  35  1
2
Solution.  
n7 n7 n7

 n  5 n  7   36

n7

36
  n  5   n + 7|36
n7
n + 7 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36
 n  N Hence n + 7 = 9, 12, 18, 36
n = 2, 5, 11, 29

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 M ATHS O LYMPIAD C OURSE
NUMBER T HEORY : LECTRUE 1
DIVISIBILITY OF I NTEGERS
Example 7. Find the no. of positive integers ‘n’ for which
(i) n  1991 (ii) 6 is a factor of n2 + 3n = 2

2 |  n  1 n  2 
Solution. 6|(n + 1)(n + 2)   and 3|(n + 1)(n + 2)
always
 3|(n + 1)(n + 2)  Possible if n = 3k + or 3k + 2

991 
 Total no. of numbers : 1991   
 3 
= 1991 – 663 = 1328
Example 8. Prove that for any nat. no. ‘n’.
E = 2903n – 803n – 464n + 261n is divisible by 1897.
Solution. 1897 = 7 × 271  we will show ‘E’ is divisible by factors of 1897 i.e. 7 & 271.
E = 2903n – 803n – [464n – 261n]
= (2903 – 803) N1 – [464 – 261]N2 ; N1, N 2  N
= 2100N1 – 203N2
= 7 [300N1 – 29N2] = 7k1; k1  N  7|E
Also E = 2903n – 464n – (803n – 261n)
= (2903 – 464) N3 – (803 – 261) N4; N3, N 4  N
= 2439 N3 – 542 N4
= 271 (9N3) – 271 (2N4)
= 271 k2; k2  N  271|E

Hence 271*
7 | E

Prime Numbers

4. EUCLID DIVISION LEMMA :

If a and b are any two integers, a  0, then there exist unique integer q and r such that b = aq + r, 0  r  a b, a,
q and r are called dividend, divisor, quotient and remainder respectively.
Example. When the number 19779 and 17997 are divided by a certain three-digit number, they leave the same
remainder. Find this largest such divisor and the remainder. How many such divisors are there?
Solution. Let the divisor be d and the remainder be r.
Then by Euclidean Algorithm, we find
19779 = dq1 + r (1)
and 17997 = dq2 + r (2)

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 MATHS OLYMPIAD C OURSE
N UMBER THEORY : L ECTRUE 1
D IVISIBILITY OF I NTEGERS
By subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1), we get
1782 = d(q1 – q2)
 d is a three-digit divisor of 1782.
Therefore, possible values of d are 891, 594, 297 and 198, 162.
Hence, the largest three-digit divisor is 891 and the remainder is 177.
5. GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR (GCD :
The greatest common divisor of any two integers a, b (at least one of them non-zero), is the greatest among the
integral common divisor of a and b.
The greatest common divisor is denoted as GCD and represented as (a, b).
If (a, b) = 1, then we say that a and b are relatively prime integers or co-prime integers.
PROPERTIES OF GCD :

1.  a, b   1
2. (a, b) = (|a|, |b|)

3.  a,0   a ,a  0

4.  a, b    a  kb, b   k  
5. (a, b) = (b, a)
6. If (a, b) = g and d is a common divisor of a and b, then d|g.

7. For any non-zero m  ,  ma, mb   m  a, b 

a b 1
8. If d|a and d|b and d > 0, then  ,      a, b  .
d d  d 

a b
9. If (a, b) = g, then  ,   1.
g g
10. If (a, b) = 1 and (a, c) = 1, then (a, bc) = 1.
11. If a|bc and (a, b) = 1, then a|c

If  a, b   1, then we cannot conclude that a|c.

For example, a = 6, b = 21, c = 10

6|21 × 10, but (6, 21) = 3 and (6, 10) = 2 and 6 divides neither 21 nor 10.
12. If a, b , (a, b) = 1 and a × b = ck, k , c  , then each of a and b is a perfect kth power.
13. If (a, b) = g, then there exist two integers x and y such that g = xa + yb.

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 M ATHS O LYMPIAD C OURSE
NUMBER T HEORY : LECTRUE 1
DIVISIBILITY OF I NTEGERS
NOTE
In general xa + yb is a multiple of g  x, y  

14.  a, b   1  am  bn  1 for some m, n  . This is known as Bézout’s identity.

