MAHENDRA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(AUTONOMOUS)
Mahendhirapuri, Mallasamudram, Namakkal DT -637 503.

LEARNING MATERIAL

Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering

Subject Code : ECE1202

Subject Name : AVIONIC

Semester : VII

Content Prepared By: K.KALAIMAAMANI, AP/ECE

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 UNIT - 3
DIGITAL AVIONICS ARCHITECTURE

AVIONICS SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE:

 Establishing the basic architecture is the first and the most fundamental challenge faced by the
designer.
 The architecture must conform to the overall aircraft mission and design while ensuring that the
avionics system meets its performance requirements.
 These architectures rely on the data buses for intra and intersystem communications.
 The optimum architecture can only be selected after a series of exhaustive design tradeoffs that
address the evaluation factors.

Avionics Architecture:

1. First Generation Architecture ( 1940’s –1950’s)

 Disjoint or Independent Architecture ( MiG-21)

 Centralized Architecture (F-111)

2. Second Generation Architecture ( 1960’s –1970’s)

 Federated Architecture (F-16 A/B)

 Distributed Architecture (DAIS)

 Hierarchical Architecture (F-16 C/D, EAP)

3. Third Generation Architecture ( 1980’s –1990’s)

 Pave Pillar Architecture ( F-22)

4. Fourth Generation Architecture (Post 2005)

 Pave Pace Architecture- JSF

 Open System Architecture

FGA - Centralized Architecture:

• As the digital technology evolved,a central computer was added to integrate the information from the
sensors and subsystems.
• The central computing complex is connected to other subsystems and sensors through analog,digital,
synchro and other interfaces.

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• When interfacing with computer a variety of different transmission methods , some of which required
signal conversion (A/D) when interfacing with computer.
• Signal conditioning and computation take place in one or more computers in a LRU located in an
avionics bay , with signals transmitted over one way data bus.
• Data are transmitted from the systems to the central computer and the data conversion takes place at the
central computer.

Advantages:

 Simple Design
 Software can be written easily
 Computers are located in readily accessible bay

Disadvantages:

 Requirement of long data buses

 Low flexibility in software
 Increased vulnerability to change
 Different conversion techniques needed at Central Computer

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FGA - Disjoint Architecture:

 The early avionics systems were stand alone black boxes where each functional area had separate,
dedicated sensors, processors and displays and the interconnect media is point to point wiring.
 The system was integrated by the air-crew who had to look at various dials and displays
connected to disjoint sensors correlate the data provided by them, apply error corrections,
orchestrate the functions of the sensors and perform mode and failure management in addition to
flying the aircraft.
 This was feasible due to the simple nature of tasks to be performed and due to the availability of
time.

SGA – Federated Architecture:

 Federated : Join together, Become partners.Each system acts independently but united (Loosely
Coupled).
 Unlike FGA – CA , Data conversion occurs at the system level and the datas are send as digital
form – called Digital Avionics Information Systems(DAIS).
 Several standard data processors are often used to perform a variety of Low – Bandwidth
functions such as navigation, weapon delivery , stores management and flight control.
 Systems are connected in a Time – Shared Multiplex Highway.
 Resource sharing occurs at the last link in the information chain – via controls and displays.
 Programmability and versatility of the data processors

Advantages:

 Contrast to analog avionics – DDP provide precise solutions over long range of flight , weapon
and sensor conditions.
 Sharing of Resources.
 Use of TDMA saves hundreds of pounds of wiring.
 Standardization of protocol makes the interchangeability of equipments easier.
 Allows Independent system design and optimization of major systems.

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  Changes in system software and hardware are easy to make.
 Fault containment – Failure is not propagated

Disadvantages :
 Profligate of resources
Common Avionics Architecture System (CAAS):
Introduction:
CAAS is a fully integrated flight and mission management capability that provides exceptional mission
effectiveness. CAAS is one of the first fully open, non-proprietary systems that completely uses
commercial standards on large platforms.
 All CAAS systems are based on our innovative Flight2 modular open system approach that uses
widely adopted open industry standards, minimizing the costs of technology insertions and
capability upgrades.
 By using our Flight2 integrated avionics architecture, the CAAS hardware and software can be
easily adapted to the unique mission requirements of a broad spectrum of rotary wing aircraft.
 Our CAAS system incorporates cockpit flight and mission management, as well as integrates
multiple communications, navigation, weapons and mission sensor subsystems for reduced crew
workload and improved operational effectiveness and safety. Furthermore, CAAS provides a
consistent, user interface for displays and allows control of all avionics subsystems by each
cockpit user.
CaaS reference architecture:

 The diagram contains the conceptual architecture for a CaaS . The diagram highlight different
components. They are
i.CaaS applications

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 ii. SIP services .
iii. Management applications
iv. Security services
v. Directory services
v. Business Support Systems/Operations Support Systems
vi. IMS infrastructure
vii. Remote domain
 It is important to note that the conceptual architecture is high level and each component will be
decomposed into specific services to fulfill the solution requirements.
CaaS Application:
 The CaaS application is the set of services that fulfill a communications function, such as IP
telephony. Because this set of services contains the business value of the CaaS solution, this is the
part of the architecture that most development organizations will focus on.
 The CaaS application is implemented using a layered architecture. A layered architecture
abstracts different parts of the application at different levels allowing different layers to be reused
in different contexts; for example, the communications service layer, if correctly decomposed,
can be customized in different ways to fulfill specific requirements for different customers. In the
conceptual architecture, the CaaS application constitutes the following layers:
i. Management interface layer
ii. Communications service orchestration layer
iii. Communications service layer
Management Interface Layer:
 Every communications application requires the ability to have the implementer of the solution
(service provider, enterprise, or hosting provider) perform the tasks related to the following
functions on the solution: fault, configuration, accounting, performance, and security (FCAPS).
This layer provides interfaces for those functions.
 Different functions of the components in the management interface layer will interface with
external applications in different fashions. Some interfaces may be implemented with a
request/response message exchange pattern (MEP) exposed as a Web service; other interfaces
may report events by sending Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) traps. Current and
emerging technical trends will dictate the method and protocol of the interface.
The following table describes the components contained in the management interface layer of the CaaS
application.
Component Description
These interfaces are for the configuration of the hardware and software that facilitate the
Configuration CaaS application. The interfaces permit for the configuration of the physical
interface environment, such as hardware and networking, and the configuration of the logical
environment, such as the services that are running on the communications solution.
Billing These interfaces provide billing information to the service provider. This interface may
interface be event-driven, providing a data stream, or polled regularly for formatted files.
These interfaces provide information about the faults and performance. Depending on
Reporting
the content, information can be sent as events, such as SNMP traps, or polled by the
interface
consumer of the data.
Communications Service Orchestration Layer:

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  The communications service orchestration layer orchestrates the communications services in the
communications service layer.
 The communications service orchestration layer helps provide a customized communications
experience in a multi-tenant environment. Customization is often a requirement of corporate
communications solutions.
Component Description
The communications orchestrations compose communications services to provide a
communications function. For example, an Automatic Call Distribution (ACD)
Communications application may have specific routing requirements based on the keypad input of the
orchestration user, such as “Dial 0 to reach the operator.” These routing requirements can be
implemented as an orchestration: (1) answer call, (2) prompt for input, (3) process
input, and (4) route call to appropriate destination.

