Majorship Area: English Focus: Language and Literature Research LET Competencies
Majorship Area: English Focus: Language and Literature Research LET Competencies
Area: ENGLISH
LET Competencies:
1. demonstrate knowledge of the approaches and concepts in language and literature research.
2. identify the appropriate research method/s, tools, and statistical treatment to apply in a research-related situation.
There are a number of definitions of research. These definitions emphasize the purposes of research, the methods
and strategies used, the analysis of data, and the ethics in conducting research. Below are some of the definitions
given by the research practitioners themselves.
1. It is the utilization of various methods and strategies to gather truthful and accurate information about
problems and issues related to language and literature study.
2. It is the carrying out scientific method or analysis; it entails the application of formal, systematic, and
intensive processes to yield significant information or data about the research questions and/or objectives.
3. It is the systematic, objective, and literature-based analysis of scientifically recorded data which may lead
to the development of generalizations, principles, models, theories, and prediction of events.
The two general types of research are quantitative research and the qualitative research. However, in recent
literature, the action research is already included in the list.
2. Qualitative Research –It assumes that social reality is continuously constructed in local situations. It
makes a holistic observation of the total context within which social action occurs. It uses analytic induction to
analyze data and it discovers concepts and theories after data have been collected. The approach is inductive
and the goal is to describe multiple realities, develop deep understanding and captures everyday life and human
perspective.
3. Action Research - The action research is before classified under qualitative research because it mainly
used the qualitative methods and techniques. However, in the current literature on research, action
research is classified under the general type which means it becomes co-equal with both quantitative and
qualitative research. The argument is that action research may utilize both quantitative and qualitative
research methods and techniques.
The parts of a research report provide a systematic presentation of the research questions and the answers to
these questions. Regardless of the variations in the parts of a research report, all research reports contain the
research questions or objectives, related theoretical and research literature, research findings and their discussion.
Below are the basic contents of a research report:
1. The Problem and Its Setting- This section includes the introduction of the study, statement of the problem,
scope and delimitation, importance of the study, and the definition of terms. It is also in this part that the
hypotheses and assumption of the study are stated.
2. Review of Literature and Studies – This section presents the theories, concepts and studies related to the
research topic.
3. Research Methodology – This section clears out the processes used to answer the research questions.
This section also states the research methods and design, sampling, statistical treatment, procedures, and other
related concepts necessary for data gathering.
4. Research findings – This section presents the overview of the statistical procedures or how statistical
procedures are used for data analysis, description of results for each hypothesis, question, objective or purpose.
5. Discussion – this section presents the interpretation and analysis of the results.
6. Summary and Recommendations – this section presents the implications of the study and future research
The research problems can be gathered from various sources, such as:
1. Research Literature –It provides the much needed information to determine what have already been
explored in relation to the topic that will be investigated.
2. Theory-Based Research – This contains the studies in which the existing theories on language and
literature were tested.
3. Replicating and Extending Previous Research – the purpose of this is to check findings of breakthrough
study, to determine the validity of research findings across different populations, to identify the trends or change
over time, to know important findings using different methodology, and to develop more effective or efficient
intervention
4. Observations – this helps in determining an emerging or existing phenomenon that must be investigated
5. Experience – this is another rich source of research topics because this provides the motivation to the
researcher to investigate or examine what he/she knows is important in language or literature study.
1. The topic is interesting. It will hold the researcher’s interest through the entire research.
2. The topic is researchable. It can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data and it is not
stated as a topic seeking to determine what should be done.
3. The topic is significant. It contributes in some way to the improvement or understanding of education
theory or practice.
4. The topic is manageable. If it fits the researcher’s level or research skills, needed resources, and time
restrictions.
1. Variables – a quantitative expression of a construct that can vary in quantity or quality in observed
phenomenon. It stands for variation within a class of objects. The different types of variables are:
a. Independent variable – a variable that the researcher thinks occurred prior in time to, and has an influence
on another variable or on the dependent variable.
c. Intervening variable – a variable which cannot be controlled or measured directly that has an important
effect upon the outcome.
