Unit Conversion Tables

Length

SI unit: Meter (m)

1 kilometer = 1000. meters

= 0.62137 mile

1 meter = 100. centimeters

1 centimeter = 10. millimeters

1 nanometer = 1.00 x 10-9 meters

1 picometer = 1.00 x 10-12 meters

1 inch = 2.54 centimeters (exact)

1 Ångstrom = 1.00 x 10-10 meters

Volume

SI unit: Cubic meter (m3)

1 liter (L) = 1.00 x 10-3m3

= 1000. cm3

= 1.056710 quarts

1 gallon = 4.00 quarts

Pressure

Si unit: Pascal (Pa)

1 pascal = 1 N/m2
 = 1 kg/m * s2

1 atmosphere = 101.325 kilopascals

= 760. mmHg

= 760 torr

= 14.70 lb/in2

= 1.01325 bar

1 bar = 105 Pa (exact)

Energy

SI unit: Joule (J)

1 joule = 1 kg * m2/s2

= 0.23901 calorie

= 1C x 1V

1 calorie = 4.184 joules

Mass

SI unit: Kilogram (kg)

1 kilogram = 1000. grams

1 gram = 1000. milligrams

1 pound = 453.59237 grams

 = 16 ounces

1 ton = 2000. pounds

Temperature

Si unit: Kelvin (K)

K = 273.15 °C

K = °C + 273.15 °C

? °C = (5 °C/9 °F)(°F - 32 °F)

? °F = (9 °F/5 °C)°C + 32 °F

Physical Quantities and Units

The range of objects and phenomena studied in physics is immense. From the incredibly short lifetime of a nucleus to the age of the Earth, from
the tiny sizes of sub-nuclear particles to the vast distance to the edges of the known universe, from the force exerted by a jumping flea to the
force between Earth and the Sun, there are enough factors of 10 to challenge the imagination of even the most experienced scientist. Giving
numerical values for physical quantities and equations for physical principles allows us to understand nature much more deeply than does
qualitative description alone. To comprehend these vast ranges, we must also have accepted units in which to express them. And we shall find
that (even in the potentially mundane discussion of meters, kilograms, and seconds) a profound simplicity of nature appears—all physical
quantities can be expressed as combinations of only four fundamental physical quantities: length, mass, time, and electric current.

We define a physical quantity either by specifying how it is measured or by stating how it is calculated from other measurements. For example,
we define distance and time by specifying methods for measuring them, whereas we define average speed by stating that it is calculated as
distance traveled divided by time of travel.

Measurements of physical quantities are expressed in terms of units, which are standardized values. For example, the length of a race, which is a
physical quantity, can be expressed in units of meters (for sprinters) or kilometers (for distance runners). Without standardized units, it would be
extremely difficult for scientists to express and compare measured values in a meaningful way.

There are two major systems of units used in the world: SI units (also known as the metric system) and English units (also known as the
customary or imperial system). English units were historically used in nations once ruled by the British Empire and are still widely used in the
United States. Virtually every other country in the world now uses SI units as the standard; the metric system is also the standard system agreed
upon by scientists and mathematicians. The acronym “SI” is derived from the French Système International.