Communications Service Layer:

 The communications service layer contains autonomous services that perform communication
tasks; for example, the routing logic of a “forward call” function would be implemented in this
layer of the CaaS solution.
 There are no specific technical requirements of this layer. Services can be implemented as class
libraries or they can even be an entire communications system, such as voicemail system.
Component Description
Communications The services that perform a set of communications tasks, such as call routing or
service voicemail.

SIP Services
 The SIP services provide the ability for the CaaS solution to communicate using SIP. These
services understand the capabilities of SIP, such as how to route a call to a user based on presence
information and how to change the state of a user based on SIP events.
 These services also contain IMS services that interface with the HSS and the S-CSCF. In initial
CaaS implementations, the solution architect will most likely have a high degree of influence
about the provider of the SIP services.
Management Application
 The CaaS management application is optional, depending on the needs of the service provider.
The management application can supplement the CaaS application by providing additional
services that are typically contained in the business support systems (BSS) and operations support
systems (OSS).
 These services may include the management of the physical environment (servers, processes and
networking), such as taking remedial action for faults; mapping the logical model (customers and
services) to the physical environment, such as Customer X’s service is running on server 1234;
and providing billing information.
Security Services
 The CaaS security services may also be part of the existing service provider environment. In a
CaaS environment, there is a need to federate security from the customer’s location to the service
provider.

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  If a federated security system is not part of the service provider environment, the provider of the
CaaS application may have to add these capabilities to their solution.
Directory Services
 Similar to the security services, federated directory services are a requirement of a CaaS solution.
If a service provider does not have federated directory services, the provider of the CaaS
application may have to add these services to its CaaS solution.
Business Support Systems/Operations Support Systems
 BSSs/OSSs are carrier-grade systems that automate service provider’s business processes and
operations. The functions of these systems include, among others, billing, provisioning, and fault
management.
 BSS/OSS systems are almost always part of a service provider environment and CaaS architects
will have very little influence over these systems.
 CaaS architects will have to define interfaces for their solutions to interoperate with the
BSS/OSS. There are standards bodies, such as the TeleManagement Forum (TMF), that define
standards for BSS/OSS interoperability.
IMS Infrastructure
 The IMS infrastructure will be supplied by the communications service provider. Analogous to
the network infrastructure for a Web site, CaaS architects will have no influence about the vendor
of IMS equipment and will have to adhere to the standards that are part of the IMS specification.

Remote Domain
 The remote domain in the conceptual architecture illustrates branch office or enterprise-to-
enterprise (E2E) SIP communications. Early CaaS implementations may be able to restrict branch
office or E2E communications to enterprises using SIP services from a single vendor. As the
implementation of Internet-based communications evolves, the influence of a CaaS architect over
the SIP servers at a remote domain will diminish.

MIL STD 1553 BUS SYSTEM:

 MIL STD 1553B is a US military standard which defines a TDM multiple-source–multiple-sink
data bus system which is in very wide scale use in military aircraft in many countries.
 It is also used in naval surface ships, submarines, and land vehicles such as main battlefield tanks.
The system is a half duplex system, that is operation of a data transfer can take place in either
direction over a single line, but not in both directions on that line simultaneously.

Basic Data Bus Configuration:

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  The basic bus configuration is shown in Figure ,the system is a command response system with
all data transmissions being carried out under the control of the bus controller. Each sub-system is
connected to the bus through a unit called a remote terminal (RT).
 Data can only be transmitted from one RT and received by another RT (or RTs as there may be
more than one sub-system requiring the same data) following a command from the bus controller
(BC) to each RT.
 The protocol exercised by the bus controller hence ensures that there are no data clashes on the
bus as only one RT is transmitting at any time. The bus controller thus initiates all data transfers
and monitors the status of all transfers.
 It is generally incorporated in one of the sub-systems – usually the one generating the most
traffic.
 The data are transmitted at 1 Mbit/s. The data word size is 20 bits so that the maximum data
transmission rate is 50,000 words/s.

Logic 1 and logic 0

Data Encoding

 A maximum of 31 terminals can be connected to the bus. The bus operation is asynchronous,
each terminal having an independent clock source for transmission.
 Decoding is achieved in receiving terminals using clock information derived from the messages.
 The technique adopted for data encoding is known as ‘Manchester bi-phase’ encoding where
there must be an active transition for every bit, i.e. for ‘0’ and ‘1’ signals. This is shown in
Figure. Apart from the SYNC bits all data bits must conform to these requirements.

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  This eliminates ‘stuck high’ or ‘stuck low’ faults as there must be a transition during one clock
period.
 Figure shows the data encoded waveform. The standard requires the transmission rate to be 1
Mbit/s with a combined accuracy and long term stability of 0.01% (i.e. ±100 Hz). The short term
stability (i.e. stability over a 1.0 second period) is required to be at least 0.001% (i.e. ±10 Hz).

Word format:

 The word size is 16 bits plus the SYNC waveform and the parity bit for a total of 20
bit times.
There are three types of words transferred;
i. command words,
ii. data words.
iii. status words
The formats for these words are illustrated in Figure .
Command word:
A command word comprises six separate fields. These are briefly explained below
 The SYNC signal field is an invalid Manchester waveform so that it cannot be ‘confused’ with
any data bits.
 The RT address field occupies 5 bits, each RT being assigned a unique 5 bit address. Decimal
address 31(11111) is not assigned as a unique address and is a broadcast address.
 The T/R bit is 0 if the RT is to receive, and 1 if the RT is to transmit.
 The sub-address/mode field, comprising 5 bits, is used for either an RT sub address or mode
control. The sub-address is used to route data to and from a location in the RT.A code of all zeros
(00000) in the sub-address/mode field indicates that the contents of the word counts/mode field
are to be decoded as a five bit mode command.

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  The data word count/mode code field, comprising 5 bits, is generally used for data transfers. The
word count field indicates the number of data words to be transferred in any one message block,
the maximum number being 32 (indicated by all zeros).
 The parity bit is 1 if there is an odd number of bits in fields 1–19.
Data words:
 Data words contain the actual data transmitted between stations. The data field is 16 bits. For
commands which imply a data content, data words are transmitted corresponding to the word
count in the command or status word.
 The SYNC signal is the inverse of the command and status word syncs. The most significant bit
of the data is transmitted after the SYNC bits.
Status Word:
 A status word is the first word of a response by an RT to a BC command. It provides:
(a) A summary of the status/health of the RT.
(b) The word count of the data words to be transmitted in response to a command.
The fields are briefly described below:
• The SYNC signal field is the same as with a command word.
• The RT address field (5 bits) confirms the correct RT is responding.
• The status field comprises 11 bits. The message error bit is set if the previous command was not
correctly understood. The instrumentation bit =0 to distinguish the word from a command word.
• The parity bit is set by the RT in the same sense as a command word.