2. Hypothesis – this pertains to a researcher’s prediction of the tentative results and findings of a study
based on a theory or assumption of the variables measured in the study. This likewise presents the relationship
between variables. The types of hypothesis are:
a. Null Hypothesis – a prediction that no relationship between two measured variables will be found or that no
difference between two groups on a measured variable will be found.
b. Non directional hypothesis – simply states that a relationship or difference exists between variables.
c. Directional hypothesis – presents the expected direction of the relationship or difference
ii) information is collected through asking questions; the answers to these questions
by the members of the group constitute the data of the study
iii) information is collected from a sample rather than from every member of the
population
i) Longitudinal study – involves collecting data from a sample at different points in time in order to study
changes or continuity in the samples’ characteristics.
Trend Studies – describe change by selecting a different sample at each data collection
point from a population that does not remain constant
Panel Studies – this involves selecting a sample at the outset of the study and then at
each subsequent data-collection point surveying the same sample is done
Cross-sectional studies- the data are obtained at one point in time, but from groups of
different ages or at different stages of development
ii) Cross- sectional survey – collects information from a sample that has been drawn from a
predetermined population. The information is collected at just one point in time, although the time it takes
to collect all the data desired may take anywhere from a day to a few weeks or more.
i) Questionnaire - this is a type of instrument in which the respondents are asked to express their
views, opinions, or knowledge using a scale.
Types of Questions – the nature of the questions, and the way they are asked, are extremely important in
the research survey:
1. Closed-ended questions are easy to use, score, and code for analysis on a computer. Since all
subjects respond to the same opinions; standardized data are provided.
2. Open-ended questions- allow for more individualized responses, but they are sometimes difficult
to interpret. They are also often hard to score, since so many different kinds of responses are received.
Kinds of Questionnaire
1. Postal questionnaires –this involves sending of ‘self-completion’ questionnaire through the post. This
involves a coverage of a large geographical area.
ii) Interview - a measure that specifies the questions to be asked of each research participant, the
sequence in which they are to be asked, and guidelines for what the interviewer is to say at the opening
and closing of the interview
Kind of interview
ii) Correlational Research – a type of investigation that seeks to discover the direction and magnitude of the
relationship among variables through the use of correlational statistics.
b. Scatter gram or scatter plot – is a pictorial representation of the correlation between two variables. The
scatter gram tells the type of correlation evident between the two variables.
i) Perfect correlation
ii) Positive correlation
iii) Negative correlation
iv) Absence of correlation
One-shot case study design – a type of experimental design in which an experiment treatment is
administered and then a posttest is administered to measure the effects of the treatment.
X 0
X= Treatment O = Observation
(Dependent variable)
O1 X O2
O1= pretest O2= posttest
Static –group comparison design – this design compares the status of a group that has
received an experimental treatment with one that has not. There is no provision for establishing
the equivalence of the experimental and control groups. In some books, this design is classified
under the quasi-experimental design.
X O
C O
ii) Quasi-Experiment – these designs provide control of when and to whom the measurement is applied,
but because random assignment to experiment and treatment groups has not been applied, the
equivalence of the groups is not assured. Some examples of experimental designs are:
e.g O1O2O3O4O5O6O7O8
Treatment group R X1 O
Control Group R X2 O
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design- This differs from the posttest-only control group
design solely in the use of a pretest. Two groups of subjects are used, with both groups being
measured or observed twice.
Treatment Group R O X1 O
Control Group R O X2 O
Solomon four-group design – a type of experiment involving two treatment groups and
two control groups, so that the researcher can determine the effect of both the treatment variable
and the pretest on the dependent variable.
