Element IB6: Noise & Vibration.

Learning outcomes.
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to:
1. Explain the basic physical concepts relevant to noise
2. Explain the effects of noise on the individual and the use of audiometry
3. Explain the measurement and assessment of noise exposure
4. Explain the principles and methods of controlling noise and noise exposure
5. Explain the basic physical concepts relevant to vibration
6. Explain the effects of vibration on the individual
7. Explain the measurement and assessment of vibration exposure
8. Explain the principles and methods of controlling vibration and vibration exposure.

Learning Outcome 1.
Explain the basic physical concepts relevant to noise.

• The general meaning of ‘noise’ (ref: article 3 of ILO C148, Working Environment Convention 1977)
• The basic concepts of sound: - nature (progressive longitudinal wave, transmitted through the
displacement of the medium through which it travels)
- wave properties - wavelength, amplitude, frequency/pitch
- the concepts of sound pressure, sound intensity
- the decibel (dB) scale and its logarithmic nature (with workplace examples at different sound
levels)
- human auditory frequency sensitivity and the significance of A-weighting ‘dB(A)’ and C
weighting ‘dB(C)’, in relation to occupational noise exposure

• The concept of equivalent noise dose (LAeq, LEP,d, weekly and peak).

1.0 - The General Meaning of Noise.

There are many published definitions of noise, including:

• “Sound that is not wanted by the perceiver, because it is unpleasant, loud, or interferes with
hearing.”
 “A sound, especially one that is loud or unpleasant or that causes a disturbance.”

The International Labour Organisation C148 - Working Environment Convention No. 148,
1977, article 3 states:

“The term noise covers all sound which can result in hearing impairment or be harmful to health or
otherwise dangerous.”

1.1 - The Basic Concepts of Sound.

Very simply, sound is the vibration of any substance. The substance can be air, water, wood, or any
other material, and in fact, the only place in which sound cannot travel is in a vacuum.

When these substances vibrate, or rapidly move back and forth, they move the air, producing sound.
Our ears detect these vibrations and allow us to interpret them.

To be a little more accurate in our definition of sound, however, we must realise that the vibrations
that produce sound are not the result of an entire volume moving back and forth at once. If that were
the case, the entire atmosphere would need to shift for any sound to be made at all! Instead, the
vibrations occur among the individual molecules of the substance, and the vibrations move through
the substance in longitudinal sound waves.

1.2 - Wavelength and Period.

The wavelength is the horizontal distance between any two successive equivalent points on the wave.
That means that the wavelength is the horizontal length of one cycle of the wave.
The period of a wave (also called frequency) is the time required for one complete cycle of the wave to
pass by a point. So, the period is the amount of time it takes for a wave to travel a distance of one
wavelength.

1.3 - Amplitude.

The amplitude of a sound is represented by the height of the wave.

When there is a loud sound (a lot of energy) the wave is high and the amplitude is large.
Conversely, smaller amplitudes represent a softer sound with less energy.

1.4 - Frequency.

Every cycle of sound has one condensation, a region of increased pressure, and one rarefaction, a
region where air pressure is slightly less than normal.
The frequency (or period) of a sound wave is measured in hertz, named after the German physicist
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894).
Hertz (Hz) indicate the number of cycles per second that pass a given location.
A higher pitched sound has a higher frequency than a lower pitched sound.

1.5 - Sound Pressure and Sound Intensity.

Before describing the physical properties of sound, let's make an analogy between sound, and a maybe
better known physical phenomenon: heat.

Sound intensity describes the rate of flow of sound energy. High-intensity sound has more -energy
than low-intensity sound. Intensity is measured in watts per square metre (W/m2).

Sound pressure is the local pressure deviation from the ambient atmospheric pressure, caused by a
sound wave. It is measured in Pascals.
When it comes to evaluation of the harmfulness and annoyance of noise sources, sound pressure is
the important parameter.

1.7 - The Logarithmic Nature of the Decibel Scale.

To explain the logarithmic scale of the decibel, let's use a simple example. Think of a linear scale as a
tape measure: going 10 units up the scale gets you 10 units more than where you started. If you start
at zero centimetres and add 10, you’re at 10 centimetres; start at 10 centimetres, add 10 more, and
you’re at 20 centimetres. Easy enough, right?

However, a logarithmic scale is very different. Here, going 10 units up the scale increases the previous
number by a factor of 10, not by 10 units.

To see what this looks like, we need to know where we’re starting. Zero on the decibel scale is the
“threshold of human hearing”: it’s the least intense sound a human can detect. Just note how quickly
the logarithmic scale of decibels goes up from there:

o 0 dB threshold of human hearing.

o 10 dB 10 times more intense.
o 20 dB 100 times more intense.
o 30 dB 1,000 times more intense.
o 40 dB 10,000 times more intense.

Basically, for every 10dB increase, we’re adding a zero to the amount of intensity versus the threshold of
hearing. So, a sound that’s 120 dB (a jet engine, for example) is one trillion times (1012) the intensity of
the smallest sound a human can hear.

1.8 - Adding Sound Pressure Levels (Decibels).

Since sound pressure levels are based on a logarithmic scale, they cannot be added directly.

For example, 80dB + 80dB does not equal 160dB!

As an important rule of thumb, adding two sound pressure levels of equal value will always result in a
3dB increase.

For example: 80dB + 80dB = 83dB. • 100dB + 100dB = 103dB. Note also that a 3dB increase
DOUBLES the sound intensity.

1.9 - Human Auditory Frequency Sensitivity and Weighting Scales.

The human ear can detect sound over a range of frequencies, typically from 20Hz to 20,000Hz.
However, you will often see noise levels are given in dBA (A-weighted sound levels) instead of dB.
Measurements in dBA, or dB(A) as it is sometimes written, are decibel scale readings that have been
adjusted to attempt to consider the varying sensitivity of the human ear to different frequencies of
sound.

In basic terms, the ear’s loudness sensitivity for tones is not the same as the ear’s damage risk for
noise. Even though the low frequencies and high frequencies are perceived as being equally loud at
high sound levels, much of the low-frequency noise is filtered out by the human ear, making it less
likely to cause damage. The A-weighting scale in a sound level meter replicates this filtering process
of the human ear.

Even though the low frequencies and high frequencies are perceived as being equally loud at high
sound levels, much of the low-frequency noise is filtered out by the human ear, making it less likely
to cause damage. The A-weighting scale in a sound level meter replicates this filtering process of the
human ear.

1.10 - The Concept of Equivalent Noise Dose.

ILO Convention R156 - Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise, and Vibration) Recommendation,
1977 lays down the general requirements for the protection of workers from occupational noise
exposure. The detail is laid out in ILO CoP “Protection of workers against noise and vibration in the
working environment”.

The CoP lays down maximum exposure limits as follows:

 Warning limit: 85dB(A) (continuous exposure).

 Danger limit: 90dB (A) (continuous exposure).
 Peak limit: 140dB.

Equivalent Continuous Sound Pressure Level (LAeq).

The LAeq is defined as the A-weighted energy average of the noise level, averaged over the
measurement period. It can be considered as the notional continuous steady noise level which would
have the same total A-weighted acoustic energy as the real fluctuation noise measured over the same
period. Thus, to maintain the LAeq when the sound pressure level is doubled (increased by 3dB)
exposure time would need to be halved.

Daily Personal Exposure Level (LEP,d).

The LEP,d is very similar to the LAeq. It is a worker's daily exposure to noise at work (normalised to an
8-hour day), considering the average levels of noise and the time spent in each area. This is the
parameter that is generally used by national legislation (such as the UK Control of Noise at Work
Regulations) and is essential in assessing a worker’s exposure and what action should be taken.

Weekly Exposure Level.

Personal noise exposure may also be calculated over a week rather than a day, if the noise exposure
of workers varies markedly from day to day. This is written as LEP,w.

Peak Sound Pressure Level (LCpeak).

This is a measure of the maximum instantaneous sound pressure at a specified location. Exposure to
high peak sound levels can be associated with immediate damage to hearing.

For example, the UK Control of Noise at Work Regulations specify a peak sound pressure of 140dB -
above which employees must not be exposed.
Learning Outcome 2.
Explain the effects of noise on the individual and the use of audiometry.

• The physiology of the ear in relation to the mechanism of hearing

• The physical and psychological effects on the individual; types of hearing loss with reference to their
significance in the workplace, the acute and chronic physiological effects of exposure to high noise
levels (ie, noise induced hearing loss, instantaneous hearing loss, temporary threshold shift,
permanent threshold shift, Tinnitus)
• Health surveillance (ref: section 9.4 of ILO CoP, ‘Ambient Factors in the Workplace’):
- the circumstances when it may be required (pre-employment, periodic based on findings of
workplace assessments, following complaints etc)
- the use of audiometry to measure hearing and hearing loss; method, interpretation and the
use of results (interpretation of audiograms), the advantages and disadvantages of
audiometry programmes, including legal implications.

2.0 - The Physiology of the Ear in Relation to the Mechanism of Hearing.

The human ear consists of outer, middle, and inner parts.

The outer ear is the visible portion. It includes the skin-covered flap of cartilage known as the auricle,
and the opening (‘auditory canal’) leading to the eardrum (tympanic membrane).

The middle ear, separated from the outer ear by the eardrum, contains three small bones, or ossicles.
Because of their shapes, these bones are known as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. Air reaches the
middle ear through the auditory tube, which connects it to the throat.

The inner ear contains the cochlea, which houses the sound-analysing cells of the ear, and the
vestibule, which houses the organs of equilibrium. The cochlea is a coiled, fluid-filled tube divided
into the three canals: the vestibular, tympanic, and cochlear canals. The basilar membrane forms a
partition between the cochlear canal and the tympanic canal and houses the organ of Corti. Anchored
in the Corti structure are some 20,000 hair cells, with filaments varying in length in a manner
somewhat analogous to harp strings. These are the sensory hearing cells, connected at their base
with the auditory nerve.
Figure 1: An image of the human ear.

2.1 - The Hearing Process.

While hearing, sound waves enter the auditory canal and strike the eardrum, causing it to vibrate. The
sound waves are concentrated by passing from a relatively large area (the eardrum) through the
ossicles to a relatively small opening leading to the inner ear. Here the stirrup vibrates, setting in
motion the fluid of the cochlea. The alternating changes of pressure agitate the basilar membrane on
which the organ of Corti rests, moving the hair cells. This movement stimulates the sensory hair cells
to send impulses along the auditory nerve to the brain.