Data Transfer format:

There are ten possible transfer formats, but the three most commonly used formats are:
• BC to RT
• RT to BC
• RT to RT

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  These are shown in Figure. An intermission gap time of at least 2 μs is provided by the bus
controller between messages. A status word gap time of at least 2 μs but not more than 10 μs is
provided by the RT before transmitting a status word.
 A high degree of data checking and monitoring is built into the MIL STD 1553B system. For
example:
• Message data validation – the terminal is designed to detect improperly coded signals,
data drop-outs or excessively noisy signals
• Word validation – the terminal checks that each word conforms to the following
minimum criteria:
– Word begins with a valid SYNC field.
– Bits are in valid Manchester II code.
– Information field has 16 bit plus parity.
– Word parity is odd.
When a word fails to conform to the above criteria the word is considered invalid.
• Transmission continuity – the terminal checks the message is contiguous as shown in the
formats in Figure . Improperly timed data SYNCs are considered a continuity error.
• Excessive transmission – the terminal includes a signal time-out which precludes a signal
transmission greater than 1 ms plus or minus 0.34 ms.
 The data word is deemed valid when the data meet the above criteria and are received
in contiguous fashion..
 A fault tolerant configuration of two (or more) identical MIL STD 1553B buses
can be connected to the sub-system equipment.

ARINC 429:

 The ARINC 429 data bus has proved to be one of the most popular bus standards used in
commercial aircraft. The ARINC 429 specification defines the electrical and data characteristics
and protocols that are used.
 ARINC 429 employs a unidirectional data bus standard known as Mark 33 Digital Information
Transfer System (DITS). Messages are transmitted in packets of 32-bits at a bit rate of either 12.5
or 100 kilobits per second (referred to as low and high bit rate respectively).
 ARINC 429 is a unidirectional bus.
 ARINC 429 has been installed on a wide variety of commercial transport aircraft including;
Airbus A310/A320 and A330/A340; Boeing 737, 747, 757, and 767; and McDonnell Douglas
MD-11. More modern aircraft (e.g. Boeing 777 and Airbus A380) use significantly enhanced bus
specifications (see page 40) in order to reduce the weight and size of cabling and to facilitate
higher data rates than are possible with ARINC 429.
 ARINC 429 standard has proved to be highly reliable and so is likely to remain in service for
many years to come.
 Aeronautical Radio Inc. (ARINC) is an organization composed of major airlines and aircraft
manufacturers which seeks to promote standardization within aircraft equipment.
Electrical characteristics
 ARINC 429 is a two wire differential bus which can connect a single transmitter or source to one
or more receivers or sinks. Two speeds are available, 12.5 k bps (bits per second) and 100 kbps.
The data bus uses two signal wires to transmit 32-bit words. Transmission of sequential words is

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 separated by at least four bit times of NULL (zero voltage). This eliminates the need for a
separate clock signal and it makes the system self-clocking.
 The ARINC 429 electrical characteristics are summarized below:
 Voltage levels: +5V, 0V, −5V,+10V, 0V, −10V
 Data encoding: Bi-Polar Return to Zero
 Word size: 32 bits
 Bit rate (high): 100K bits per second
 Bit rate (low): 12.5K bits per second
 Slew rate (high): 1.5ms (±0.5 ms)
 Slew rate (low): 10ms (±5 ms)
 The composite signal state may be at one of the following three levels
 HI(high) which should be within the range +7.25V to 11V (A to B)
 NULL which should be within the range +0.5V to −0.5V (A to B)
 LO(low) which should be within the range −7.25V to −11V (A to B).
 The received voltage on a serial bus depends on line length and the number of receivers
connected to the bus. With ARINC 429, no more than 20 receivers should be connected to a
single bus.
 Since each bus is unidirectional, a system needs to have its own transmit bus if it is required to
respond to or to send messages. Hence, to achieve bidirectional data transfer it is necessary to
have two separate bus connections.
Protocol :
 Since there can be only one transmitter on a twisted wire pair, ARINC 429 uses a very simple,
point-to-point protocol. The transmitter is continuously sending 32-bit data words or is placed in
the NULL state. Note that although there may only be one receiver on a particular bus cable the
ARINC specification supports up to 20.
Bit timing and slew rate:
 The slew rate refers to the rise and fall time of the ARINC waveform. Specifically, it refers to the
amount of time it takes the ARINC signal to rise from the 10% to the 90% voltage amplitude .

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 ARINC word format:
 Each ARINC word contains five fields:
• Parity(P)
• Sign/Status Matrix(SSM)
• Data
• Source/Destination Identifiers(SDI)
• Label

ARINC word format

 The parity bit is bit 32 (the MSB).
 SSM is the Sign/Status Matrix and is included as bits 30 and 31.
 Bits 11 to 29 contain the data. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) and binary encoding (BNR) are
common ARINC data formats. Data formats can also be mixed.
 Bits 9 and 10 are Source/Destination Identifiers (SDI) and indicate for which receiver the data is
intended.
 Bits 1 to 8 contain a label (label words) identifying the data type. Label words are quite specific
in ARINC 429.
Parity Bit:
 The standard specifies the use of odd parity (the parity bit is set to 1 or reset to 0 in order to
ensure that there is an odd number of 1s in each transmitted word).
SDI field
 The SDI field is used when a transmitter is connected to multiple receivers but not all data is
intended for used by all the receivers. In this case each receiver will be assigned an SDI value and
will look only at labels which match its SDI value. While the specification calls for SDI 00 to be
universally accepted this may not actually be the case.
Data field
 The Data field contains the actual data to be sent. The principal data formats defined in the
specification are Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) which uses groups of four bits to contain a single
decimal digit and BNR which is binary coding. For both of these data types, the specification
defines the units, the resolution, the range, the number of bits used and how frequently the label
should be sent.
SSM field
 The SSM field is used for information which assists the interpretation of the numeric value in the
data field. Examples of SSM values might be North, East, South, West, Plus, Minus, Above or
Below.
Label Field:
 The Label field is an octal value that indicates the type of data (e.g. airspeed, altitude, etc) that is
being transmitted.