Treatment Group R O X1 O
Control Group R O X2 O
Treatment Group R X1 O
Control Group R X2 O
i) Action Research – a type of applied research that is conducted primarily to improve educational practices,
including management of the classroom, classroom practices and interaction, classroom instruction, among
others.
i) Teacher self- reflection tools- these are designed to be completed by teachers to evaluate their
performance in the areas identified on the self-reflection tool. These tools usually are in the form of a
checklist, rating scale, or questionnaire.
ii) Media recording and analysis - this uses media-like audio or video recording to record a sample of
teacher performance for subsequent analysis by the teacher, peer or both. Microteaching is one example
of media recording.
iii) Student feedback tools – this is similar to the self- reflection tool except that the students, instead of the
teacher, complete the forms. Teacher- made questionnaire, minute surveys and journals are examples of
sources of student feedback.
iv) Student performance data – include all student products that can be used to help teachers assess their
own instructional effectiveness. Test results, essays, classroom projects, and the like are examples of
students’ performance data.
v) External or peer observation – involves having a peer or colleague observe, assess, or provide
suggestions about an aspect of the teacher’s practice such as questioning behavior, lesson organization
or feedback to students.
vi) Journaling – requires the teacher to maintain and reflect on a record of classroom events or activities with
the intent of recognizing recurring problems, wants, successes, or needs.
vii) Collegial dialogue, experience sharing, and joint problem solving- all of these encourage collaboration
among teachers to discuss common problems, share procedures, and strategies, and compare
perceptions. Exposure to the ideas and practices of colleagues is a potent strategy for teacher reflection
and change.
iii) Historical Research – the study of the past phenomenon for the
purpose of gaining a better understanding of present institutions, practices, trends, and issues.
i) to make people aware of what has happened in the past so they may learn from past failure or
success
ii) to learn how things were done in the past to see if they might be applicable to present day problems
and concerns
iii) to assist in prediction
iv) to test hypotheses concerning relationships or trends
b. Types of Sources
i) Primary Sources- this is a direct report of an event by an individual who actually observed or
participated in it.
ii) Secondary Sources – these are documents prepared by an individual who was not a direct witness to
an event, but who obtained his or her description of the event from someone else.
c. Categories of Sources
i) Documents – these are written or printed materials that have been produced in some form or another.
Examples of these are annual reports, artwork, bills, books, cartoons, circulars, records, diaries,
diplomas, newspapers, among others. They may be handwritten, printed, typewritten, drawn or
sketched; published or unpublished; intended for private or public consumption; original or copies.
Therefore, documents pertain to any kind of information that exists in some type of written or printed
form.
ii) Numerical records – these include test scores, attendance figures, consensus reports, budgets, and
the like.
iii) Oral statements – these include stories, myths, tales, legends, chants, songs and other forms of oral
expression that have been used by people down through the ages to leave a record for future
generations.
iv) Relics –These are objects which physical or visual characteristics can provide some information
about the past. Examples include furniture, artwork, clothing, buildings, monuments, or equipment.
i) Contextual – the research is carried out in the context in which the subjects normally live or work.
ii)Unobtrusive – the researcher avoids manipulating the phenomenon under investigation
iii)
Longitudinal – the research is relatively long term
iv)Collaborative – the researcher carries out interpretative analyses of the data in cooperation with other
people, e.g. the natives in a community
v) Organic- there is interaction between questions/hypothesis and data collection/interpretation
iii) Complete observer – the researcher observes the activities of a group without in any way becoming a
participant in those activities. The subjects of the researcher’s observation may or may not realize
that they are being observed.
iv) Complete participant – the identity is not known to any of the individuals being observed. The
researcher interacts with the group as naturally as possible.
i) Hawthorne’s Effect- An observed change in the participants’ behavior based on their awareness of
participating in an experiment, their knowledge of research hypothesis or their response to receiving
special attention
ii) Halo effect – the tendency for the observer’s early impressions of an individual being observed to
influence the observer’s ratings of all variables involving the same individual
iii) Observer effect – any action or bias of an observer to record the occurrence of a behavior that fits
one of the categories in the observational schedule.