In a small portion of normal hearing, sound waves are transmitted directly to the inner ear by causing
the bones of the skull to vibrate, i.e., the auditory canal and the middle ear are bypassed. This kind of
hearing, called bone conduction, is utilised in compensating for certain kinds of deafness and plays a
role in the hearing of extremely loud sounds.

The ear can typically detect sounds with frequencies between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (20 kHz). The
ability to hear certain frequencies does change with frequency. The ear is most sensitive to sounds
with a frequency of about 4000 Hz.

2.2 - Physical Effects of Noise.

Noise in the workplace is recognised as a risk factor for hearing loss for those exposed to sudden,
extreme, levels and those exposed to moderately high levels over extended periods of time.
The effects may be acute or chronic.
2.3 - Acute Effects of Noise.

Acoustic Trauma.

Acoustic trauma can be caused by a sudden and powerful sound like an explosion. Such sudden,
extreme levels of noise often lead to damaged ear drums and consequently conductive hearing loss.

Temporary Threshold Shift.

Caused by short exposures to excessive noise (for example, attending a loud rock concert). In such
cases, the sensory hairs (cilia) of the cochlea "go to sleep". This means that the person temporarily
experiences reduced hearing. After removal from exposure to the noise and rest, the hairs recover
and normal hearing is restored.

Temporary Tinnitus.

This is a "ringing" in the ears caused by exposure to high noise levels. It results in over stimulation of
the cochlea hairs and usually stops some 24 hours after exposure ceases.

2.4 - Chronic Effects of Noise.

Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL).

Arises from the permanent damage to the cochlea hair cells, as a result of sustained exposures to
high levels of noise. The cells that are damaged first are those at 4000Hz, the frequency of speech.
Over time, sounds may become distorted or muffled, resulting in difficulties in understanding other
people when they talk or having to turn up the volume on the television.

Permanent Threshold Shift.

This is a permanent shift in the auditory threshold (loss of hearing). It can arise because of exposure
to high levels of noise, but also because of age, infections or disease. The difference with NIHL is that
NIHL effects hearing only at certain frequencies. Permanent Threshold Shift affects all frequencies.

Presbycusis is a term that is used for hearing loss with age whereby, as we get older, hearing loss is
across all frequencies. It is possible to tell the difference between age related and noise induced
hearing loss, using audiometric testing.

Permanent Tinnitus.
This is the same as the acute form but becomes permanent.

2.5 - The Psychological Effects of Noise on the Individual.

Reported non-auditory effects of noise include increased stress, cardiovascular function

(hypertension, changes in blood pressure and/or heart rate), annoyance, sleeping problems, and
mental health issues. This wide range of effects has led researchers to believe that noise can act as a
general, non-specific, stressor.
Examples of temporary physiological effects are:

 The startling response to loud noise, where muscles burst into activities, generally, with the
intention to protect (fight or flight response).
 The muscle tension response, where muscles tend to contract in the presence of loud noise.
 The respiratory reflexes, where the respiratory rhythm tends to change when noise is present.
 Changes in the heart beat pattern.
 Changes in the diameter of the blood vessels, particularly in the skin.

All these effects are like the response of the body to other stressors.

2.6 - Noise and Performance.

Noise can interfere with verbal communications and can be stressful, distracting, and annoying. The
presence of noise interferes with the understanding of what other people say, including hearing safe
work instructions. This exchange includes face-to-face talks, telephone conversations, audible
danger and warning signals, and speech over a public-address system.

Depending on the type of activity, noise can severely affect the efficiency of a task performance. The
following examples help to illustrate this point:

 A conversation nearby will distract a person and affect their concentration, hence reducing the
worker's efficiency.
 A noisy environment could create an additional hazard since audible alarms might not be heard.
 A noisy environment interferes with oral communication and thus, interferes with the activity.

2.7 - Health Surveillance.

The requirements for health surveillance related to noise can be found in the ILO Code of Practice:
Ambient Factors in the Workplace (9.4), which states:
Appropriate health surveillance should be conducted for all workers whose noise exposures reach a
certain level prescribed by national laws and regulations or by national or internationally recognized
standards above which health surveillance should be carried out; this may include:

(a) a pre-employment or pre-assignment medical examination to:

 determine any contraindication to exposure to noise;
 detect any sensitivity to noise;
 establish a baseline record useful for later medical surveillance;

(b) periodical medical examinations at intervals prescribed as a function of the magnitude of the
exposure hazards to:
 detect the first symptoms of an occupational disease;
 detect the appearance of any unusual sensitivity to noise and signs of stress due to noisy
working conditions;

(c) medical examinations prior to resumption of work after a period of extended sickness or in case of
conditions as may be specified in national legislation or internationally recognised standards;
(d) medical examinations performed on cessation of employment to provide a general picture of the
eventual effects of exposure to noise;

(e) supplementary and special medical examinations when an abnormality is found and it requires
further investigation.

The results of the medical examinations and of supplementary examinations and tests, such as
audiometric testing, of each individual should be recorded in a confidential medical file. The worker
should be informed of these results and their significance accordingly.”

Health surveillance for hearing damage usually means:

 Regular hearing checks in controlled conditions.

 Telling workers about the results of their hearing checks.
 Keeping health records.
 Ensuring workers are examined by a doctor where hearing damage is identified.

We use the term ‘audiometry’ or ‘audiometric testing’ when referring to hearing tests.

2.8 - Circumstances where Audiometry may be Required.

Audiometry should be provided:

o If noise levels in the workplace are such that national legislation requires audiometry to be
carried out.
o Or if there is a risk of hearing loss from work-related noise exposure.

In the UK, employers are legally required to carry out audiometric testing on any worker who is likely
to exceed a daily personal exposure more than 85dB(A).

2.9 - The Purpose of Audiometric Health Surveillance.

The purpose of audiometric health surveillance is to:

 Warn employers when workers might be suffering from early signs of hearing damage.
 Give employers an opportunity to do something to prevent the damage getting worse.
 Check that control measures are working. Consult worker representatives and the workers
concerned before introducing health surveillance. It is important that workers understand that the
aim of health surveillance is to protect their hearing.

2.10 - The Method of Audiometric Testing.

An audiometer hearing test is typically given to a person in a soundproof booth wearing headphones
connected to the audiometer. The audiometer produces tones at specific frequencies (typically
between 250Hz and 8 kHz) and calibrated volume levels to each ear in sequence. The test
administrator notes the loudness, in decibels, on an audiogram.
People having their hearing tested signal that they have heard the tone either raising a hand or
pressing a button. The goal is to identify the hearing threshold, or softest tone a person can hear, at
each sound frequency. The test administrator notes the results on an audiogram template. The
frequency is on the x-axis and the loudness on the y-axis. Finally, the points are joined by a line to
convey which frequencies are not being heard normally and what degree of hearing loss may be
present.

2.11 - Interpretation of Audiometric Results.

The degree of hearing loss is expressed by the difference between a person’s threshold and the
average threshold for people with normal sensitivity (0-20dB). For example, persons with mild
hearing loss have thresholds that are 25 to 40 dB higher than the thresholds for those with normal
hearing. The list below outlines different hearing loss thresholds as they are determined in relation to
an individual with a normal hearing threshold.

 Mild hearing loss: 25 to 40 dB higher than normal.

 Moderate hearing loss: 40 to 55 dB higher than normal.
 Moderate-to-severe hearing loss: 55 to 70 dB higher than normal.
 Severe hearing loss: 70 to 90 dB higher than normal.
 Profound loss: 90 dB or more.

2.12 - Advantages and Limitations of Audiometry Programmes.

Advantages.

 May help to demonstrate legal compliance, since a lack of measurable hearing loss shows
therisks to hearing are well managed. Furthermore, audiometric testing may be required by law
in certain countries.
 Pre-employment testing gives a basis against which future tests can be compared.
 Can assist in defence of civil claims, since the pre-employment testing may show that hearing
loss had already occurred before starting work.
 May result in lower insurance premiums since the insurer will be reassured that noise risks are
being managed.
 May assist in identifying control measure deficiencies. If workers suffer hearing damage, then
this should be investigated like any other accident or instance of ill-health.

Limitations.

 Increased costs to the organisation. Audiometric testing requires a soundproof booth, a room to
install it in, an audiometer, personnel to carry out the testing, admin personnel to organise the
tests and appointments, and releasing workers from their normal duties to be tested.
 Can be inaccurate if the subject is uncooperative since it relies on the subject signalling that they
can hear the sounds.
 It is reactive in that it determines loss of hearing that has already occurred. It does not help
prevent injury.
 The subject may feel claustrophobic in a sound booth.
  Finally, and significantly, an audiometric testing programme may increase civil claims. Since the
workers will become aware that their hearing has been damaged, they may be inclined to then
pursue the organisation for compensation.

Learning Outcome 3.

Explain the measurement and assessment of noise exposure.

• Noise risk assessment to consider (ref section 9.2, ILO CoP, ‘Ambient Factors in the
Workplace’):
- the risk of hearing impairment, impairment of communications, fatigue
- the identification of sources, tasks
- the expected noise emission levels from equipment
- the expected time of exposure
- planning (who, how, where, how often)
- the types of instrumentation
- the importance of calibration
- the types of measurements to be taken
- the use of specialist noise consultants
- the interpretation and evaluation of results
- the use of noise calculators to determine mixed exposures (reference UK HSE’s online
calculator)
- comparison with legal limits to make control decisions.

3.0 - Noise Risk Assessments.

ILO CoP: Ambient Factors in the Workplace (9.2) states:

"The level of noise and/or duration of exposure should not exceed the limits established by the
competent authority or other internationally recognized standards. The assessment should, as
appropriate, consider:

(a) the risk of hearing impairment;

(b) the degree of interference to speech communications essential for safety purposes;
(c) the risk of nervous fatigue, with due consideration to the mental and physical workload and other
non-auditory hazards or effects.