SI Units: Fundamental and Derived Units

It is an intriguing fact that some physical quantities are more fundamental than others and that the most fundamental physical quantities can be
defined only in terms of the procedure used to measure them. The units in which they are measured are thus called fundamental units. In this
textbook, the fundamental physical quantities are taken to be length, mass, time, and electric current. (Note that electric current will not be
introduced until much later in this text.) All other physical quantities, such as force and electric charge, can be expressed as algebraic
combinations of length, mass, time, and current (for example, speed is length divided by time); these units are called derived units.
 Units of Time, Length, and Mass: The Second, Meter, and Kilogram
The Second
The SI unit for time, the second(abbreviated s), has a long history. For many years it was defined as 1/86,400 of a mean solar day. More recently,
a new standard was adopted to gain greater accuracy and to define the second in terms of a non-varying, or constant, physical phenomenon
(because the solar day is getting longer due to very gradual slowing of the Earth’s rotation). Cesium atoms can be made to vibrate in a very
steady way, and these vibrations can be readily observed and counted. In 1967 the second was redefined as the time required for 9,192,631,770
of these vibrations. (See Figure 3.) Accuracy in the fundamental units is essential, because all measurements are ultimately expressed in terms
of fundamental units and can be no more accurate than are the fundamental units themselves.
The Meter
The SI unit for length is the meter (abbreviated m); its definition has also changed over time to become more accurate and precise. The meter
was first defined in 1791 as 1/10,000,000 of the distance from the equator to the North Pole. This measurement was improved in 1889 by
redefining the meter to be the distance between two engraved lines on a platinum-iridium bar now kept near Paris. By 1960, it had become
possible to define the meter even more accurately in terms of the wavelength of light, so it was again redefined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of
orange light emitted by krypton atoms. In 1983, the meter was given its present definition (partly for greater accuracy) as the distance light
travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second. (See Figure 4.) This change defines the speed of light to be exactly 299,792,458 meters per
second. The length of the meter will change if the speed of light is someday measured with greater accuracy.
The Kilogram
The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (abbreviated kg); it is defined to be the mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder kept with the old meter standard
at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris. Exact replicas of the standard kilogram are also kept at the United States’
National Institute of Standards and Technology, or NIST, located in Gaithersburg, Maryland outside of Washington D.C., and at other locations
around the world. The determination of all other masses can be ultimately traced to a comparison with the standard mass.

Electric current and its accompanying unit, the ampere, will be introduced in Introduction to Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm’s Law when
electricity and magnetism are covered. The initial modules in this textbook are concerned with mechanics, fluids, heat, and waves. In these
subjects all pertinent physical quantities can be expressed in terms of the fundamental units of length, mass, and time.

Metric Prefixes
SI units are part of the metric system. The metric system is convenient for scientific and engineering calculations because the units are
categorized by factors of 10. Table 2 gives metric prefixes and symbols used to denote various factors of 10.

Metric systems have the advantage that conversions of units involve only powers of 10. There are 100 centimeters in a meter, 1000 meters in a
kilometer, and so on. In non-metric systems, such as the system of U.S. customary units, the relationships are not as simple—there are 12 inches
in a foot, 5280 feet in a mile, and so on. Another advantage of the metric system is that the same unit can be used over extremely large ranges
of values simply by using an appropriate metric prefix. For example, distances in meters are suitable in construction, while distances in
kilometers are appropriate for air travel, and the tiny measure of nanometers are convenient in optical design. With the metric system there is
no need to invent new units for particular applications.

The term order of magnitude refers to the scale of a value expressed in the metric system. Each power of 10 in the metric system represents a
different order of magnitude. For example, 101, 102, 103, and so forth are all different orders of magnitude. All quantities that can be expressed
as a product of a specific power of 10 are said to be of the same order of magnitude. For example, the number 800 can be written as 8 × 102,
and the number 450 can be written as 4.5 × 10 2. Thus, the numbers 800 and 450 are of the same order of magnitude: 10 2. Order of magnitude
can be thought of as a ballpark estimate for the scale of a value. The diameter of an atom is on the order of 10 -9m while the diameter of the Sun
is on the order of 109m.
THE QUEST FOR MICROSCOPIC STANDARDS FOR BASIC UNITS
The fundamental units described in this chapter are those that produce the greatest accuracy and precision in measurement. There is a sense
among physicists that, because there is an underlying microscopic substructure to matter, it would be most satisfying to base our standards of
measurement on microscopic objects and fundamental physical phenomena such as the speed of light. A microscopic standard has been
accomplished for the standard of time, which is based on the oscillations of the cesium atom.

The standard for length was once based on the wavelength of light (a small-scale length) emitted by a certain type of atom, but it has been
supplanted by the more precise measurement of the speed of light. If it becomes possible to measure the mass of atoms or a particular
arrangement of atoms such as a silicon sphere to greater precision than the kilogram standard, it may become possible to base mass
measurements on the small scale. There are also possibilities that electrical phenomena on the small scale may someday allow us to base a unit
of charge on the charge of electrons and protons, but at present current and charge are related to large-scale currents and forces between
wires.

Known Ranges of Length, Mass, and Time

The vastness of the universe and the breadth over which physics applies are illustrated by the wide range of examples of known lengths, masses,
and times in Table 1.3. Examination of this table will give you some feeling for the range of possible topics and numerical values.