i) Sampling – The process of selecting members of a research sample from a defined population, usually with the
intent that the sample accurately represents the population. A sample comprises the individuals, items, or events
selected from a larger group referred to as a population.
ii) Sampling error- the deviation of a sample statistic from its population value
a. Convenience sampling – a group of cases that are selected simply because they are available and easy to
access
b. Probability sampling – a procedure for drawing a sample from a population such that each individual in the
population has a known chance of being selected
c. Purposeful sampling – the process of selecting cases that are likely to be “information-rich” with respect to
the purposes of a qualitative research study
e. Criterion Sampling – selecting a group of cases that satisfy particular specifications or standards
f. Proportional stratified random sampling – a technique in which the proportion of each subgroup in the
sample is the same as their proportion in the population
g. Purposeful random sampling –selecting by random sampling methods for the purpose of establishing that
the selection of cases was not biased.
h. Random sample or simple random sampling –selecting participants such that all members of the accessible
or target population have an equal and independent chance of being selected
i. Snowball sample –selecting participants by asking one person to recommend someone suitable as a case
of the phenomenon of interest, who then recommends another person who is a suitable case or who knows
potential cases; the process continues until the desired sample size is achieved.
j. Systematic sampling – a type of sampling in which individuals are selected from a list by taking every nth
name.
k. Purposive sampling – the researcher selects a sample based on his or her experience or knowledge of the
group to be sampled.
l. Quota sampling – is most often used in survey research when it is not possible to list all members of the
population of interest.
ii) Questionnaire – a measure that presents a set of written questions to which all individuals in the sample respond
iii) Rubric- in performance assessment, this refers to a scale of measuring different levels of proficiency
demonstrated in students’ portforlio.
a. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – This is a statistical procedure applied to determine whether the difference
between the mean scores of two or more groups on a dependent variable is statistically significant.
b. Chi-square – this is a nonparametric test of statistical significance that is used when the research data are
in the form of frequency counts for two or more categories.
c. Factor Analysis – A statistical procedure for reducing a set of measured variables to a smaller number of
variables by combining variables that are moderately or highly correlated with each other.
d. Multiple Regression- A statistical procedure for determining the magnitude of the relationship between a
criterion variable and a combination of two or more prediction variables
i) Construct validity – the extent to which inferences from a test’s scores accurately reflect the construct
that the test claims to measure.
ii) Content validity – the extent to which inferences from a test’s scores adequately represent the content
or conceptual domain that the test claims to measure
iii) Internal validity – in experiments, it is the extent to which extraneous variables have been controlled
by the researcher so that any observed effects can be attributed solely to the treatment variable.
a. Types of reliability
i) Inter-observer reliability – it is the extent to which the scores assigned by one observer of events
correlate with the scores assigned by another observer of the same events.
ii) Intra-observer- reliability – it is the extent to which an observer makes consistent recordings of
observational variables while viewing a videotape or listening to an audiotape of an event on several
occasions
i) Low inference descriptors – describes behavior on which it is easy for independent observers to agree.
ii) Multiple researchers/ participant researchers – the best way to guard against threats to internal reliability.
However, this is quite expensive. The alternative is to enlist the aid of local informants to validate the
interpretations of the ethnographer.
iii) Peer examination – this involves the corroboration by other researchers working in similar settings
iv) Mechanically recorded data – this strategy allows for the preservation of the primary data.
i) Observation – certain questions can be best answered by observing how people act or how things look.
ii) Field notes – observer’s record of what he or she has seen heard, experienced, and thought about during an
observation session
Field jottings – these are quick notes about something the researcher
wants to write more about later. They provide the stimulus to help researchers recall a lot of details they
do not have time to write down during the observation or interview.
i) Descriptive field notes – attempts to describe the setting, the people and what they do according to what
the researcher observes. They include the following:
Accounts of particular events who was involved when, where, and how.
ii) Reflective field notes – present more of what the researcher himself or herself is thinking about as he
or she does the observation. These include the following:
ii) Knowledge questions – are questions researchers ask to find out what factual information
respondents possess.
iii) Experience or behavior questions – are questions a researcher asks to find out what a respondent is
currently doing or has done in the past. The intent is to elicit description of experience, behavior, or
activities that could have been observed.
iv) Opinion or values question - are questions researchers ask to find out what people think about some
topic or issue. Answers to such questions call attention to the respondents’ goals, beliefs, attitudes, or
values.
v) Feelings questions – are questions a researcher asks to find out how respondents feel about things.