For the prevention of adverse effects of noise on workers, employers should:

(a) identify the sources of noise and the tasks which give rise to exposure;
(b) seek the advice of the competent authority and/or the occupational health service about exposure
limits and other standards to be applied;
(c) seek the advice of the supplier of processes and equipment about expected noise emission;
(d) if this advice is incomplete or otherwise of doubtful value, arrange for measurements by persons
competent to undertake these in accordance with current national and/or internationally recognized
standards.
Noise measurements should be used to:

(a) quantify the level and duration of exposure of workers and compare it with exposure limits as
established by the competent authority or internationally recognized standards to be applied (see also
section 9 of the annex);
(b) identify and characterize the sources of noise and the exposed workers;
(c) create a noise map for the determination of risk areas;
(d) assess the need both for engineering noise prevention and control and for other appropriate
measures and for their effective implementation;
(e) evaluate the effectiveness of existing noise prevention and control measures.

3.1 - The Noise Risk Assessment.

The aim of the risk assessment is to help you decide what you need to do to ensure the health and
safety of your workers who are exposed to noise. It is more than just taking measurements of noise.
Sometimes, measurements may not even be necessary.

When planning a risk assessment, you must consider:

 Whether measurements are necessary.

 Who will carry out the measurements?
 Whether fixed or static measurements are sufficient, or if personal exposure measurement is
necessary.
 Which individuals to select for noise exposure measurement of personal exposure measurement
is necessary.
 What locations and shifts should be included in the measurements.
 What device will be used for measurement?
 What time of day should be measurement take place, and how frequently this should be
repeated.

The risk assessment should consider:

 The risk of hearing impairment, the impairment of communications, and possible effects of
fatigue.
 The identification of sources and tasks which are likely to generate noise.
 The expected noise emission levels from equipment.
 The expected time of exposure.
 The people likely to be affected.
 The likely levels of personal noise exposure and comparison of these levels with legal limits to
make control decisions.
 Identify any workers who need to be provided with health surveillance and whether any people
are at significant risk.

3.2 - Planning a Noise Risk Assessment.

The employer must carry out a noise risk assessment if they believe that any worker is likely to be
exposed to noise at or above the applicable national exposure limits. In the UK, this means a daily
exposure of 80dB(A) or more.
Firstly, the employer can make a rough estimate of noise levels. In the modern age, one of the easiest
ways to do this is with a smartphone application. Many applications can be downloaded for free.
Whilst they are not precise enough for a detailed risk assessment, they will be precise enough to tell
you whether you are close or in excess of 80dB(A).

Another, less modern, way to estimate noise is if you have to shout to be heard by someone who is
2m away. If so, noise levels are likely to be at or above 85dB(A).

If noise levels are likely to remain at 80db(A) for 6 hours a day, or at 85dB(A) for 2 hours a day, then
there is a risk of exceeding a safe daily noise exposure. A risk assessment would, therefore, be
necessary.

3.3 - Who Will be Involved?

If measuring the personal exposure of workers, it is often impractical to measure the exposure of all
workers. The employer must choose a selection of workers whose exposure to noise is representative
of everyone else’s. The workers who take part should be working a full shift, and carrying out typical
activities.

They should also be trustworthy since they will need to look after the noise measurement device
which is attached to them. Since talking and shouting will affect the noise readings, the individuals
must only speak when absolutely necessary. If an individual who is not trustworthy is selected, it is
possible they could sabotage the measurements by talking loudly or making unnecessary noise. This
would give incorrect data and show a higher noise dose than is typical.

It may also be necessary to select a range of individuals from different shifts, since there can be
considerable variation in noise levels between shifts, depending on the activities, equipment used,
and numbers of people working.

3.4 - How, Where, and How Often Will Noise be Risk Assessed?

It is common to carry out a preliminary noise survey first, to identify whether noise is a significant
risk. This will involve looking at the shift patterns and lengths, the locations where people work, the
activities they carry out, the equipment they use, and taking measurements from fixed positions of
the overall noise levels.

These measurements enable the creation of a basic map of noise levels in the workplace. The
measurements should be taken, where possible, from as close to the operator's ear as possible.
However, this is not always possible where workers are mobile.

3.5 - Instruments Used for Noise Measurement.

There are two types of sound level meter Class/Type 1 and Class/Type 2.

The main difference between the two meters is that class 1 has higher precision. Both meters,
however, are acceptable for occupational noise exposure measurements.

Different kinds of sound level meters are available. The most basic ones give a reading of the
maximum instantaneous sound pressure level (SPL), in decibels, at the moment when you switch them
on.
Roughly speaking, that corresponds to how "loud" a noise sounds at the moment you take the
measurement. That isn't always tremendously useful if you want to measure the average sound levels
over time in somewhere like a noisy production plant.

3.6 - How the Sound Level Meter Works.

Sound level meters look quite simple. They have a pointy stick at the top, which houses
the microphone that samples and measures the sound. The stick keeps the microphone away from
the body of the instrument, cutting out reflections, and giving a more accurate measurement. Inside
the square box at the bottom of the meter, electronic circuits measure the sound detected by the
microphone and amplify and filter it in various ways before showing a readout on a digital LCD
display.

3.7 - The Importance of Calibration.

Sound level meters must be calibrated before and after each set of measurements. This is to ensure
that the readings are accurate and the measurements can be relied on.

Additional calibration verification may be done if measuring over a long period of time.

The calibration can be done in-house using an acoustic calibrator. This is usually supplied with the
sound level meter when it is purchased. It is a device which produces a consistent sound level for the
microphone to detect. However, after some years it may be necessary to get the calibrator itself
recalibrated.

3.8 - Types of Measurement to be Taken.

The types of measurements that may be undertaken are:

 dB(A) which gives a reading of noise levels, adjusted to take into account the bias of the
 human ear.
 LAeq which is the equivalent continuous sound. This is used when noise levels are variable, and
 a reading over a period of time is needed.
 LEP,d is the personal exposure reading taken over a period of time. This is where the sound
level
 meter is attached to the individual. The measurement is usually taken over a full working shift.
 dB(C) readings will measure the peak sound level. This is useful when there are loud impact
 noises which may exceed the peak exposure limits (in the UK, the peak exposure limit is
 140dB(C)).
 Measurements may be static (from a fixed position) or mobile (when a personal dosemeter is
 attached to a worker).

3.9 - Noise Generated by a Particular Source or Task.

Some measurements determine the noise levels generated from machinery or equipment. Reasons for
doing this may be:
  To establish whether the levels are as specified by the manufacturer/supplier.
 To determine whether levels exceed any relevant legal limits, and therefore need further
investigation (such as personal exposure measurement).
 To ensure that the noise levels are not likely to cause an environmental nuisance.

3.10 - Frequency Analysis.

Frequency analysis is measuring noise level at each frequency band. It is not required when the
purpose of noise measurement is to assess compliance with regulatory exposure limits or to assess
the risk of hearing loss. For such purposes the A-weighted noise level in dB(A), percent noise dose or
time-weighted average (TWA) equivalent sound level is sufficient. The frequency analysis is usually
needed only for the selection of appropriate engineering control methods, including hearing
protection.

3.11 - The Use of Specialist Noise Consultants.

Assessing the risks from exposure to noise can be complex. If personal exposure monitoring is done,
this requires personal dosemeters and software to calculate the exposure levels. This is not
something that most organisations can do in-house. Therefore there will be a need to employ an
external specialist noise consultant who has the necessary equipment, software, and expertise to use
it.

When selecting an external firm, checks should be made on their competence. This will include
checking qualifications, previous experience, professional memberships, and whether they have the
correct professional indemnity insurance policies.

3.12 - Interpretation and Evaluation of Results.

Interpreting noise data can be challenging. The data is often complex and in number or graphical
format. When combining noise levels with consideration of exposure times and different locations and
sources of noise, it can be difficult to decide whether a person is at risk or not, and if they are, what
equipment or activity is causing that risk.

One of the simpler situations is when carrying out personal exposure monitoring on an individual who
does the same task throughout the day, and who stays in the same location (except breaks or rest
periods). The person’s noise exposure will either be above or below the relevant exposure limit. The
source of the noise is usually quite obvious.

3.13 - Use of Noise Calculators.

To demonstrate compliance with any relevant noise exposure limits, it is necessary to monitor and
measure personal exposures. Even if you do not carry out personal exposure monitoring, it is possible
to calculate an approximate personal exposure.

One of the simplest ways to do this is to use an online calculator, such as the HSE’s Noise Exposure
Calculator or Ready-Reckoner (http://www.hse.gov.uk/noise/calculator.htm)
Example 1: Using UK HSE Calculator.

We are measuring the noise exposure of a process operator. We have not carried out any personal
monitoring. Instead, we have taken measurements of noise at his location and gathered information
on how long he works in the area.

Typically, he spends a total of 1 hour per shift looking after air compressors where the average LAeq is
90 dB. For another 4 hours per night, he does administrative tasks in a plant office where the LAeq is
80 dB, and another 1 hour topping up machinery with oil in a pump house where the LAeq is 82 dB.

After we enter the noise levels and exposure hours into the calculator, we can see that the worker’s
daily exposure level (LEP,d) is 83 dB.

Whilst using a calculator is not absolutely precise if we have collected reasonably accurate noise
measurements and time of exposure, we can calculate an approximate daily noise exposure. This is
often sufficient for the purposes of noise risk assessment. It is especially useful for those
organisations who do not have the financial resources to use specialist noise consultants.

3.14 - Comparison with Legal Limits.

Once the workers’ personal noise exposure has been calculated, it is necessary to compare this to a
standard to determine whether the exposure is acceptable or not. Many countries have established
legal limits on noise exposure. In the UK, there are several limits and action values.

 Once the exposure reaches 80dB over an 8-hour period (or a peak level of 135dB(C)), hearing
protection is advised (but not mandatory). This is called the lower action value.
 Once the exposure reaches 85dB or above over an 8-hour period (or reaches a peak level of
137dB(C)), hearing protection becomes mandatory, and the employer must take other action to
reduce noise levels at source. This is called the upper action limit.
 When the 8-hour time weighted average reaches 87dB, or a peak sound pressure of 140dB(C) is
achieved, then the employer must take immediate action to reduce noise exposure levels.

The USA operates a similar system of limits and action values. The 8-hour time weighted average in
the USA is 90dB.

3.15 - Risks to be Considered by a Noise Risk Assessment.