Unit Conversion and Dimensional Analysis

It is often necessary to convert from one type of unit to another. For example, if you are reading a European cookbook, some quantities may be
expressed in units of liters and you need to convert them to cups. Or, perhaps you are reading walking directions from one location to another
and you are interested in how many miles you will be walking. In this case, you will need to convert units of feet to miles.

Let us consider a simple example of how to convert units. Let us say that we want to convert 80 meters (m) to kilometers (km).

The first thing to do is to list the units that you have and the units that you want to convert to. In this case, we have units in meters and we want
to convert to kilometers.
Next, we need to determine a conversion factor relating meters to kilometers. A conversion factor is a ratio expressing how many of one unit are
equal to another unit. For example, there are 12 inches in 1 foot, 100 centimeters in 1 meter, 60 seconds in 1 minute, and so on. In this case, we
know that there are 1,000 meters in 1 kilometer.

Section Summary

 Physical quantities are a characteristic or property of an object that can be measured or calculated from other measurements.

 Units are standards for expressing and comparing the measurement of physical quantities. All units can be expressed as
combinations of four fundamental units.

 The four fundamental units we will use in this text are the meter (for length), the kilogram (for mass), the second (for time), and the
ampere (for electric current). These units are part of the metric system, which uses powers of 10 to relate quantities over the vast
ranges encountered in nature.

 The four fundamental units are abbreviated as follows: meter, m; kilogram, kg; second, s; and ampere, A. The metric system also uses
a standard set of prefixes to denote each order of magnitude greater than or lesser than the fundamental unit itself.

 Unit conversions involve changing a value expressed in one type of unit to another type of unit. This is done by using conversion
factors, which are ratios relating equal quantities of different units.

 Glossary
 physical quantity:
 a characteristic or property of an object that can be measured or calculated from other measurements
 units:
 a standard used for expressing and comparing measurements
 SI units:
 the international system of units that scientists in most countries have agreed to use; includes units such as meters, liters, and grams
 English units:
 system of measurement used in the United States; includes units of measurement such as feet, gallons, and pounds
 fundamental units:
 units that can only be expressed relative to the procedure used to measure them
 derived units:
 units that can be calculated using algebraic combinations of the fundamental units
 second:
 the SI unit for time, abbreviated (s)
 meter:
 the SI unit for length, abbreviated (m)
 kilogram:
 the SI unit for mass, abbreviated (kg)
 metric system:
 a system in which values can be calculated in factors of 10
 order of magnitude:
 refers to the size of a quantity as it relates to a power of 10
  conversion factor:
 a ratio expressing how many of one unit are equal to another un

The Ampere

Electric current is measured in the ampere (A), named after Andre Ampere. You have probably heard of amperes,
or amps, when people discuss electrical currents or electrical devices. Understanding an ampere requires a basic
understanding of electricity and magnetism, something that will be explored in depth in later chapters of this book.
Basically, two parallel wires with an electric current running through them will produce an attractive force on each
other. One ampere is defined as the amount of electric current that will produce an attractive force of 2.7 × 10–
7
newton per meter of separation between the two wires (the newton is the derived unit of force).
Kelvins

The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (or kelvins, but not degrees kelvin). This scale is named after physicist
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, who was the first to call for an absolute temperature scale. The Kelvin scale is based
on absolute zero. This is the point at which all thermal energy has been removed from all atoms or molecules in a
system. This temperature, 0 K, is equal to −273.15 °C and −459.67 °F. Conveniently, the Kelvin scale actually
changes in the same way as the Celsius scale. For example, the freezing point (0 °C) and boiling points of water
(100 °C) are 100 degrees apart on the Celsius scale. These two temperatures are also 100 kelvins apart (freezing
point = 273.15 K; boiling point = 373.15 K).
Metric Prefixes

Physical objects or phenomena may vary widely. For example, the size of objects varies from something very small
(like an atom) to something very large (like a star). Yet the standard metric unit of length is the meter. So, the
metric system includes many prefixes that can be attached to a unit. Each prefix is based on factors of 10 (10, 100,
1,000, etc., as well as 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, etc.). Table 1.2 gives the metric prefixes and symbols used to denote the
different various factors of 10 in the metric system.