They are directed toward emotional responses of people to their experiences.
vi) Sensory questions – are questions a researcher asks to find out what a respondent, for example, has
seen, heard, tasted, smelled, or touched.
a. Think aloud techniques – are those in which subjects complete a task or solve a problem and verbalize their
thought processes as they do so. The researcher collects the think-aloud protocol on tape and then
analyzes it for the thinking strategies involved.
b. Anagram tasks – this is similar to Think Aloud, but the focus is on letters and words rather than numbers. An
anagram is a word or phrase whose constituent parts have been rearranged.
c. Diary studies – they have been used in investigations of second language acquisition, teacher – learner
interaction, teacher education, and other aspects of language learning use.
d. Stimulated recall – is a technique in which the researcher records and transcribes parts of a lesson then
gets the teacher to comment on what was happening at the time that the teaching and learning took place.
Such a technique can yield insights into processes of teaching and learning which would be difficult to
obtain by other means.
11.Literary Research
a. Select a topic- this pertains to the selection of the author and the aspect or element of his or her work that
you want to study. Some of the literary topics could be a discussion of the work's characters, if they are
realistic, symbolic or historically-based; a comparison and contrast of different authors or characters in a
work; a reading of a work based on a literary approach or theory outside philosophical perspective, e. g.
how would a Freudian read Hamlet?; a study of the sources or historical events that occasioned a particular
work, e.g. comparing G.B. Shaw's Pygmalion with the original Greek myth of Pygmalion; an analysis of a
specific image occurring in several works, e.g the use of moon as imagery in certain plays, poems, novels;
a "deconstruction" of a particular work, e.g. unfolding an underlying racist worldview in Joseph Conrad's
Heart of Darkness, among others
b. Prepare the research questions/objectives- a researcher has to be clear about what he/she wants to
achieve in the whole research undertaking. This will provide direction to the study, as well as the information
necessary to determine the appropriate methodology.
d. Prepare the methodology – in this section, the literary researcher underscores the needed elements to
address the research questions. This includes the identification of authors to be studied, their texts to be
analyzed, procedures or stages of the literary research, among others. Since the selection of materials is a
significant aspect in any literary research, it is labeled under steps of literary research and not just a
component of the methodology part.
e. Select Materials – In selecting the materials for a literary research, make sure that you have built your
bibliography. This includes the selection of a few good articles about the author and his/her work. Include
the reviews made by literary critics of a particular work. Other things to consider are the following:
f. Prepare the findings of the study – In this section, the researcher answers the research questions and
addresses the hypothesis of the study.
g. Write the research report – A research report must not only answer the research questions and objectives,
but also follow the conventions of writing. Having said this, the researcher ensures that the final report is
well edited and proofread to adapt to the required style and format of the publisher.
ii) Translation
a. Topics to be explored
Research in Literature may include the study in translation. In doing this type of research, the author may
explore the following translation studies:
i) Issues and problems in translation from one language to another language or from one literary form
to another literary form
b. Three phases of translation – Another thing to consider in translation research is the process of translation
itself. The translation of a literary text undergoes phases to that the translated material will remain faithful to
the original text. These phases include:
i) Preparation for translation – a literary material to be translated well has to be fully understood by the
translator. The translator must understand the basic and the whole point of the text as well as its
nuances. Hence, before a translator can begin translating the text, (s)he must be in full grasp of the
circumstances- political, social, among others internal and external to the text. It is also important
that the translator has a clear interpretation of the text at hand.