Noise risk assessments tend to focus on the risk of hearing damage. But there are other problems
caused by excessive noise exposure: impairment of communications and fatigue. Let’s recall the ILO
Code of Practice:

The assessment should, as appropriate, consider:

(a) the risk of hearing impairment;
(b) the degree of interference to speech communications essential for safety purposes;
(c) the risk of nervous fatigue, with due consideration to the mental and physical workload and other
non-auditory hazards or effects.
Communications and fatigue are often overlooked in noise risk assessments.
Learning Outcome 4.

Explain the principles and methods of controlling noise and noise exposure.

• The hierarchy of noise control: - eliminate/control at source (substitution, damping, workplace layout
(eg, relocation of all noisy equipment), re-design of equipment/task, maintenance, purchasing policy)
- control along transmission path: - the behaviour of sound at interfaces – transmission,
reflection, absorption
- sound reduction indices and absorption coefficients and their use in materials selection
- techniques of damping, isolation, diffusion, barriers, acoustic enclosures, distance
- active noise cancellation
- control exposure at the receiver (acoustic havens, hearing protection zones, and PPE, limiting
exposure time, role of health surveillance (audiometry, referenced earlier)

• The selection, maintenance and use of appropriate hearing protection: - types of hearing protection
- the use of octave band analysis to aid selection of hearing protection and other control
measures
- Single Number Rating (SNR) and HML (high, medium, low) methods
- the problems of over-protection.

4.0 - Controlling Noise and Noise Exposure.

Any noise problem may be described in terms of a source, a transmission path and a receiver (in this
context, a worker) and noise control may take the form of altering any one or all of these elements.

1. We can stop or reduce noise at ‘source’.

2. We can prevent the noise from being transmitted from the ‘source’ to the ‘receiver’.
3. We can protect the ‘receiver’.

4.1 - The Hierarchy of Noise Control.

There is a hierarchy of control measures that can be followed to ensure the health and safety of
workers:

 Eliminate or control the noise at source (preferred, most effective, and cheapest in the long-
term).
 Control the noise along its transmission path.
 Control noise at the receiver (least effective, hardest to manage, and more expensive in the long-
term).

4.2 - Elimination or Control of the Source.

Purchasing Procedures.

Substitution.
Ask whether it is cost effective to replace a piece of equipment with a quieter one. If not, it may be
possible to replace certain components with quieter versions. For example:
 Replacing metal gears with nylon gears.
 Replacing rigid pipework with flexible pipework which absorbs vibration.

Maintenance.
A common cause of noise is ageing and poorly maintained equipment. This creates vibration and
friction, which in turn create noise.

Workplace Layout and Increasing Distance

Machine design.

Job Design.

Noisy devices should only be used when they are needed. For example, the pneumatic ejector on a
power press need be on only for the short time required to eject the product. The air supply should
be ‘pulsed’ to operate only when the product needs removing. Similarly, local exhaust ventilation
should be turned off when the extraction is not needed.

Different ways of working

Changes in technology can alter the machine or process, resulting in a lower noise exposure to the
workforce. Sometimes a different way of working might avoid the need for a noisy operation.
Examples of quieter processes, machines, and activities include:
 Use welded or bolted construction instead of riveted construction in large-scale fabrications.
 Replace noisy compressed-air tools with hydraulic alternatives.
 Improve the quality of manufacturing to avoid later rework with potentially noisy processes, e.g.
more accurate cutting of steel plate may eliminate noisy reworking with grinders or air chisel

4.5 - Elimination or Control of the Source - Damping.

Damping is adding material to equipment or components to reduce their vibration. Machines can
rattle, vibrate, and ‘ring’ when they are in use. For example, stiff and inflexible panels can vibrate,
and circular saw blades can ring when spinning. Metal guards or the sides of equipment are prone to
vibrating, and these both generate noise and can transmit noise to other components.

There are various methods of damping:

 Sheets of damping materials such as laminated plastics or rubber can be added to reduce the
vibrations.
 The panels can be stiffened further by adding strengthening components, such as ‘ribs’.
 Some metals have a natural high-damping capacity, such as sound-deadened steel, and this can
be used in the initial design and construction of the machine.
 Damping plates can be added to panels, which reduce the transmission of vibration into the
panel.
  Circular saw blades can be designed with anti-vibration measures, such as a damping layer
across the centre, or holes in the blade strategically positioned to stop the transmission of
vibration.

4.6 - Controlling the Transmission of Noise - Behaviour of Noise at Interfaces.

Noise travels via several paths towards the receiver. It can travel through the air, or through materials
and structures. Depending on the surface the sound impacts, the sound will behave in different ways.

When travelling through a path, the noise will either:

 Be transmitted. In other words, the material the noise is travelling through aids the transmission
of noise. For example, vibrations through a wall or material which themselves transmit the noise.
In the figure below, this is shown by the green arrow.
 Be reflected. Noise travels through the air in pressure waves. These waves can ‘bounce’ off a
surface and travel back or in another direction. For example, noise can reverberate around a
large hall. In the figure below, this is shown by the red arrow.
 Be absorbed. Noise can be absorbed by a material. The material will absorb some or all the
vibrations, stopping the transmission of noise.

4.7 - Controlling the Transmission of Noise - Sound Reduction Indices and Absorption
Coefficients.

All building materials have some acoustical properties in that they will all absorb, reflect, or transmit
sound striking them. Conventionally speaking, acoustic materials are those materials designed and used
for absorbing sound that might otherwise be reflected (examples include polyurethane foams and
fibreglass).

Sound absorption is where the sound that strikes a material is not reflected back. An open window is
an excellent absorber since the sounds passing through the open window are not reflected back, but
makes a poor sound barrier. People outside the window will hear the sound. A painted concrete block
is a good sound barrier but will reflect about 97% of the sound striking it.

When considering using noise-absorbing materials to change the acoustic characteristics of a work
area remember:

 Environmental and workplace factors: absorption materials are available in forms which are
designed to withstand physical impacts, and can be adapted to hygienic environments, or where
absorption of oil, water, etc. may be a problem.
 There may be a reduction in the natural light if absorption is placed on the roof.
 Adding absorbent materials to walls and ceiling areas will only affect the reflected, reverberant
sound – not the direct path of sound.

4.8 - Techniques to Control the Transmission of Noise.

The main techniques for controlling the transmission of noise are:

 Damping (previously discussed).
  Isolation.
 Diffusion.
 Barriers.
 Acoustic enclosures.
 Increasing distance (previously discussed).

4.9 - Isolation.

Vibration will travel through materials. Vibrations from machinery can travel into the floor, and cause
the floor to vibrate and make noise. This can be a significant problem if the floor is flexible, such as a
wooden or metal mezzanine floor.

4.10 - Diffusion.

When noise hits a hard, flat, surface it is reflected and the energy remains intact. The result is an
echo. Noise diffusion is the scattering of sound wave energy in many directions, over a wide area.

4.11 - Screens and Barriers.

Screens, barriers or walls can be placed between the source of the noise and the people (the
"pathway") to stop or reduce the direct sound. Barriers should be constructed from a dense material,
e.g. brick or sheet steel, although chipboard and plasterboard can be used.

4.12 - Enclosures.

Noisy machines can be enclosed fully, or a partial enclosure or an acoustic cover can be placed
around a noisy part of a machine. The figure below outlines the features required of a typical machine
enclosure.

4.13 - Active Noise Control.

Active noise control is an electronically-controlled noise-reduction method and involves the reduction
or cancellation of one sound by the introduction of a second ‘opposite’ sound.

Sound is a pressure wave in the air, with a frequency (alternating periods of compression and Active
noise cancellation installation rarefaction). Active noise control emits a sound at the same amplitude, but
with the phase of compression and rarefaction inversed. This causes interference in the pressure wave
and cancels it out.

The technique is most effective in reducing low-frequency noise. It has been used to control noise in
ducted systems such as diesel engine exhausts and the low-frequency rumble from gas turbine
stacks. It has also been used to extend the performance of hearing protection and noise-reducing
helmets.

4.14 - Controlling Exposure at the Receiver.

There are several ways of controlling exposure to noise at the receiver (i.e. the person):
  Acoustic havens.
 Hearing protection zones.
 PPE.
 Limiting exposure time.
 Health surveillance (audiometry).

4.15 - Acoustic Havens.

These can be a practical solution in situations where noise control is very difficult, or where only
occasional attendance in noisy areas is necessary.

The design of havens will be similar to that of acoustic enclosures, although since the purpose is to
keep noise out rather than in, lining the inner surfaces with acoustic absorbent material will not be
necessary. Workers and/or managers will work as much as possible inside the haven.

In practice, havens are often used as offices, control rooms, and rest areas.

4.16 - Hearing Protection Zones.

Where the noise risk assessment has identified certain areas as being particularly noisy (usually above
80dB or 85dB), these can be designated as hearing protection zones. These are areas where hearing
protection is either optional or mandatory. In a mandatory hearing protection zone, the hearing
protection must be worn by all those in the area, regardless of how much time they spend there.

4.17 - PPE or Hearing Protection.

Hearing protection will be discussed in some detail shortly.

Hearing protection is PPE. As a result, it is the last resort on the Hierarchy of Control. It is useful as a
temporary measure whilst more permanent solutions are investigated and installed. It is also used
when all other control measures have failed to sufficiently reduce noise exposure.

Whilst hearing protection seems like a cheap option to consider, in the long-term, it is more
expensive than controlling noise at source. PPE must be changed and replenished regularly.

A large workforce using several disposable ear plugs each day will create a large annual cost in
hearing protection supplies.

Furthermore, the use of hearing protection must be enforced which takes up managerial time and
effort, constantly reminding and encouraging people to wear it.

When workers consistently fail to wear it when required, they must be retrained and perhaps even
disciplined. This again requires time and resources from the manager, the Training department, and
Human Resources department.
4.18 - Limiting Exposure Time.

Where some employees do noisy jobs all day, and others do quieter ones, consider introducing job
rotation. This might need you to train employees to carry out other jobs.

You should be aware that this system will reduce the noise exposure of some employees while
increasing that of others, so care and judgement is needed. In addition, employees will need to be
rotated away from noisy jobs for a significant proportion of time to make an appreciable difference to
their daily exposure. This is because daily exposure is dominated by time in noisy areas.

4.19 - Health Surveillance (Audiometry).

We have previously discussed audiometry and the interpretation of results.

It does not prevent hearing damage from noise exposure. But it does enable the early identification of
signs of damage.