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 BCD word format:

BCD word format

Intermediate word format (plus ,north,east,right,to,above)

Initial word format (no computed data)

Final word format (functional test)

Control word format(minus, south, west,left,below,from)

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 ARNIC -429 transmitter:

 The Tx module converts the 32-bit parallel data from the TX FIFO to serial data. It also inserts
the parity bit into the ARINC data when parity is enabled.
 The CPU interface is used to fill the FIFO with ARINC data. The TX FIFO can hold up to 512
ARINC words of data. The transmission starts as soon as one complete ARINC word has been
stored in the transmit FIFO.
 The Tx module contains two 8-bit registers. One is used for a control function and the other is
used for status.
 The CPU interface allows the system CPU to access the control and status registers within the
core.
The TX FIFO asserts three status signals:
• tx_fifo_empty: TX FIFO is empty
• tx_fifo_half_full: TX FIFO is filled up to the programmed TX_FIFO_LEVEL
• tx_fifo_full: TX FIFO is full.
 Depending on the FIFO status signals, the CPU will either read the FIFO before it overflows, or
not attempt to read the FIFO if it is empty. The interrupt signal int_out_tx is generated when one
of the FIFO status signals (tx_fifo_empty, tx_fifo_half_full and tx_fifo_full) are high.
ARNIC 429 receiver:

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clk -In Master clock input (1, 10, 16, or 20 Mhz)
cpu_ren - In CPU read enable, active low
cpu_wen- In CPU write enable, active low
cpu_add- [8:0] In CPU address
cpu_din - [CPU_DATA_WIDTH-1:0] In CPU data input
cpu_dout- [CPU_DATA_WIDTH-1:0] Out CPU data output
int_out - Out Interrupt to CPU, active high. int_out is the OR function of int_out_rx and
int_out_tx.

cpu_wait - Out Indicates that the CPU should hold cpu_ren or cpu_wen active while the core
completes the read or write operation.

 The Rx block is responsible for recovering the clock from the input serial data and performs
serial-to-parallel conversion and gap/parity check on the incoming data.
 It also interfaces with the CPU. The Rx module contains two 8-bit registers. One is used for
control function and the other is used for status.
 The CPU interface configures the internal RAM with the labels, which are used to compare
against the incoming labels from the received ARINC data.
 If the label-compare bit in the receive control register is enabled, then the data which matches its
labels with the stored labels will be stored in the FIFO.
 If the label compare bit in the receive control register is disabled, then the incoming data will be
stored in the FIFO without comparing against the labels in RAM.
 The core supports reloading label memory using bit 7 of the Rx control register. Note that when
you set bit 7 to initialize the label memory, the old label content still exists, but the core keeps
track only of the new label and does not use the old label during label compare.
The FIFO asserts three status signals:
• rx_fifo_empty- FIFO is empty
• rx_fifo_half_full- FIFO is filled up to the programmed RX_FIFO_LEVEL
• rx_fifo_full:- FIFO is full
 Depending on the FIFO status signals, the CPU will either read the FIFO before it overflows, or
not attempt to read the FIFO if it is empty. The interrupt signal int_out_rx is generated when one
of the FIFO status signals (rx_fifo_empty, rx_fifo_half_full, and rx_fifo_full) are high.

ARINC 629:
 ARINC is a major company that develops and operates systems and services to ensure the
efficiency, operation, and performance of the aviation and travel industries.
 It act as a multi transmitter data bus to increase the capability.
 The ARINC 629 bus is a true data bus in that the bus operates as a multiple-source, multiple sink
system as shown in Figure . That is, each terminal can transmit data to, and receive data from,
every other terminal on the data bus.
 It uses
 This allows much more freedom in the exchange of data between units in the avionics system.
Protocol:
 It uses two protocol scheme basic or combined.
 In the basic protocol the bus operates in either periodic or aperiodic but not simultaneously.

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  It is recommended for high integrity applications , such as flight controls etc.
 In combined protocol the periodic messages have priority and are guaranteed to be transmitted
on asset schedule.
Timing conditions:
 It consists of three timing conditions
 Transmit interval(TI)
 Synchronization gap(SG)
 Terminal gap(TG)
Transmit interval(TI):
 It can ranges from 0.5 to 64ms and apply to terminal on the bus.
Synchronization gap(SG):
 It is the second largest time on the bus and it must be one of the four values 17.6875,33.6875,
65.6875or 128.6875.
Terminal gap(TG):
 It is unique to a given terminal and ranges from 1 to 125microsecond.]
All these three time intervals are assigned by the airframe manufacturer.

Data Bus Topology:

Data Bus Topology

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ARNIC 629 Data Bus

Logic 1 and logic 0

 The protocol utilized by ARINC 629 is a time based, collision-avoidance concept in which each
terminal is allocated a particular time slot to access the bus and transmit data on to the bus.
 Each terminal will autonomously decide when the appropriate time slot is available through the
use of several control timers embedded in the bus interfaces and transmit the necessary data.

ARNIC 629 Data Word

Format:

ARNIC 629 Data Word Format

 Figure shows the typical ARINC 629 -20 bit data word format which is very similar toMILSTD-
1553B.
 The first three bits are related to word time synchronization. The next 16 bits are the data
contents, and the final bit is a parity bit. The data words may have a variety of formats depending
on the word function; there is provision for general formats, systems status, function status,
parameter validity, and binary and discrete data words.
 The ARINC 629 data bus cable consists of an unshielded twisted pair of wires. The wires are #20
AWG and are bonded together continuously along their length. The cables can be up to 100
meters long and have no provisions for field splicing.
 ARINC 629 is defined for both voltage and current modes of operation. One attractive feature of
ARINC 629 is that it will be defined for a fiber optic interface ARINC 629 data transmitted in
groups called messages.
 Messages are comprised of word strings, up to 31 word strings can be in a message. Word strings
begin with a label followed by up to 256 data words. Each label word and data word is 20 bits.