Using Scientific Notation with Physical Measurements

Scientific notation is a way of writing numbers that are too large or small to be conveniently written as a decimal. For example,
consider the number 840,000,000,000,000. It’s a rather large number to write out. The scientific notation for this number is
8.40 × 1014. Scientific notation follows this general format
x × 10y.
In this format x is the value of the measurement with all placeholder zeros removed. In the example above, x is 8.4. The x is
multiplied by a factor, 10y, which indicates the number of placeholder zeros in the measurement. Placeholder zeros are those at the
end of a number that is 10 or greater, and at the beginning of a decimal number that is less than 1. In the example above, the factor
is 1014. This tells you that you should move the decimal point 14 positions to the right, filling in placeholder zeros as you go. In this
case, moving the decimal point 14 places creates only 13 placeholder zeros, indicating that the actual measurement value is
840,000,000,000,000.
Numbers that are fractions can be indicated by scientific notation as well. Consider the number 0.0000045. Its scientific notation is
4.5 × 10–6. Its scientific notation has the same format
x × 10y.
Here, x is 4.5. However, the value of y in the 10y factor is negative, which indicates that the measurement is a fraction of 1.
Therefore, we move the decimal place to the left, for a negative y. In our example of 4.5 × 10–6, the decimal point would be moved to
the left six times to yield the original number, which would be 0.0000045.
The term order of magnitude refers to the power of 10 when numbers are expressed in scientific notation. Quantities that have the
same power of 10 when expressed in scientific notation, or come close to it, are said to be of the same order of magnitude. For
example, the number 800 can be written as 8 × 102, and the number 450 can be written as 4.5 × 102. Both numbers have the same
value for y. Therefore, 800 and 450 are of the same order of magnitude. Similarly, 101 and 99 would be regarded as the same order
of magnitude, 102. Order of magnitude can be thought of as a ballpark estimate for the scale of a value. The diameter of an atom is
on the order of 10−9 m, while the diameter of the sun is on the order of 109 m. These two values are 18 orders of magnitude apart.
Scientists make frequent use of scientific notation because of the vast range of physical measurements possible in the universe,
such as the distance from Earth to the moon (Figure 1.18), or to the nearest star

Unit Conversion and Dimensional Analysis

It is often necessary to convert from one type of unit to another. For example, if you are reading a European cookbook in the United
States, some quantities may be expressed in liters and you need to convert them to cups. A Canadian tourist driving through the
United States might want to convert miles to kilometers, to have a sense of how far away his next destination is. A doctor in the
United States might convert a patient’s weight in pounds to kilograms.

Let’s consider a simple example of how to convert units within the metric system. How can we want to convert 1 hour to seconds?
Next, we need to determine a conversion factor relating meters to kilometers. A conversion factor is a ratio expressing how many
of one unit are equal to another unit. A conversion factor is simply a fraction which equals 1. You can multiply any number by 1 and
get the same value. When you multiply a number by a conversion factor, you are simply multiplying it by one. For example, the
following are conversion factors: (1 foot)/(12 inches) = 1 to convert inches to feet, (1 meter)/(100 centimeters) = 1 to convert
centimeters to meters, (1 minute)/(60 seconds) = 1 to convert seconds to minutes. In this case, we know that there are 1,000 meters
in 1 kilometer.
Now we can set up our unit conversion. We will write the units that we have and then multiply them by the conversion factor (1
km/1,000m) = 1, so we are simply multiplying 80m by 1:

1.11 h × 60 min1 h × 60 s1 min=3600 s = 3.6 × 102 s

When there is a unit in the original number, and a unit in the denominator (bottom) of the conversion factor, the units cancel. In this
case, hours and minutes cancel and the value in seconds remains.

You can use this method to convert between any types of unit, including between the U.S. customary system and metric system.
Notice also that, although you can multiply and divide units algebraically, you cannot add or subtract different units. An expression
like 10 km + 5 kg makes no sense. Even adding two lengths in different units, such as 10 km + 20 m does not make sense. You
express both lengths in the same unit. See Appendix C for a more complete list of conversion factors.
Accuracy, Precision and Significant Figures
Science is based on experimentation that requires good measurements. The validity of a measurement can be
described in terms of its accuracy and its precision (see Figure 1.19 and Figure 1.20). Accuracy is how close a
measurement is to the correct value for that measurement. For example, let us say that you are measuring the
length of standard piece of printer paper. The packaging in which you purchased the paper states that it is 11
inches long, and suppose this stated value is correct. You measure the length of the paper three times and obtain
the following measurements: 11.1 inches, 11.2 inches, and 10.9 inches. These measurements are quite accurate
because they are very close to the correct value of 11.0 inches. In contrast, if you had obtained a measurement of
12 inches, your measurement would not be very accurate. This is why measuring instruments are calibrated based
on a known measurement. If the instrument consistently returns the correct value of the known measurement, it is
safe for use in finding unknown values.