This would then lead to an investigation into the possible causes, and remedial control measures to
reduce exposure.

4.20 - The Selection, Maintenance, and Use of Appropriate Hearing Protection.

o Where extra protection is needed above what has been achieved using noise control.
o As a short-term measure while other methods of controlling noise are being developed.

4.21 - Types of Hearing Protection.

Hearing protectors are available in many forms. They are all capable of providing a reduction in noise
exposure and will be provided with information to allow you to decide whether they provide adequate
noise reduction for your work situation.

The following factors should be considered when selecting hearing protection:

 Types of protector, and suitability for the work being carried out.
 Noise reduction (attenuation) offered by the protector.
 Compatibility with other safety equipment.
 The pattern of the noise exposure.
 The need to communicate and hear warning sounds.
 Environmental factors such as heat, humidity, dust, and dirt.
 Cost of maintenance or replacement.
 Comfort and user preference.
 Medical disorders suffered by the wearer.

The types of hearing protection include:

  Ear muffs.
 Standard ear muffs.
 Noise cancelling ear muffs.
 Helmet mounted ear muffs.
 Ear plugs.
 Foam.
 Rubber.
 Disposable.
 Reusable and washable.
 With neck cords.
 With neck bands.
 Custom moulded.

4.22 - Types of Hearing Protector, Advantages, Disadvantages, Care and Maintenance.

4.23 - Special Types of Hearing Protector.

 Level-Dependent Protectors: Level-dependent (or amplitude-sensitive) hearing protectors are

designed to protect against hazardous noise while permitting good communication when it is
quieter. They are most suited to situations where the noise exposure is intermittent and there is a
need to communicate during quieter intervals.
 Flat or tailored frequency response protectors: Whereas most hearing protectors provide greater
reduction of noise at high frequencies than they do at low frequencies, this type of protector, by
its design, gives a similar reduction across a wide frequency range (i.e. a flat frequency
response). This can assist effective communication and can be useful in circumstances where it
is important to be able to hear the high-frequency sound at the correct level relative to the low-
frequency sounds, e.g. musicians during rehearsal and practising.
 Active noise-reduction protectors: Active noise-reduction (ANR) hearing protectors incorporate
an electronic sound cancelling system to achieve additional noise reduction. ANR can be
effective at low frequencies (50-500 Hz) were ordinary protectors can be less effective. ANR
protectors are usually based on an earmuff type protector.
 Protectors with communication facilities: These devices make use of wired or aerial systems to
relay signals, alarms, messages or entertainment programmes to the wearer. These protectors
should be designed so that the level of the relayed signal is not too loud. Where the devices are
used to receive spoken messages the microphone should, where possible, be switched off when
not in use, to avoid the reproduction at the ear of spurious background noise.

4.24 The Use of Octave Band Analysis.

The best means of defining what type of hearing protectors will provide the best results is to use the
octave band frequency analysis measurement of the noise and to compare that with the published
specifications of the protector that is planned to be used for the worker.

The individual results for each possible protector that is being considered can be checked against the
octave band spectrum and an attenuation characteristic can be determined using real data.
In other words, the octave band analysis of the noise source can be compared against the data given
by the protector manufacturer, and the protector selected which gives the best reduction in the bands
identified by analysis of the noise source.

4.25 - Single Number Rating (SNR) and HML (High, Medium, Low) Methods.

SNR is a hearing protector rating number that is used by the European Union and affiliated countries.
Tests are conducted at independent testing laboratories. In addition to an overall rating, the SNR
further rates protectors in terms of the noise environments in which they will be used – H for high-
frequency noise environments, M for mid-frequency, and L for low-frequency. Note that the

Tests are conducted at independent testing laboratories. In addition to an overall rating, the SNR
further rates protectors in terms of the noise environments in which they will be used – H for high-
frequency noise environments, M for mid-frequency, and L for low-frequency. Note that the

4.26 - The Problems of Over-Protection.

Protectors that reduce the level at the ear to below 70 dB should be avoided, since this over-
protection may cause difficulties with communication and hearing warning signals, including the fire
alarm.

Users may become isolated from their environment, leading to safety risks, and generally may tend to
remove the hearing protection and therefore risk damage to their hearing.
Learning Outcome 5.

Explain the basic physical concepts relevant to vibration.

5.0 - The General Meaning of Vibration.

Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point. The
oscillations may be periodic, such as the motion of a pendulum, or random, such as the movement of
a tyre on a gravel road.

The International Labour Organisation C148 - Working Environment Convention No. 148,
1977, article 3 states:

“The term vibration covers any vibration which is transmitted to the human body through solid
structures and is harmful to health or otherwise dangerous.”

5.1 - Basic Physical Concepts of Vibration.

Vibration is the term given to an oscillatory motion involving an object moving back and forth.

During this motion, the object starts from rest to a position of maximum displacement, begins
to accelerate towards the equilibrium position from which it has been displaced, overshoots this
equilibrium position at its maximum velocity and begins to decelerate due to some restraining force,
until it comes to rest at maximum displacement in the opposite direction. The restraining force then
begins to propel the object towards the equilibrium position and the process is repeated.

The link between displacement, velocity, and acceleration

The amount of exposure is determined by measuring acceleration in the units of m/s2. Most
regulating jurisdictions and standard agencies use acceleration as a measure of vibration exposure for
the following reasons:

 Several types of instruments are available for measuring acceleration, the rate of change of
velocity in speed or direction per unit time (e.g. per second).
 Measuring acceleration can also give information about velocity and amplitude of vibration.
 The degree of harm is related to the magnitude of acceleration.
 Health research data tells us that the degree of harm is related to the magnitude of acceleration.

5.2 - Occupational Vibration Exposure.

Those working in construction, engineering, agriculture, and mining are recognised as being
particularly at risk.

Hand arm vibration (HAV) can affect workers who use power tools and cutting equipment such as road
breakers, power drills, chainsaws, strimmers, polishers or grinders. The problem can be made worse
by cold or wet conditions.

Whole body vibration (WBV) can affect workers driving or operating heavy plant and vehicles such as
construction plant drivers, agricultural machinery drivers and those working in quarry vehicles. Those
using vehicles off-road, where there is an increased likelihood of jolts and jarring are much more at
risk than those driving on the road.

In vehicles, vibrations are transmitted via the seat to the buttocks, from the floor to the feet and from
the headrest to the head.

Vibration through the feet can also be a problem for employees standing on the platforms of
stationary plant such as rock crushers.

Examples of vibration sources are shown in the figures below:

Examples of Machinery and their Emission Levels.

 Angle-grinders:
 Modern vibration reduced designs: 4m/s2.
 Older designs: 8m/s2.
 Chainsaws: 5 to 9m/s2.
 Sanders: 7 to 10m/s2.
 Hammer drills: 6 to 25m/s2.
 Road breakers: 5 to 20m/s2.

5.3 - Emission Levels.

Machinery suppliers are required (in Europe, under the "Supply of Machinery Safety Regulations") to
declare the vibration emission of their tools and machines. The purpose of declaring such information
is to allow purchasers and users of tools and machinery to make informed choices regarding the
vibration emission of a potential purchase.

The method of declaring vibration emission is to apply a standard test to a machine or tool. The
purpose of the standard test is to provide a repeatable and reproducible method of estimating
vibration emission. To achieve this, many standard tests are based on artificial operations.
Unfortunately, many of these test methods do not represent the way tools perform at work and
vibration levels in the workplace may be much higher than those in this type of 'laboratory' test.

5.4 - Comfort Levels.

Whole-body vibration (WBV) is a common occupational risk for workers using heavy construction
machinery such as bulldozers, tractors, and forklifts as well as transportation drivers of buses, trains,
helicopters, and trucks.

ISO 2631-1 is an international standard titled ‘Mechanical vibration and shock – Evaluation of human
exposure to whole-body vibration'. This standard provides several ‘Comfort Levels’ depending on the
levels of WBV emitted by the equipment. Again, this helps purchasers make an informed decision
before committing to buying the equipment.

According to this standard, vibration needs to be measured on the surface between the body and the
surface along three orthogonal axes. That is, a person in the seated position needs to be measured at
all the supporting surfaces (seat, back, and feet) along the three axes.

5.5 - The Concept of Equivalent Vibration Dose.

Vibration Dose is a parameter that combines the magnitude of vibration and the time for which it
occurs.

When assessing intermittent vibration, it is necessary to use the vibration dose value (VDV), a
cumulative measurement of the vibration level received over an 8-hour period.

In many respects, the concept is very similar to daily noise exposure dose, which is also measured
over an 8-hour period.

The EU directive 2002/44/EC specifies the following vibration limits:

Hand arm vibration:

o Daily exposure action value (EAV) is 2.5 m/s2 averaged over 8 hours. At this point, the
employer must begin to act to reduce levels of vibration exposure.
o Daily exposure limit value (ELV) is 5m/s2 averaged over 8 hours. This must not be exceeded. At
this point, the employer must take immediate action to bring the exposure down below the
limit (i.e. stop work, condemn the equipment, or introduce job rotation).

Whole body vibration:

o Daily exposure action value (EAV) is 0.5 m/s2 averaged over 8 hours.
o Daily exposure limit value (ELV) is 1.15 m/s2 averaged over 8 hours.
Learning Outcome 6.

Explain the effects of vibration on the individual.

• The groups of workers at risk from, and the physiological and ill-health effects of, exposure to:
- whole body vibration (WBV)
- hand-arm vibration (HAV), including aggravating factors (eg low temperatures, smoking) and
the use of the Stockholm scale to indicate severity.

6.0 - Whole Body Vibration.

There is likely to be a risk from WBV where one or more of the following occur:

 Workers regularly drive vehicles off-road.

 The driver or operator is jolted, shaken, or lurches from side to side or backwards and forwards
as the machine or vehicle moves or operates.
 Severe shocks and jolts are transmitted into the driver or operator’s seat.
 Vehicles have no wheel suspension or have solid tyres.
 The manufacturer of the vehicle or machine warns of WBV risks.
 Vehicles are used for work they were not designed for.
 Vehicle maintenance records suggest that wear and breakages may be due to high levels of
vibration or shock.
 Vehicles have damaged seats or seat adjustment mechanisms.
 Replacement suspension seats are unsuitable for the vehicle.
 Vehicles use unmade or poor quality (e.g. potholed) roads for any part of their journey (e.g.
delivery to farms, construction sites, depots).
 Vehicles are used on worksites with poor surfaces (cracked, potholed, uneven or covered in
rubble).
 Workers sit or stand on a mobile or static machine when it is operating.
 There is a history of back pain in the job.
 Workers report uncomfortable levels of vibration.
 Workers report pain in their lower back during and after exposure to WBV.