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 19

 UNIT - 4

FLIGHT DECK AND COCKPITS

INTRODUCTION:
 A cockpit or flight deck is the area, usually near the front of an aircraft, from which a pilot
controls the aircraft. Most modern cockpits are enclosed, except on some small aircraft.
 The cockpit of an aircraft contains flight instruments on an instrument panel, and the controls that
enable the pilot to fly the aircraft. In most airliners, a door separates the cockpit from the
passenger compartment.
Control and display technologies:
 Modern passenger aircraft employ a variety of different display technologies on the flight deck,
including those based on conventional cathode ray tubes (CRT), light emitting diodes (LED) and
liquid crystal isplays (LCD).
 The trend is towards a uniform set of flight deck instruments using flat-panel displays but
displaying information in formats that have evolved from earlier instruments and displays. Whilst
there is a need to group instrument displays together in related functional areas (such as primary
flight, navigation, and engine instruments), a high level of integration is now possible by
combining data from different avionic systems and displaying it in different ways.
 Flat-panel displays, such as active matrix liquid crystal displays (AMLCD), offer considerable
savings in volume compared with CRT displays. Combined with developments in the
miniaturization of electronic components, the use of modern surface mounted devices (SMD),
and VLSI integrated circuits, this makes it possible to produce a complex multi-function
instrument, complete with display, in a single enclosure.
 The single-box concept also helps to reduce the amount of cabling required and this, in turn, can
simplify maintenance.
 The latest AMLCD displays have performance parameter capabilities that exceed those of
traditional CRT displays. The main advantages are in weight, power, volume (size), and
reliability. However, AMLCD provide improved performance in several other areas including:
1. A high degree of uniformity of luminance, resolution and focus over the full display area
2. Ability to maintain display performance over a wide range of viewing angles
3. Immunity to ambient illumination washout and colour de-saturation
4. Ability to support a wide range of adjustable brightness levels
5. Ability to maximize the useable display area for a given panel size
6. A high degree of fault tolerance
7. Resistance to vibration and mechanical shock
8. Ability to maintain performance over a wide temperature range
9. Electromagnetic compatibility and ability to operate in the presence of high energy radiated.
The control and display technology consisting of
1.cathode ray tube (CRT)
2.liquid crystal displays (LCD)
3.light emitting diodes(LED)
4..EL
5.plasma panel
6.Touch screen
7.Direct voice input (DVI)

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 20

In Civil cockpit and military cockpit:
1.MFDS
2.HUD
3.MFK
4.HOTAS

CRT DISPLAYS:
 Apart from mechanical indicators, filament lamps, and moving coil meters, the cathode ray tube
is the oldest display technology in current aircraft use.
 Despite its age, the CRT offers a number of significant advantages, including the ability to
provide an extremely bright colour display which can be viewed over a wide range of angles. For
these two reasons, CRT displays are still found in modern aircraft despite the increasing trend to
replace them with active matrix liquid crystal displays (AMLCD).
 Internal arrangement of a CRT showing the path taken by the electron beam.
 The cathode ray tube the internal arrangement of a typical cathode ray tube is shown in Figure.
The cathode, heater, grid and anode assembly forms an electron gun which produces a beam of
electrons that is focused on the rear phosphor coating of the screen.
 The heater raises the temperature of the cathode which is coated with thoriated tungsten (a
material that readily emits electrons when heated). The negatively charged electrons form a cloud
above the cathode (the electrons are literally ‘boiled off’ the cathode surface) and become
attracted by the high positive potential that appears on the various anodes.
 The flow of electrons is controlled by the grid. This structure consists of a fine wire mesh through
which the electrons must pass.
 The grid is made negative with respect to the cathode and this negative potential has the effect of
repelling the electrons. By controlling the grid potential it is possible to vary the amount of
electrons passing through the grid thus controlling the intensity (or brightness) of the display on
the screen.

CRT displays
 The focus anodes consist of two or three tubular structures through which the electron beam
passes. By varying the relative potential on these anodes it is possible to bend and focus the beam
in much the same way as a light beam can be bent and focused using a biconvex lens.

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 21

  The final anode consists of a graphite coating inside the CRT. This anode is given a very high
positive potential (typically several kV) which has the effect of accelerating the beam of electrons
as they travel towards it.
 The result is an electron beam of high energy impacting itself against the phosphor coating on the
inside rear of the screen area. The energy liberated by the collision of the electrons with the
phosphors is converted into light (the colour of the light depending on the particular colour of the
phosphor at the point of impact).
Deflection:
 In order to move the beam of electrons to different parts of the screen (in other words, to be able
to ‘draw’ on the screen) it is necessary to bend (or deflect) the beam. Two methods of deflection
are possible depending on the size and application for the CRT.
 The method uses electrostatic deflection (commonly used for small CRT displays). Using this
method two sets of plates are introduced into the neck of the CRT between the focus anodes and
the final anode.
 One pair of plates is aligned with the vertical plane (these X-plates provide deflection of the
electron beam in the horizontal direction) whilst the other pair of plates is aligned in the
horizontal plane (these Y-plates provide deflection of the electron beam in the vertical plane).
Scanning:
 In order to scan the full area of the CRT it is necessary to repeatedly scan the beam of electrons
from top to bottom and left to right, The voltage waveforms required on the X and Y plates to
produce the scanned raster must be ramp (sawtooth) shaped with different frequencies.
 A high resolution display will clearly require many more than just four lines however the
principle remains the same. Suppose that we need to have 400 lines displayed and we are using a
100 Hz ramp for the Y-plates. The X-plates would then need to be supplied with a 40 kHz ramp
waveform.
 Having produced a raster, we can illuminate individual picture cells (pixels) by modulating the
brightness of the beam (we can do this by applying a ‘video’ signal voltage to the cathode of the
CRT.
 Essentially, we are then modulating the beam of electrons with the information that we need to
display. In effect, the electron beam is being rapidly switched on and off in order to illuminate the
individual pixels. Text can easily be displayed by this method by arranging characters into a
character cell matrix. The alternative to electrostatic deflection is that of using an externally
applied magnetic.

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 22

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LED):
 Light emitting diodes (LED) can be used as general-purpose indicators. When compared with
conventional filament lamps they operate from significantly smaller voltages and currents. LEDs
are also very much more reliable than filament lamps.
 Most LEDs will provide a reasonable level of light output when a forward current of between 5
mA and 20 mA is applied. Light emitting diodes are available in various formats with the round
types being most popular.
 Round LEDs are commonly available in the 3 mm and 5 mm (0.2 inch) diameter plastic
packages and also in a 5 mm × 2 mm rectangular format.
 The viewing angle for round LEDs tends to be in the region of 20° to 40°, whereas for rectangular
types this is increased to around 100°.

Spectral response :
 Light of different colours can be produced by using different semiconductor materials in the
construction of an LED. However, there is a wide variation in both the efficiency and light output
of LED of different colours.
 For this reason, red displays tend to be most common (with a peak output at around 650 nm).
Note that this is towards one end of the visible spectrum, as
Seven segment displays:
 LED displays are frequently used to display numerical data. The basis of such displays is the
seven segment indicator which is often used in groups of between three and five digits to form a
complete display.
 The segments are distinguished by the letters, a to g. Since each segment comprises an individual
LED it is necessary to use logic to decode binary (or binary coded decimal) data in order to
 Illuminate the correct combination of segments to display a particular digit. For example, the
number ‘1’ can be displayed by simultaneously illuminating segments b and c whilst the number
‘2’ requires that segments a, b, g, e, and d should be illuminated. whilst a typical decoder and
decoder truth table are shown in

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 23

Typical example of a four-digit seven segment display

Segment identification within a seven segment display

Seven segment decoder/driver

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS (LCD):