Precision states how well repeated measurements of something generate the same or similar results. Therefore, the precision of
measurements refers to how close together the measurements are when you measure the same thing several times. One way to
analyze the precision of measurements would be to determine the range, or difference between the lowest and the highest
measured values. In the case of the printer paper measurements, the lowest value was 10.9 inches and the highest value was 11.2
inches. Thus, the measured values deviated from each other by, at most, 0.3 inches. These measurements were reasonably precise
because they varied by only a fraction of an inch. However, if the measured values had been 10.9 inches, 11.1 inches, and 11.9
inches, then the measurements would not be very precise because there is a lot of variation from one measurement to another.
The measurements in the paper example are both accurate and precise, but in some cases, measurements are accurate but not
precise, or they are precise but not accurate. Let us consider a GPS system that is attempting to locate the position of a restaurant
in a city. Think of the restaurant location as existing at the center of a bull’s-eye target. Then think of each GPS attempt to locate the
restaurant as a black dot on the bull’s eye.

In Figure 1.21, you can see that the GPS measurements are spread far apart from each other, but they are all relatively close to the
actual location of the restaurant at the center of the target. This indicates a low precision, high accuracy measuring system.
However, in Figure 1.22, the GPS measurements are concentrated quite closely to one another, but they are far away from the
target location. This indicates a high precision, low accuracy measuring system. Finally, in Figure 1.23, the GPS is both precise and
accurate, allowing the restaurant to be located.
.

Uncertainty

The accuracy and precision of a measuring system determine the uncertainty of its measurements. Uncertainty is
a way to describe how much your measured value deviates from the actual value that the object has. If your
measurements are not very accurate or precise, then the uncertainty of your values will be very high. In more
general terms, uncertainty can be thought of as a disclaimer for your measured values. For example, if someone
asked you to provide the mileage on your car, you might say that it is 45,000 miles, plus or minus 500 miles. The
plus or minus amount is the uncertainty in your value. That is, you are indicating that the actual mileage of your car
might be as low as 44,500 miles or as high as 45,500 miles, or anywhere in between. All measurements contain
some amount of uncertainty. In our example of measuring the length of the paper, we might say that the length of
the paper is 11 inches plus or minus 0.2 inches or 11.0 ± 0.2 inches. The uncertainty in a measurement, A, is often
denoted as δA ("delta A"),
 The factors contributing to uncertainty in a measurement include the following:

1. Limitations of the measuring device

2. The skill of the person making the measurement
3. Irregularities in the object being measured
4. Any other factors that affect the outcome (highly dependent on the situation)
In the printer paper example uncertainty could be caused by: the fact that the smallest division on the ruler is 0.1
inches, the person using the ruler has bad eyesight, or uncertainty caused by the paper cutting machine (e.g., one
side of the paper is slightly longer than the other.) It is good practice to carefully consider all possible sources of
uncertainty in a measurement and reduce or eliminate them,

Percent Uncertainty

One method of expressing uncertainty is as a percent of the measured value. If a measurement, A, is expressed
with uncertainty, δA, the percent uncertainty is
Uncertainty in Calculations

There is an uncertainty in anything calculated from measured quantities. For example, the area of a floor calculated
from measurements of its length and width has an uncertainty because the both the length and width have
uncertainties. How big is the uncertainty in something you calculate by multiplication or division? If the
measurements in the calculation have small uncertainties (a few percent or less), then the method of adding
percents can be used. This method says that the percent uncertainty in a quantity calculated by multiplication or
division is the sum of the percent uncertainties in the items used to make the calculation. For example, if a floor has
a length of 4.00 m and a width of 3.00 m, with uncertainties of 2 percent and 1 percent, respectively, then the area
of the floor is 12.0 m2 and has an uncertainty of 3 percent (expressed as an area this is 0.36 m 2, which we round to
0.4 m2 since the area of the floor is given to a tenth of a square meter).
For a quick demonstration of the accuracy, precision, and uncertainty of measurements based upon the units of
measurement, try this simulation. You will have the opportunity to measure the length and weight of a desk, using
milli- versus centi- units. Which do you think will provide greater accuracy, precision and uncertainty when
measuring the desk and the notepad in the simulation? Consider how the nature of the hypothesis or research
question might influence how precise of a measuring tool you need to collect data.
Precision of Measuring Tools and Significant Figures