Studies of bus and truck drivers found that occupational exposure to whole-body vibration could have
contributed to several circulatory, bowel, respiratory, muscular, and back disorders. The combined
effects of body posture, postural fatigue, dietary habits, and whole-body vibration are the possible
causes of these disorders.

Studies show that whole-body vibration can increase heart rate, oxygen uptake, and respiratory rate,
and can produce changes in blood and urine. Eastern European researchers have noted that exposure
to whole-body vibration can produce an overall ill feeling which they call "vibration sickness."

6.1 - Hand Arm Vibration.

Jobs involving regular and frequent exposure to hand-arm vibration above the Exposure action value
(EAV) are found in a wide range of industries, for example:
  Construction and civil work.
 Engineering.
 Forestry.
 Foundries.
 Motor vehicle manufacture and repair.
 Maintenance of parks, gardens, verges, grounds, etc.
 Shipbuilding and ship repair.
 Utilities (e.g. gas, water, telecommunications).

Which tools are most likely to create a risk?

Users of the types of equipment listed below and similar equipment will often be exposed above the
EAV:

 Chainsaws.
 Grinders.
 Impact drills.
 Scaling hammers including needle scalers.
 Pedestrian controlled equipment including mowers, floor saws, floor polishers.
 Powered hammers for chipping, demolition, road breaking, etc.
 Sanders and polishers.
 Hand-held saws for concrete, metal, ground clearance, etc.

Regular and frequent exposure to hand-arm vibration can lead to two forms of permanent ill health
known as:

 Hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS).

 Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS).

HAVS affects the nerves, blood vessels, muscles, and joints of the hand, wrist, and arm, and can
become severely disabling if ignored. It includes vibration white finger, which can cause severe pain in
the affected fingers.

Symptoms and effects of HAVS include:

 Tingling and numbness in the fingers which can result in an inability to do fine work (for example,
assembling small components) or everyday tasks (for example, fastening buttons).
 Loss of strength in the hands which might affect the ability to do work safely.
 The fingers going white (blanching) and becoming red and painful on recovery, reducing the
ability to work in cold or damp conditions, e.g. outdoors.

Symptoms and effects of CTS can also occur and include:

 Tingling, numbness, pain, and weakness in the hand which can interfere with work and everyday
tasks and might affect the ability to do work safely.
 Symptoms of both may come and go, but with continued exposure to vibration they may become
prolonged or permanent and cause pain, distress, and sleep disturbance. This can happen after
only a few months of exposure, but in most cases, it will happen over a few years.
6.2 - Aggravating Factors.

Hand-arm vibration syndrome is caused by damage to nerves and circulation in the hands and
fingers. Any other factor which affects the nerves and circulation negatively will aggravate HAVS.

The cold is a significant risk factor when using hand-held vibrating equipment. The cold, and
especially wet, cold, and windy conditions, will reduce circulation in the fingers and hands. Using
equipment in these conditions will cause episodes of vibration white finger to appear more quickly
and in a greater severity. In severe cases, the cold by itself could trigger an episode.

Smokers are also at significant risk. Smoking causes veins to constrict, which reduces blood flow to
the fingers. Smokers are more likely to develop HAVS, even at lower exposure levels.
Individuals who smoke, and use hand-held vibrating equipment in cold conditions are at the highest
risk.

Others who may be at risk include those with existing circulatory conditions or those who take vaso-
related medication.

When attempting to control the risk of vibration exposure, keeping the hands warm and dry is
important.

There are other aggravating factors, in relation to the task and equipment:

 The higher the vibration magnitude, the higher the risk of developing HAVS.
 Old tools, or those that are poorly maintained, tend to have higher levels of vibration magnitude.
Therefore, these are a higher risk.
 The total vibration exposure is also strongly associated with “trigger time” i.e. the duration of the
exposure.
 A forceful grip on the tool handle will transmit higher levels of vibration into the fingers, hands,
and arms.
 The tip of the tool may be blunt, requiring the user to apply additional force.
 The tool may be under-powered for the job. This leads to applying a more forceful grip, greater
pressure being exerted, and a longer “trigger time”.
 The materials being worked on may be particularly dense and hard, leading to greater vibration.
 If the user fails to adhere to safe working practices, such as job rotation, wearing warm gloves,
maintaining their equipment, or holding the tool too forcefully, then they put themselves at
greater risk.

6.3 - The Use of the Stockholm Workshop Scale to Indicate Severity.

Part of the clinical assessment process for Hand arm vibration syndrome (HAVS) is a medical
examination. This involves the classification of:

o Vascular symptoms.
o Sensorineural (nerve damage) symptoms.

The Stockholm Workshop Scale is used to grade the symptoms in levels of severity.

The vascular component is diagnosed by observation of the fingers, how far down the fingers the
whiteness extends, and the duration of the episodes of whiteness. This is graded from 0 to 4. 0
indicates no symptoms, whereas 4 and 4v indicated almost permanent whiteness of the fingers.

The Sensorineural component is diagnosed by measurement of the numbness and tingling in the
fingers. This is graded from 0 to 3. Again, 0 indicates no symptoms. 3 and 3sn indicate constant
numbness or tingling.

Each hand is graded separately.

In the numerical scoring system for vascular HAVS, the blanching for each part of each digit is given a
score as indicated on the diagram above. A total value for each hand can be arrived at by summing
the digit scores. In the figure, the score for the left hand is 16 and that for the right hand is 4.

If a worker is diagnosed as having stage 2, the aim is to prevent stage 3 (vascular or sensorineural)
developing because this is a more severe form of the disease associated with significant loss of
function and disability.

Stage 2 sensorineural is broad, ranging from minor neurological symptoms to those with persistent
sensorineural loss. Therefore stage 2 should be divided into ‘early’ and ‘late’ phases to assist with
management of stage 2 cases.
Learning Outcome 7.

Explain the measurement and assessment of vibration exposure.

• Vibration risk assessment to consider (ref section 10.2, ILO CoP, ‘Ambient Factors in the
Workplace’ ): - the risk of ill-health
- the results of health surveillance
- the identification of sources, tasks
- the expected vibration emission levels from equipment
- the expected time of exposure
- exposure to cold, nature of the vibration (WBV, HAV etc)
- planning (who, how, where, how often)
- instrumentation for carrying out vibration assessments
- the importance of calibration
- the types of measurements to be taken
- the use of specialist consultants
- the interpretation and evaluation of results
- the use of vibration calculators to determine mixed exposures
- comparison with legal limits to make control decisions.

7.0 - Vibration Risk Assessment.

The ILO CoP "Ambient factors in the workplace" (10.2) states that:

“If workers or others are frequently exposed to hand-transmitted or whole-body vibration, and
obvious steps do not eliminate the exposure, employers should assess the hazard and risk to safety
and health from the conditions, and the prevention and control measures to remove the hazards or
risks or to reduce them to the lowest practicable level by all appropriate means.”

The aim of the risk assessment is to help you decide what you need to do to ensure the health and
safety of your workers who are exposed to vibration.

The risk assessment should:

 Identify where there might be a risk from vibration and who is likely to be affected.
 Contain a reasonable estimate of workers’ exposures.
 Identify what needs to be done to comply with any legal or national requirements whether
vibration control measures are needed, and, if so, where and what type.
 Identify any workers who need to be provided with health surveillance and whether any are at
risk.

The risk assessment is likely to be suitable and sufficient if it identifies:

 Where there may be a risk from vibration.

 A reasonable estimate of your workers’ exposures and a comparison with the relevant local or
national exposure action value and exposure limit value.
 The available risk controls.
  The identification of those individuals who may be more at risk. Previous results of health
surveillance, or pre- or post-employment medical screening, can help determine this.
 The steps you plan to take to control and monitor those risks.

To assess the daily exposure to vibration of a worker (or a group of workers doing similar work) it is
necessary to know:
 Which tasks expose workers to vibration.
 Which workers are exposed.
 What equipment they use.
 What they use it for.
 The total time they are in contact with the equipment while it is operating.
 The levels of vibration emitted by the equipment.

7.1 - The Risk of Ill-Health and the Results of Health Surveillance.

When carrying out an assessment, there is a need to be mindful of workers who are particularly
sensitive to vibration, including workers who have existing vibration-related diseases, or who suffer
from circulatory issues (possibly related to smoking), or nerve disorders.

These individuals should be identified from previous health surveillance records, or from medical
screening. It is then possible to take additional precautions to protect them.

7.2 - The Identification of Sources and Tasks.

The risk assessment should identify all sources of vibration exposure. This includes the tasks they
carry out, the equipment that emits vibration, and what it is used for.

Consideration should be given to both HAV and WBV.

The risk assessment will create a list of equipment and tasks, along with the workers exposed, for
further investigation.

7.3 - The Expected Vibration Levels of the Equipment.

Collecting the vibration emissions data can be more difficult. In some cases, it is preferable to carry
out vibration exposure monitoring, which measures the levels of vibration emitted and the levels the
workers are exposed to. However, this is not always necessary. If the vibration data is available, it is
possible to calculate with reasonable accuracy an approximate exposure level.

To be relevant, the vibration information you use to do your vibration assessment needs to match as
closely as possible the likely vibration performance of the equipment to be used, and how it is used.
There are several possible sources of suitable information on vibration levels. These include:

 Vibration emission values declared in the equipment handbook.

 Additional information from the equipment supplier.
 Internet databases.
 Research organisations.
  Vibration consultancies.
 HSE’s website.
 Trade associations.
 Measurements made in your own workplace.

7.4 - The Expected Time of Exposure.

These details can be obtained by observing the worker. The person need not be observed for a
complete day, but for a period or periods long enough to provide a representative sample of a typical
or average day’s exposure to vibration.

Observation of the work will generally produce a much more accurate indication of equipment usage
time than asking the worker to make an estimate. Work patterns also need careful consideration. For
example, some workers may only use vibrating tools for certain periods in a day or week.