 Liquid crystals have properties that can be considered to be somewhere between those of a solid
and those of a liquid. Solids have a rigid molecular structure whilst the molecules in liquids
change their orientation and are able to move.
 A particular property of liquid crystals that makes them attractive for use as the basis of electronic
displays is that the orientation of molecules (and consequently the passage of light through the
crystal) can be controlled by the application of an electric field.
Types of LCD:
 LCD displays can be either reflective or backlit according to whether the display uses incident
light or contains its own light source. Figure shows the construction of both types of display.
Note that, unlike LED, liquid crystal displays emit no light of their own and, as a consequence,
they need a light source in order to operate.
 Larger displays can be easily made that combine several digits into a single display. This makes it
possible to have integrated displays where several sets of information are shown on a common
display panel.
.
Passive matrix displays:
 In order to display more detail (for example, text and graphics characters) LCD displays can be
built using a matrix of rows and columns in order to produce a display that consists of a
rectangular matrix of cells. The electrodes used in this type of display consist of rows and
columns of horizontal and vertical conductors respectively.
 The rows and columns can be separately addressed (in a similar manner to that used for a
memory cell matrix, see page 67) and individual display cells can thus be illuminated. Passive
matrix displays have a number of disadvantages, notably that they have a relatively slow response
time and the fact that the display is not as sharp (in terms of resolution) as that which can be
obtained from an active matrix display.

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 24

Active matrix displays
 Active matrix LCD (AMLCD) use thin film transistors (TFT) fabricated on a glass substrate to
that they are an integral part of a display. Each transistor acts as a switch that transfers charge to
an individual display element.
 The transistors are addressed on a row/column basis as with the passive matrix display. By
controlling the switching, it is possible to transfer precise amounts of charge into the display and
thus exert a wide range of control over the light that is transmitted through it.
 Colour AMLCD comprise a matrix of pixels that correspond to three colours; red, green and blue.
By precise application of charges to the appropriate pixels it is possible to produce displays that
have 256 shades of red, green and blue (making a total of more than 16 million colours).
 High resolution colour AMLCD make it possible to have aircraft displays with a full graphics
capability.

ELECTRONIC LIBRARY SYSTEMS:

 One of the capabilities which the new, flexible displays have made possible is the electronic
library.
 It is now possible to store such things as the aircraft technical manuals, the operating manuals and
emergency procedures on a CD ROM or other storage device and to be able to display them on
request to the pilot or maintenance technician.

TOUCH SCREEN :
 With the increasing number of functions, the switch/keyboard area in the cockpit is increasing so
it seems to make sense to take the same approach with switches as was done with displays i.e.
make the display also the input device. touch screens use three major techniques: infrared scan,
resistive overlay and capacitive overlay.
a) In the infrared scan, an infrared beam is scanned parallel to the surface of the display. When
the operator’s finger interrupts the beam, its position can be determined and passed to the
computer.
b) With the resistive overlay a glass substrate is installed over the screen. Touching the substrate
alters its resistance in such a way that the point of contact can be determined
c) The capacitive overlay is similar except that the capacitance is altered by contact.

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DIRECT VOICE INPUT:
 Advances in the digital processing of sound and especially voice have made it possible to develop
voice and command recognition systems. These systems require some “training” in that they need
a sample (called a template) of the operators voice. This template allows the system to respond to
the particular characteristics of a pilot’s voice.
 Direct voice input (DVI) (sometimes called voice input control (VIC)) is a style of human–
machine interaction "HMI" in which the user makes voice commands to issue instructions to the
machine.
 It has found some usage in the design of the cockpits of several modern military aircraft,
particularly the Eurofighter Typhoon, the F-35 Lightning II, the Dassault Rafale and the JAS 39
Gripen, having been trialled on earlier fast jets such as the Harrier AV-8B and F-16 VISTA. A
study has also been undertaken by the Royal Netherlands Air Force using voice control in a F-16
simulator.
 The USAF initially wanted DVI for the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, but it was finally judged
too technically risky and was abandoned.
 DVI systems may be "user-dependent" or "user-independent". User-dependent systems require a
personal voice template to be created by the pilot which must then be loaded onto the aircraft
before flight. User-independent systems do not require any personal voice template and will work
with the voice of any user.
 In 2006 Zon and Roerdink, at the National Aerospace Laboratory in the Netherlands, examined
the use of Direct Voice Input in the "GRACE" simulator, in an experiment in which twelve pilots
participated. Although the hardware performed well, the researchers discovered that, before
installation in a real aircraft their DVI system would need some improvement, since operation of
the DVI took more time than the existing manual method. They recommended that:
 The syntax must become simpler;
 The recognition rate of the system must improve;
 Response time of the system must decrease.
 They suggested that all of these issues were of a technological nature and thus seemed feasible to
solve. They concluded that in cockpits, especially during emergencies where pilots have to
operate the entire aircraft on their own, a DVI system might be very relevant. During other
situations it seemed to be interesting but not of crucial importance.
 DVI's air safety investigators combine scientific analysis, material science, laboratory testing,
piloting expertise, aircraft maintenance, and human factors to investigate aircraft accidents and
promote aviation safety.
 DVI has investigated hundreds of cases, ranging from the in-flight failure of composite structures,
to the use of unapproved parts, to incidents involving ground operations.
 DVI has extensive experience examining the physical and chemical properties of metals and
alloys, and evaluating the performance of metals under stress, corrosive environments, and
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 In particular, DVI’s Metallurgical Experts have been involved in accidents pertaining to the
failure of crankcase through bolts, landing gear lock pins, bent propellers, fractured crankshafts,
starter motors, accessory housings, carburetors, and vacuum pumps.
 The diagram below shows a breakdown of the four major failure mechanisms (overload, fatigue,
corrosion, and wear) and their most significant contributors.

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 26

  DVI's investigators understand the relationships between the person - machine - evironment and
how to determine the root cause of the accident.
 Our promise is to deliver accurate and efficient client services. We have worked for clients ranging
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MULTI-FUNCTION DISPLAY:
 A multi-function display :is a computer-screen like device mounted on the instrument panel of
the aircraft. Modern aircraft generally have one or more MFDs, which are used to display
everything from radar to weapon stores to navigation information. MFDs are surrounded by a
group of buttons known as OSBs, which allow the pilot to change the information displayed on the
MFD or control the aircraft's systems.
 Often an MFD will be used in concert with a primary flight display. MFDs are part of the digital
era of modern planes or helicopter. The first MFD were introduced by air forces. The advantage of
an MFD over analog display is that an MFD does not consume much space in the cockpit.
 For example the cockpit of RAH-66 "Comanche" does not have analog dials or gauges at all. All
information is displayed on the MFD pages. The possible MFD pages could differ for every plane,
complementing their abilities (in combat).
 Many MFDs allow the pilot to display their navigation route, moving map, weather radar,
NEXRAD, GPWS, TCAS and airport information all on the same screen.
 MFDs were added to the Space Shuttle (as the glass cockpit) starting in 1998 replacing the analog
instruments and CRTs. The information being displayed is similar, and the glass cockpit was first
flown on the STS-101 mission.
 In modern automotive technology, MFDs are used in cars to display navigation, entertainment and
vehicle status information
Basic Operation:
 The MFD is divided up into "pages", which can be selected and viewed at any time. Each page is
like a miniature web site - it has a main page, which displays the most important information, and
subpages which display more specific information or are used to access individual functions.
 For example, the SMS (stores management system) page has a main page showing the total
inventory of the aircraft's weapons, as well as multiple sub-pages which display information about
individual weapons systems.
 Each MFD page has its own OSB configuration. However, the five OSBs on the bottom of the
screen are the same for (almost) all MFD pages. The far left button on the bottom row is labeled
SWAP - when pressed, it will switch the pages displayed on the MFD (so, for example, if you
have the SMS displayed on the right hand MFD and your FCR (fire control radar) displayed on the
left hand MFD, after you press SWAP the SMS will be on the left MFD .