ii) Actual translation – in doing the actual translation, the translator needs to have a theoretical
grounding to support the manner and processes employed in the actual translation. This is important
in setting a clear direction in the translation process
iii) Addressing issues – in translating a literary text certain issues must be addressed. One of these is
the occurrence of words that have no equivalent in the target language. Another is the literary and
writing style of the author as opposed to the writing style of the translator. Next is the use of
expressions for thoughts and concepts as well as idiomatic expressions which may not have any
equivalent or counterpart in the target language. Next is the tendency to alter the word order,
structure among others in the course of translation. Finally, the danger of having a literal translation.
iv) Evaluation of the Translation – Any translated material must undergo an evaluation process to ensure
its faithfulness to the original text. To effect this, a translator needs to develop or adapt a rubric which
will serve as guide in determining the quality of the translated material. The evaluation of the
translated material also includes the assigning of inter-raters to evaluate the quality of the translation.
In selecting the inter-rater certain criteria have to set by the researcher. These criteria wholly depend
on the type of material being studied.
c. Application of Translation Methods – These translation methods are used to address issues in translation
and to ensure the faithfulness of the translated material to the original text. Some of the translation
methods are:
i) Word-for-Word Translation – This is the literal translation which is used to translate the words in their
most common meaning. This method is used usually for the initial phase in translation.
ii) Meaning-based Translation – this method gives the highest priority to the meaning and form of the
original, and is appropriate to translations of source texts that have high status. It retains the aesthetic
value of the translated texts. It is both semantic and communicative in nature.
One of the challenges for language and literature teachers in this information age is to be active contributors of
knowledge in academic setting. In academic institutions, from elementary to tertiary, teachers are encouraged,
and at some degree, are expected to undertake a small-scale research. This small scale research is often
focused on the classroom interaction where the teacher –researcher is a significant member.
Although the methods used in classroom research resembles those used in other types of researches,
classroom research can be considered distinct because it focuses on issues and concerns of a specific
classroom. Hence, classroom research addresses a specific learning concern in the classroom setting.
i) Methods comparison studies – this is probably the best known classroom studies employing
experimental method. This seeks to evaluate the relative claims of different methods by randomly
assigning students to two different groups and providing differential instruction to these groups. At the
end of the research period, all students are tested to determine which of the two competing methods
is the more effective.
ii) Stimulated recall – is a technique in which the researcher records and transcribes parts of a lesson
and then gets the teacher to comment on what was happening at the time that the teaching and
learning took place. This technique yields insights into the processes of teaching and learning which
would be difficult to obtain by other means.
iii) Observation schemes – these schemes are used to document classroom interaction. However, the
information generated from these schemes are extremely limited but very much focused on a
particular point of view or perspective.
iv) Interactional analysis – This involves the discursive analysis of classroom talk. This focuses on the
thematic structures and activity schemes. The analysis of classroom activities covers (1) activity type,
(2) participant organization, (3) content, (4) student modality, and (5) materials. It also includes the
language used in the classroom, specifically the use of a target language, information gap, sustained
speech, reaction to code or message, incorporation of preceding utterances, discourse initiation, and
relative restriction of linguistic forms.
Classroom research is a recommended approach for studying the language and literacy interaction in
the classroom. The main goal of a classroom research is to study the processes, interaction, assessment
and instruction that are happing in the classroom.
i) Classroom processes – this involves the systems observed and administered by the teacher in the
classroom to effect learning and understanding
ii) Classroom interaction – this focuses on the type of talk observable inside the classroom
iii) Classroom instruction – this centers on the teaching styles of the teacher, selection of materials, use
of teaching methodologies and strategies, along with the students’ response to the initiatives of the
teacher.
iv) Classroom assessment – this looks into the assessment and testing done in the classroom using both
teacher and expert made tests and assessment tools.
1. The research writer is expected to fit in his report to the intended audience or readers. This means that the
researcher should meet the expectations, in terms of format and style of the specific audience that who will
read his work.