7.5 - Exposure to the Cold, and the Nature of the Vibration.

Using hand-held vibrating equipment in cold conditions is a significant risk factor. This is not
accounted for in the vibration data, or even when carrying out vibration measurements.

Therefore, individuals who use hand-held vibrating equipment in cold conditions will be at a higher
risk of developing HAVS, even if their exposure to vibration is lower than the relevant exposure action
or limit values.

It will be important to keep the workers’ hands warm with gloves. Options also include purchasing
equipment with heated handles, built-in hand-warmers, or giving regular breaks in a warm location
with access to hot drinks.

7.6 - Who? How? Where? How Often?

One of the difficulties of vibration risk assessment, especially when measuring personal vibration
exposure, is deciding which tasks and individuals to measure, how, and when. The individuals
selected for monitoring, and the work they do, must be representative of the group. If there are 100
workers who use hand-held vibrating equipment, which ones shall be selected for monitoring? It
would be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to monitor them all. Therefore, a choice must
be made. Individuals who are selected could include:

 Those who can be trusted to take the monitoring seriously and use the monitoring equipment as
per instructions.
 Those whose work is representative of, or similar to, the majority of other workers in the group.
 Those who are at a higher risk of developing HAVS, such as those with pre-existing HAVS, or
circulatory disorders.

7.7 - Instrumentation for Carrying Out Vibration Assessments.

There are several vibration measuring instruments available today but each has one similar purpose:
to measure vibration or oscillatory motion. Among the various instruments developed to measure
vibration, one device has been greatly associated with it:

Accelerometers.
Accelerometers are used to measure anything that involves vibration. It works by measuring the
acceleration and the impact of gravity occurred on the acceleration.

Accelerometers for the measurement of acceleration, shock or vibration come in many types using
different principles of operation.
Inside a piezoelectric version, the sensing element is a crystal which has the property of emitting a
charge when subjected to a compressive force.

In the accelerometer, this crystal is bonded to a mass such that when the accelerometer is subjected
to a 'g' force, the mass compresses the crystal which emits a signal. This signal value can be related
to the imposed 'g' force.

The sensing element is housed in a suitable sensor body to withstand the environmental conditions of
the application. The body is usually made of stainless steel with welding of the various parts to
prevent the ingress of dust, water, etc.

7.8 - The Importance of Calibration.

Vibration measuring instruments should be calibrated prior to, and after taking measurements. Like
the calibration of sound level meters, an external calibration device is used.

The calibration ensures that the measurements can be relied upon, and the accelerometer continued
to work accurately throughout the measuring process.

Calibration devices also need occasional calibrating. The manufacturer will advise on how often this
should take place.

7.9 - The Types of Measurements to be Carried Out - Hand Arm Vibration.

Practical advice on how to measure vibration can be found in EN ISO 5349-1:2001 and BS EN ISO
5349-2:2002. These are not available for free and must be purchased separately from an approved
seller.

The vibration magnitude (level) is represented by the frequency-weighted RMS acceleration in m/s2 of
the surface of the tool, handle, or work-piece in contact with the hand. The risk to health from
vibration is affected by the frequency content of the vibration.

When vibration is measured in accordance with BS EN ISO 5349-1:2001, vibration frequencies

between 8 and 16 Hz are given most weight, and frequencies above and below this range make a
smaller contribution to the measured vibration magnitude. This process is called frequency weighting.
Vibration meters intended for HAV measurement are equipped with a frequency weighting filter, to
modify their sensitivity at different frequencies of vibration.
7.10 - Whole Body Vibration.

The factors which govern someone’s vibration exposure are the magnitude (level) of vibration which the
machine transmits into them, and the length of time they are exposed to it.

The greater the magnitude and the longer the time of exposure, the greater the person’s vibration
exposure will be.

The pattern of work may also be relevant, e.g. intermittent exposures may indicate a lower risk than a
long, uninterrupted exposure.

The types of vibration can broadly be described as either steady-state vibration or vibration which
includes occasional shocks and jolts.

7.11 - Use of Specialist Contractors.

If you decide to employ external assistance to help you assess and manage vibration exposures, you
will need to ensure that they have the necessary skills, knowledge, expertise, and experience.

Normally they will be occupational hygienists, with a specialism in vibration monitoring.

7.12 - The Interpretation and Evaluation of Results.

If the accelerometers are mounted correctly, then the results can normally be relied upon as an
accurate measurement of vibration.

The results for each of the tasks or pieces of equipment can be compared to see which are the
highest and, therefore, creating the largest contribution to daily vibration exposure. These can then
be prioritised to reduce the vibration or the length of time the equipment is used for.

7.13 - Use of Vibration Calculators to Determine Mixed Exposures.

The UK HSE have produced calculators and a simple "exposure points" system. These are aimed at
assisting the calculation of HAV and WBV exposures of workers. Their operation is described as follows.

Ready Reckoner Points System.

The table below is a ‘ready-reckoner’ for calculating daily vibration exposures using the vibration
magnitude and exposure time. The ready-reckoner covers a range of vibration levels (up to 40 m/s2)
and a range of exposure times (up to ten hours).

The exposures for different combinations of vibration magnitude and exposure time are given in
“exposure points” instead of values in m/s2 A(8). You may find the exposure points easier to work
with than the A(8) values. Exposure points change simply with time: twice the exposure time, twice
the number of points.
  Exposure points can be added together, for example where a worker is exposed to two or more
different sources of vibration in a day.
 The EU exposure action value (2.5 m/s2 A(8)) is equal to 100 points.
 The EU exposure limit value (5 m/s2 A(8)) is equal to 400 points.

7.14 - Using the Ready-Reckoner.

1. Find the vibration magnitude (level) for the tool or process concerned (or the nearest value) on the
grey scale on the left of the table. Remember, you can obtain data on vibration emissions from
manufacturers, trade associations, or your own measurements.

2. Find the exposure time (or the nearest value) on the grey scale across the bottom of the table. You
will have obtained this from observing and timing the task.

3. Find the value in the table that lines up with the magnitude and time. The completed example
overleaf shows how it works for a magnitude of 5m/s2 and an exposure time of 3 hours: in this case,
the exposure corresponds to 150 points.

4. Compare the points value with the exposure action and limit values (100 and 400 points
respectively). In this example, the score of 150 points lies above the exposure action value. The
colour of the square containing the exposure points value tells you whether the exposure exceeds, or
is likely to exceed, the exposure action or limit value:

7.15 - Hand-Arm Vibration Calculator.

The UK HSE’s online exposure calculator for hand-arm vibration is an alternative to the ready-
reckoner for calculating daily exposures quickly and easily. The calculator is shown below and is
available in the vibration section of the HSE website at www.hse.gov.uk/vibration.

Please note there are different calculators for hand-arm vibration and whole-body vibration.

1. The calculator may be used online or, if you prefer, you can download and save it on your computer
as a spreadsheet file (Microsoft Excel).

2. Click on the white areas and type in a vibration magnitude (in m/s2) and an exposure duration (in
hours and/or minutes). You can do this for up to six different tools or processes.

3. When you have entered all the numbers, press the ENTER key, or click on a different cell. The
following values will then be calculated and displayed in the yellow cells on the right.

o The Partial exposure is the vibration exposure (shown in both m/s2 A(8) and exposure points)
for each individual tool or process and is calculated from the Vibration magnitude and the
Exposure duration.
o The Daily exposure, also in m/s2 A(8) and exposure points, is calculated from the Partial
exposures.

4. In addition to the partial and total exposure values, the calculator also uses the vibration
magnitudes to produce the following values:
o Exposure points per hour. The number of exposure points for every hour of exposure time for
the individual tool or process.
o Time to reach EAV (exposure action value). This is the total exposure time required for the
individual tool or process, before the exposure action value (2.5 m/s2 A(8) or 100 points) is
reached.
o Time to reach ELV (exposure limit value). This is the total exposure time required for the
individual tool or process, before the exposure limit value (5 m/s2 A(8) or 400 points) is
reached.

5. The below figure shows the calculator in use. In this example, an operator uses three tools during a
working day. The vibration magnitudes are 2, 6, and 3.5 m/s2 and the total exposure times are 15,
30, and 90 minutes respectively. These values have been typed into the white cells (you can use
hours, minutes, or a combination of the two for the exposure duration). The results (in the yellow
cells) show the partial exposure values for the three tools and the total exposure which, at 2.2
m/s2 A(8) or 75 points, is below the exposure action value.

6. The cells can be cleared for another calculation by clicking on the Reset button in the bottom right-
hand corner.

7.16 - Whole Body Vibration Calculator.

The HSE also provides a Whole Body Vibration (WBV) exposure calculator. The calculator may be used
online or, if you prefer, you can download and save it on your computer as a spreadsheet file
(Microsoft Excel).

7.17 - Comparison with Legal Limits to Make Control Decisions.

We have mentioned the Exposure Action and Limit Values repeatedly in this learning outcome. To
summarise this, the daily exposure levels should be compared to the relevant legal limits in your
country. These can and do vary around the world.

In the European Union, the Exposure Action Value is 2.5m/s2. If daily exposure reaches this level, the
employer is legally required to introduce organisational and technical measures to reduce exposure to
as low a level as reasonably practicable.

If the Exposure Limit Value exceeded (5m/s2), the employer must take immediate action to reduce
exposure to below the limit value.
Learning Outcome 8.

Explain the principles and methods of controlling vibration and vibration

exposure.

• Practical control measures to prevent or minimise exposure to both WBV and HAV, including: -
automation
- change of work method
- improved/alternative equipment
- purchasing policy
- maintenance
- job rotation
- instruction/training
- the use and limitations of PPE.

8.0 - Controlling Vibration and Vibration Exposure.

The programme of control measures should be devised to reduce the risks from vibration exposure to
as low a level as is reasonably practicable. The actions you take will depend on the particular work
activities and processes and the possibilities for control. Wherever possible, the hierarchy of control
must be followed, with elimination or reduction of the vibration as preferred options.

Some controls may take time to put in place, particularly where equipment must be replaced or new
industrial processes developed. The programme should also state clearly which managers,
supervisors, and workers have responsibility for delivering the various parts of the programme and by
when. It should also include provisions for testing the effectiveness of control measures.

We will now discuss the practical controls for hand-arm vibration, followed by whole body vibration.