The Euclidean algorithm can be used to find the GCD of two integers as well as representing the GCD as linear
combination of numbers.
Consider two numbers 18, 28.
28 = 1  18 + 10
18 = 1  10 + 8
10 = 1  8 + 2
8 = 42 + 0
(18, 28) = 2 (retracing the steps)
(18, 28) = 2 = 10 – 1  8

 10  18  1  10 

 2  10  1  18  2  28  1  18   1  18

 2  28  3  18  2  28   3  18

NOTE
The representing in property (13) is not unique. In fact we can represent (a, b) as xa + yb in infinite number of
ways, where x, y  .

(18, 28) = 2  28   318

 2  28  252k   318  252k

= (2 + 9k) 28 + (–3 – 14k)18

where k is any integer.
6. LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE :
Least common multiple of two integers a, b is the smallest positive integer divisible by both a and b and it is denoted
by [a, b].
In the above example, 252 is the least common multiple of 18 and 28.
252 = 9 × 28 and 252 = 14 × 18
NOTE
[a, b](a, b) = ab

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 MATHS OLYMPIAD C OURSE
N UMBER THEORY : L ECTRUE 1
D IVISIBILITY OF I NTEGERS
Example 1. If a and b are relatively prime, show that (a + b) and (a – b) are either relatively prime or their gcd
is 2.
Solution. If d is the gcd of (a + b) and (a – b) then d|(a + b) and d|(a – b) and therefore,

d  a  b   a  b

 d|2a and d|2b

 d|(2a, 2b)
But (a, b) = 1
 (2a, 2b) = 2
 d|2.
Hence, d is either 1 or 2.

Example 2. If (a, b) = 1, then  a  b, b   1 and  a, a  b   1.

Solution. If  a  b, b  is d, then d  a  b  , and d|b and this implies d|a

 d|(a, b) = 1  d|1  d = 1.

Again  a, a  b   d , then d|a and d  a  b  and this implies d|b.

So, d|a and d|b implies d|(a, b)  d|1  d = 1.

21m  4
Example 3. Prove that the fraction is irreducible for every natural number m.
14m  3
Solution. Assuming the contrary, if p is a number which divides both 21m + 4 and also 14m + 3, then p should
divide, 3(14n + 3) – 2(21m + 4) = 1.
Thus, p = 1.
Therefore, the gcd of (14m + 3) and (21m + 4) is 1.

21m  4
So, is irreducible.
14m  3
Example 4. Prove that the expression 3x + 11y and 29x + 23y are divisible by 125 for the same set of positive
integral values of x, y. Find at least two such pairs (x, y).
Solution. Since 3(3x + 11y) + 4(29x + 23y) = 125(x + y)
Now, 3 and 125 are relatively prime and so are 4 and 125.
Thus, if one of the expression is divisible by 125, then the other expression should also be divisible by
125. Here we have used the following properly :
For a|b and a|c  a|(ka + lb) conversely a|(ka + lb) and a|ka, then a|lb and if (a, l) = 1, then a|b.
To find the values of x and y for which both the expressions are divible by 125,
3x + 11y = 125n1 (1)
29x + 23y = 125n2 (2)

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 M ATHS O LYMPIAD C OURSE
NUMBER T HEORY : LECTRUE 1
DIVISIBILITY OF I NTEGERS
11n2  23n1 
x 
2
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) for x and y, we get  for all n1 , n2   and having same
29n1  3n2 
y
2 
parity (i.e., both even or both odd).

1 1 1
Example 5. If   where a, b, c are positive integers with no common factor prove that a + b is a square.
a b c
Solution. Let the gcd of a, b be k, then a = kp and b = kp, and p, q are relatively prime.

1 1 1
 
a b c
 c(a + b) = ab
 ck(p + q) = k2pq
 c(p + q) = kpq. (1)
Since, k is the GCD of a, b and a, b, c have no common factor (c, k) = 1.
So, c|pq (2)
As (p, q) = 1; p, q are prime to (p + q) and hence, (p + q) is prime to pq and hence, pq|c. (3)
From Eqs. (2) and (3), we have
c = pq (4)
From Eqs. (1) and (4), we have, p + q = k
So, (a + b) = k(p + q) = k × k = k2 and hence, the result.

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