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 27

  The far right button is marked DCLT on most pages. This stands for "declutter", and can be used
to remove non-essential information to make the page easier to read.
 The three OSBs in the center of the bottom row are like a "quick-menu" which you can use to
quickly access the pages you are most interested in. Each button has a page associated with it. To
bring up that page, press the button, and the MFD will immediately switch to that page. You can
also cycle between your three selected pages on each MFD using the DMS hat switch - press left
to change the left MFD, and right to change the right MFD.
 You can change which page is associated with each OSB by clicking the button to bring up its
page, and then clicking it again. This brings up the menu screen, as shown below. To associate a
new MFD page with the selected OSB, press the button corresponding to the page you want to use.
MFD Menu Operation

MFD-268 Multi-Function Display:

MFD268C1, MFD268C2, MFD268C3/C3A, MFD268C4, MFD268C5/C5A, MFD268C6, MFD268P2,
MFD268C2-100
 Our MFD-268 system offers you superior functionality, condensed packaging and is capable of
displaying graphics and video on an XGA (1024x768) resolution, high performance; color Active
Matrix Liquid Crystal Display (AMLCD).
 This avionics-grade AMLCD, capable of a wide operating temperature range, gives you superior
optical performance designed for a wide viewing angle for excellent cross-cockpit viewing.
 The high brightness backlight enables sunlight readability and its wide dimming range allows for
night vision goggle compatibility at low luminance levels.
 The MFD-268 is available as a "smart" display system with internal graphics generation and
processing, allowing internal implementation of flight instrumentation, targeting, mapping, engine
instrumentation or a number of other functions. And you’ll find it’s easy to customize for any user.
 Applications include helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft, ground vehicles and ships, as well as
communications consoles.

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 28

HEAD UP DISPLAYS:
Introduction:
 Without doubt the most important advance to date in the visual presentation of data to the pilot has
been the introduction and progressive development of the Head Up Display or HUD. (The first
production HUDs, in fact, went into service in 1962 in the Buccaneer strike aircraft in the UK.)
 The HUD has enabled a major improvement in man–machine interaction (MMI) to be achieved as
the pilot is able to view and assimilate the essential flight data generated by the sensors and
systems in the aircraft whilst head up and maintaining full visual concentration on the outside
world scene.
 A head up display basically projects a collimated display in the pilot’s head up forward line of
sight so that he can view both the display information and the outside world scene at the same
time..
 Because the display is collimated, that is focused at infinity (or a long distance ahead), the pilot’s
gaze angle of the display zymology does not change with head movement so that the overlaid
zymology remains conformal, or stabilized, with the outside world scene.
 The pilot is thus able to observe both distant outside world objects and display data at the same
time without having to change the direction of gaze or refocus the eyes.
 There are no parallax errors and aiming symbols for either a flight path director, or for weapon
aiming in the case of a combat aircraft, remain overlaid on a distant ‘target’ irrespective of the
pilot’s head movement. (Try sighting on a landmark using a mark on a window.
 The aiming mark moves off the ‘target’ if the head is moved sideways – this effect is parallax.)
 The advantages of head up presentation of essential flight data such as the artificial horizon, pitch
angle, bank angle, flight path vector, height, airspeed and heading can be seen which shows a
typical head up display as viewed by the pilot during the landing phase.
 The pilot is thus free to concentrate on the outside world during manoeuvres and does not need to
look down at the cockpit instruments or head down displays. It should be noted that there is a
transition time of one second or more to re-focus the eyes from viewing distant objects to viewing
near objects a metre or less away, such as the cockpit instruments and displays and adapt to the
cockpit light environment.
 In combat situations, it is essential for survival that the pilot is head up and scanning for possible
threats from any direction.
 The very high accuracy which can be achieved by a HUD and computerized weapon aiming
system together with the ability to remain head up in combat have made the HUD an essential
system on all modern combat aircraft. They have also been widely retro-fitted to earlier generation
fighters and strike aircraft as part of a cost effective avionic system up date. Figure illustrates a
typical weapon aiming display.
 By using a Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) sensor, an electro-optical image of the scene in front
of the aircraft can be overlaid on the real world scene with a raster mode HUD.
 The TV raster picture generated from the FLIR sensor video is projected on to the HUD and scaled
one to one with the outside world enabling the pilot to fly at low level by night in fair weather.
This provides a realistic night attack capability to relatively simple day ground attack fighters. A
wide field of view HUD is required, however, as will be explained later. HUDs are now being
installed in civil aircraft for reasons such as:
1. Inherent advantages of head-up presentation of primary flight information including depiction of

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 29

 the aircraft’s flight path vector, resulting in improved situational awareness and increased safety in
circumstances such as wind shear or terrain/traffic avoidance manoeuvres.
2. To display automatic landing guidance to enable the pilot to land the aircraft safely in conditions
of very low visibility due to fog, as a back up and monitor for the automatic landing system. The display of
taxi-way guidance is also being considered.
3. Enhanced vision using a raster mode HUD to project a FLIR video picture of the outside world
from a FLIR sensor installed in the aircraft, or, a synthetic picture of the outside world generated from a
forward looking millimetric radar sensor in the aircraft. These enhanced vision systems are being actively
developed and will enable the pilot to land the aircraft in conditions of very low or zero visibility at
airfields not equipped with adequate all weather guidance systems such as ILS (or MLS).