8.1 - Eliminate Vibration Exposure in the Work Processes.

The most effective and reliable way of eliminating the risk from vibration is to design (or redesign) your
work processes so that your workers are not exposed to vibration at all.

Where vibration exposures are very high (above the exposure limit value) this approach is sometimes
the only way of adequately controlling the vibration risk, and it can often prove cost-effective in the long
term. However, re-engineering industrial processes is not always a simple matter.

In manufacturing, for example, it can require capital expenditure and effective changes take time to
design and introduce.
Examples of alternative work processes to eliminate or reduce exposure to vibration include:

 In manufacturing, improve component or product design to eliminate fabrication or assembly

using hand-held power tools.
 Change fabrication methods, e.g. use adhesives, welding, hydraulic squeezing, etc. to avoid
using pneumatic riveting hammers.
 Replace pneumatic saws with laser profilers for cutting thin steel sheet or removing panels in
vehicle bodywork (noting the need to manage any new risks from the lasers).
  Specify architectural finishes for building surfaces which avoid the use of needle guns or
scabbling tools to produce the required decorative effect.
 Use prefabricated components to reduce the need for ‘cutting and patching’ to fit on site.
 Mechanise or automate processes that use hand-held, hand-guided, or hand-fed machines.
 Use machine-mounted breakers, mobile road-cutting machines, and/or trenching machines
instead of hand-operated road breakers for cable laying, water and mains repairs, and similar
work.

8.2 - Eliminate Exposure by Mechanisation.

Mechanisation and remote control, or automation, can also help eliminate or reduce exposure. For
example, in the foundry industry, productivity has been increased by using manipulators and remote-
control swing grinders, allowing more force to be applied during fettling than is possible with a hand-
held grinder.

After doing all that is reasonably practicable to replace or modify your work processes, your workers
may still be exposed to vibration. If so, you should try to avoid unnecessarily high vibration exposures
by careful selection of power tools and other equipment. You can do this by:

 Specifying a maximum level of vibration emission as part of your policy when purchasing or
renting tools and equipment.
 Asking suppliers, as part of the tendering process, to perform a demonstration of the equipment
in use, so that vibration levels can be measured.

Advances in material and manufacturing technology have brought about improved designs of hand-held
and hand-guided machines with lower levels of vibration emission, such as with springs to absorb
vibration, rubber handles to reduce the vibration transmitted to the workers’ hands. When used in fixed
positions, tools may also be suspended from the ceiling on jibs or springs. These can help take much of
the weight of the tool, reducing the amount of force needed to grip it.

However, simply buying newer power tools may not eliminate or minimise the vibration exposure.
There may still be a residual risk from exposure to vibration which must be managed, and if the tool
you choose is not suitable for the job you want to do, it could increase the risk. Also, if tools are
underpowered for the job, then this may lead to workers applying increased force or grip to get the
job done, and the task may take much longer to finish.

8.4 - Maintain Tools and Equipment.

Power tools and other work equipment should be serviced and maintained in accordance with the
manufacturer’s maintenance schedules to prevent unnecessarily high vibration levels and ensure
efficient operation. This may include the following:

 Keep cutting tools sharp.

 Dress grinding wheels correctly.
 Replace worn parts.
 Carry out necessary balance checks and corrections.
 Check and replace defective vibration dampers, bearings, and gears.
 Sharpen chainsaw teeth and keep the correct chain tension.
  Tune and adjust engines.

8.5 - Reduce the Period of Exposure.

When the vibration levels have been reduced so far as is reasonably practicable, further reduction in
exposure can only be achieved by limiting the time for which workers are exposed to vibration. This is
sometimes necessary to keep exposure below the limit value. It is often helpful to use job rotation
(sharing the work and the vibration exposure among several people).

Where a worker has a single source of vibration (just one tool or process) it is straightforward to
establish a maximum daily exposure duration before the exposure action or limit value is reached.

8.6 - Hand-Arm Vibration: Administrative Controls.

Information and Training for Operators and Supervisors.

Unless you have succeeded in preventing vibration exposures entirely by eliminating all processes
which involve HAV, you will need the cooperation of your workforce to help make your control measures
effective. It is important that you provide your operators and their supervisors with information about the
risks from vibration and that they receive the required instruction and training in the correct use and
maintenance of the equipment. You should consult workers’ safety representatives about the planning
and organisation of your health and safety training.

They may also need to be trained in working techniques, for example, to help avoid excessive gripping,
pushing and guiding forces and to ensure the tools are operated safely and with optimum efficiency.
With some tools, the operator’s hands must be in the correct position to avoid unnecessarily high
vibration exposure. Many modern vibration-reduced tools, such as breakers with suspended handles, do
not deliver the lower vibration emissions unless they are operated correctly.
The manufacturer or supplier should advise you of any training requirements and may offer training
for operators. Workers should also be encouraged to:

 Use the lightest tool capable of doing the work safely and efficiently.
 Support the tool as much as possible on the material being worked, letting its weight provide the
downward force.
 Rest hand-held work pieces on any support provided.
 Hold the tool, machine, or work piece with a light, but safe, grip.

Operators need to be trained on how to recognise faults with the equipment and signs of wear and tear.
Possibly they may be trained in how to carry out basic maintenance themselves. If not, then they must
understand how to report equipment that is deteriorating and who to report this to.

8.7 - Hand-Arm Vibration: Use and limitations of PPE.

Gloves marketed as ‘anti-vibration’, which aim to isolate the wearer’s hands from the effects of vibration,
are available commercially. There are several different types, but many are only suitable for certain
tasks.
They are not particularly effective at reducing the frequency-weighted vibration associated with risk of
HAVS and they can increase the vibration at some frequencies. They are generally considered to be
somewhat of a marketing “gimmick”. It is not usually possible to assess the vibration reduction provided
in use by anti-vibration gloves, so you should not generally rely on them to provide protection from
vibration.
However, gloves and other warm clothing can be useful to protect vibration-exposed workers from
cold, helping to maintain circulation.

Figure 4. Anti-vibration gloves.

Low hand or body temperature increases the risk of finger blanching because of the reduced blood
circulation. You should, therefore, make sure workers working outdoors in cold weather have
adequate protection.

8.8 - Controls for Whole Body Vibration.

Again, we can attempt to use the hierarchy of controls when attempting to prevent or minimise the
risk from exposure to WBV.

Elimination: Avoid Using Equipment Which Creates WBV.

As we progress further and further into the 21st century, we are seeing considerably greater use of
remote controlled or automated vehicles. It is foreseeable that beyond 2020 we will a reduced need
for human drivers of these vehicles, leading to the elimination of WBV to be a realistic option for
larger organisations.

Reduction: Selection of Vehicles and Purchasing Policy.

Vehicle manufacturers can provide data on “comfort levels”. These should be considered as part of the
purchasing criteria. A purchasing policy should be introduced which determines a minimum comfort
level for all new vehicles purchased. This minimum level should be based on the assessment of risk,
and the level will be higher if the vehicle is expected to drive on rough terrain.

Reduction: Keep Roads in Good Condition.

So far as is possible, roads should be well maintained, so they are smooth and without potholes or
bumps. Even on temporary sites, dirt roads can be flattened before being used and reflattened on a
regular basis. Potholes should be repaired or filled.

If vehicles must go off-road, they should travel as far as possible on good roads before leaving the
road and travelling across rough terrain.

Reduction: The Provision of Auxiliary Equipment.

There are few items of auxiliary equipment that can reduce risks from WBV. They are largely limited to
the choice of seat (including suspension seats) and the choice of tyres.
Reduction: Appropriate Maintenance Programmes.

Suspensions are prone to wear and will need regular servicing. Components such as suspension seats
will usually wear out several times during the life of a machine. Maintenance of unmade roads and
ground conditions throughout sites to suit the machines that use them will greatly reduce shocks and
jolts.

Reduction: The Design and Layout of the Vehicle.

The choice of machine should take account of ergonomic factors that influence the risk of back pain
and other health complaints. For example, visibility should be such that the machine can be operated
without stretching and twisting to observe the work, especially when simultaneously exposed to WBV.

 It should be easy to get in and out of the machine by using handholds and footholds so that the
temptation to climb or jump is minimised.
 Access to manually loaded areas should be unimpeded by the machinery structure and involve
minimal lifting.
 If the machine cab is the sole workplace of the machine operator, including break time, it should
have sufficient space and facilities for rest periods.

The design and layout of workplace sites can reduce the need to transport materials, and so reduce
the WBV exposure of transport machinery operators.

Administrative Controls: Suitable and sufficient information and training for workers.

Driver skill is likely to be the main contributor to reducing WBV exposure. Training is therefore likely
to be one of the most important elements in your risk control programme.

It is important that workers fully understand the level of risk they may be exposed to, how it is caused
and the possible health effects, i.e.:

 Which machines and processes cause vibration risks and their respective levels of risk.
 How their personal daily exposures compare to the exposure action and limit values.
 What symptoms of ill health they should look out for, to whom they should report them and how
they should report them. You might do this through the introduction of an informal health
monitoring programme.
 What control measures you plan to introduce to reduce risks.
 What training you plan for operators, supervisors, and managers in their respective roles to
ensure control of exposure, e.g. through correct selection, use and maintenance of machines or
restrictions of exposure times. Machine manufacturers and suppliers might advise you on this.

Workers also need to understand their duties are to:

o Follow the employer’s guidance on safe use of the equipment.

o Report problems with the equipment such as broken suspension seats.

Administrative Controls: Limitation of the Duration and Magnitude of Exposure.

When all reasonably practicable steps have been taken to reduce the vibration magnitude, and taking
account of the fact that there is no personal protective equipment available for WBV, the final resort
for compliance with the exposure limit value is to limit the duration of exposure.

Administrative Controls: Appropriate Work Schedules with Adequate Rest Periods.

The scientific basis for recommending appropriate work schedules and breaks is incomplete.
However, a recommended precautionary measure is to take a short break between operating mobile
machinery and manual handling of materials, to give tired muscles time to recover before handling
heavy loads.

Administrative Controls: Protect Workers from Cold and Damp Conditions.

Cold exposure may accelerate the onset or worsen the severity of back pain. It is good practice to
ensure that those working in the cold are provided with warm, and (if necessary) waterproof clothing.
To this end, the only PPE available to protect against WBV is warm clothing.