Typical weapon aiming display

Basic principles:
 The basic configuration of a HUD is shown schematically in Figure. The pilot views the outside
world through the HUD combiner glass (and windscreen). The combiner glass is effectively a ‘see
through’ mirror with high optical transmission efficiency so that there is little loss of visibility
looking through the combiner and windscreen.
 It is called a combiner as it optically combines the collimated display zymology with the outside
world scene viewed through it. the display zymology generated from the aircraft sensors and
systems (such as the INS and air data system) is displayed on the surface of a cathode ray tube
(CRT).
 The display images are then relayed through a relay lens system which magnifies the display and
corrects for some of the optical errors which are otherwise present in the system.
 The relayed display images are then reflected through an angle of near 90◦ by the fold mirror and
thence to the collimating lens which collimates the display images which are then reflected from
the combiner glass into the pilot’s forward field of view. The virtual images of the display
zymology appear to the pilot to be at infinity and overlay the distant world scene, as they are
collimated. The function of the fold mirror is to enable a compact optical configuration to be
achieved so that the HUD occupies the minimum possible space in the cockpit.
 The fundamental importance of collimation to any HUD system merits further explanation for the
benefit of readers whose knowledge of optics needs refreshing.
 A collimator is defined as an optical system of finite focal length with an image source at the focal

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 30

 plane. Rays of light emanating from a particular point on the focal plane exit from the collimating
system as a parallel bunch of rays, as if they came from a source at infinity.

HUD schematic

MULTI-FUNCTION KEYBOARD:
 The Multi Function Keyboard (MFK) is an avionics sub-system through which the pilot interacts
to configure mission related parameters like flight plan, airfield database, and communication
equipment during initialization and operation flight phase of mission.
 The MFK consists of a MOTOROLA 68000 series processor with ROM, RAM and EEPROM
memory. It is connected to one of the 1553B buses used for data communication. It is also
connected to the Multi Function Rotary switch (MFR) through a RS422 interface.
 The MFK has a built-in display unit and a keyboard. The display unit is a pair of LCD based
Colour Graphical Display, as well as a Monochrome Heads-Up Display.
 The Real-time operating specifications are very stringent in such applications because the
performance and safety of the aircraft depend on it. Efficient design of the architecture and code is
required for successful operation.

HOTAS:
 HOTAS, an initialism for Hands On Throttle-And-Stick, is the name given to the concept of
placing buttons and switches on the throttle stick and flight control stick in an aircraft's cockpit,
allowing the pilot to access vital cockpit functions and fly the aircraft without having to remove
his hands from the throttle and flight controls.
 Application of the concept was pioneered with the Ferranti AIRPASS radar and gun sight control
system used by the English Electric Lightning[1] and is widely used on all modern fighter aircraft
such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon.
 HOTAS is a shorthand term which refers to the pattern of controls in the modern fighter aircraft
cockpit. Having all switches on the stick and throttle allows the pilot to keep his "hands on
throttle-and-stick", thus allowing him to remain focused on more important duties than looking for
controls in the cockpit.
 The goal is to improve the pilot's situational awareness, his ability to manipulate switch and button
controls in turbulence, under stress, or during high G-force maneuvers, to improve his reaction
time, to minimize instances when he must remove his hands from one or the other of the aircraft's

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 31

 controls to use another aircraft system, and total time spent doing so.
 The concept has also been applied to the steering wheels of modern open-wheel racecars, like
those used in Formula One and the Indy Racing League. HOTAS has been adapted for game
controllers used for flight simulators (most such controllers are based on the F-16 Fighting
Falcon's) and in cars equipped with radio controls on the steering wheel.
 In the modern military aircraft cockpit the HOTAS concept is sometimes enhanced by the use of
Direct Voice Input to produce the so-called "V-TAS" concept, and augmented with helmet
mounted display systems such as the "Schlem" used in the MiG-29 and Su-27, which allow the
pilot to control various systems using his line of sight, and to guide missiles by simply looking at
the target.
Hands-On Throttle And Stick:

 Hands-on Throttle and stick (HOTAS) are the primary flight controls for the F-16. They are
referred to as "hands-on" since many of the common tasks the pilot needs to perform can be done
using buttons and switches on the throttle and stick, which precludes the pilot from having to take
his hands off the controls in combat or in other high-workload situations.
Side-Stick Controller (SSC):
This diagram and the table beneath it show the layout and functionality of the F-16 control stick.

Switch Function

The trigger on the SSC is a two-stage trigger (similar to many

computer flight sticks including the Saitek X52). The first detent
Trigger
performs several functions, including starting ACMI recording. The
second stage fires the aircraft's cannon.

The weapon release switch (also called the "pickle" button) is used to
Weapon Release fire missiles, drop bombs, and jettison stores. The exact switch usage
to release the weapon depends on which weapon is being used.

This hat switch is used to control the aircraft's trim. Pressing up/down
Trim Hat
on the switch changes the pitch trim position, and pressing left/right

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 32

 changes the roll trim position. Most players do not use this switch,
since trim is rarely required to keep the aircraft stable. Instead, it is
usually used to control the view direction.

Target Management
See the main article for the Target Management Switch.
Switch

Display Management
See the main article for the Display Management Switch.
Switch

The countermeasures management switch is used to control the

various countermeasures of the aircraft, including the jammer and
Countermeasures
chaff/flares. It is not generally simulated in Falcon 4 games, since its
Management Switch
exact operation was unknown at the time the simulator was first
created.

This switch has a number of different functions depending on what

mode the aircraft is in and where it is located. When the aircraft is on
ground, it toggles the nose wheel steering system. If the aircraft is
Missile Step/NWS connected to a tanker during in-air refueling, it disconnects from the
boom. If the aircraft is in A-A master mode, it is used to toggle the
missile hard point to be used for the next launch. If the aircraft is in A-
G mode, it toggles between CCRP, CCIP, and other bombing modes.

This switch is used to cycle the field of view for the currently selected
Pinky Switch sensor of interest. This works for many MFD pages, including the
FCR, infrared/laser targeting, and the HSD.

This acts as a momentary disconnect for the aircraft's autopilot while it

is engaged. As long as the switch is held down, the pilot will have
Paddle Switch
control of the aircraft (instead of the autopilot). If the autopilot is not
engaged, the switch has no effect.

Throttle:
The HOTAS throttle is summarized below.

Switch Function

This switch is used to talk on various radio frequencies. This is not

Communications Switch generally simulated in Falcon 4, although it is often used to toggle
Team speak/Ventrilo communications.

This switch is used to "uncage" the seeker head for infrared missiles
Uncage Switch
such as the AIM-9. When the seeker head is uncaged, it freely seeks

Sem/Sub: 07/Avionics Page 33

 targets and is not slaved to the aircraft's radar.

This rotary knob is used to set the elevation angle for the radar
antenna. This can be used to scan different altitudes for enemy aircraft.
Antenna Elevation Knob
There is generally a detent at the central position to allow the pilot to
easily re-center the antenna.

This is a three-way switch which is used to select the dogfight and

Dogfight/Missile Override
missile override modes. If the switch is in the center position, neither
Switch
override mode is selected.

This joystick-type control is used to move the cursor on the FCR and
Cursor Control HSD MFD pages. It is also used to slew the radar antenna in the ACM
30x20 mode.

The HOBO (hands-on blackout) switch is used to allow the pilot to

Blackout Switch control the aircraft's lighting with the HOTAS. It is generally not
modeled in Falcon 4.

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