An important factor in the accuracy and precision of measurements is the precision of the measuring tool. In general, a precise
measuring tool is one that can measure values in very small increments. For example, consider measuring the thickness of a coin. A
standard ruler can measure thickness to the nearest millimeter, while a micrometer can measure the thickness to the nearest 0.005
millimeter. The micrometer is a more precise measuring tool because it can measure extremely small differences in thickness. The
more precise the measuring tool, the more precise and accurate the measurements can be.

When we express measured values, we can only list as many digits as we initially measured with our measuring tool (such as the
rulers shown in Figure 1.24). For example, if you use a standard ruler to measure the length of a stick, you may measure it with a
decimeter ruler as 3.6 cm. You could not express this value as 3.65 cm because your measuring tool was not precise enough to
measure a hundredth of a centimeter. It should be noted that the last digit in a measured value has been estimated in some way by
the person performing the measurement. For example, the person measuring the length of a stick with a ruler notices that the stick
length seems to be somewhere in between 36 mm and 37 mm. He or she must estimate the value of the last digit. The rule is that
the last digit written down in a measurement is the first digit with some uncertainty. For example, the last measured value 36.5 mm
has three digits, or three significant figures. The number of significant figures in a measurement indicates the precision of the
measuring tool. The more precise a measuring tool is, the greater the number of significant figures it can report.

Zeros

Special consideration is given to zeros when counting significant figures. For example, the zeros in 0.053 are not significant
because they are only placeholders that locate the decimal point. There are two significant figures in 0.053—the 5 and the 3.
However, if the zero occurs between other significant figures, the zeros are significant. For example, both zeros in 10.053 are
significant, as these zeros were actually measured. Therefore, the 10.053 placeholder has five significant figures. The zeros in 1300
may or may not be significant, depending on the style of writing numbers. They could mean the number is known to the last zero, or
the zeros could be placeholders. So 1300 could have two, three, or four significant figures. To avoid this ambiguity, write 1300 in
scientific notation as 1.3 × 103. Only significant figures are given in the x factor for a number in scientific notation (in the form x×10y).
Therefore, we know that 1 and 3 are the only significant digits in this number. In summary, zeros are significant except when they
serve only as placeholders. Table 1.4 provides examples of the number of significant figures in various numbers.
 When combining measurements with different degrees of accuracy and precision, the number of significant digits in
the final answer can be no greater than the number of significant digits in the least precise measured value. There
are two different rules, one for multiplication and division and another rule for addition and subtraction, as
discussed below.

1. For multiplication and division: The answer should have the same number of significant figures as the
starting value with the fewest significant figures. For example, the area of a circle can be calculated from its
radius using A=πr2. Let us see how many significant figures the area will have if the radius has only two
significant figures, for example, r = 2.0 m. Then, using a calculator that keeps eight significant figures, you
would get
A= πr2= (3.1415927...) × (2.0 m)2= 4.5238934 m2.

But because the radius has only two significant figures, the area calculated is meaningful only to two significant
figures or

A= 4.5 m2

even though the value of π is meaningful to at least eight digits.

2. For addition and subtraction: The answer should have the same number places (e.g. tens place, ones
place, tenths place, etc.) as the least-precise starting value. Suppose that you buy 7.56 kg of potatoes in a
grocery store as measured with a scale having a precision of 0.01 kg. Then you drop off 6.052 kg of potatoes at
your laboratory as measured by a scale with a precision of 0.001 kg. Finally, you go home and add 13.7 kg of
potatoes as measured by a bathroom scale with a precision of 0.1 kg. How many kilograms of potatoes do you
now have, and how many significant figures are appropriate in the answer? The mass is found by simple addition
and subtraction:

7.56kg−6.052kg+13.7kg_ 15.208kg

The least precise measurement is 13.7 kg. This measurement is expressed to the 0.1 decimal place, so our final
answer must also be expressed to the 0.1 decimal place. Thus, the answer should be rounded to the tenths
place, giving 15.2 kg. The same is true for non-decimal numbers. For example,

6527.23+2=6528.23=6528.

We cannot report the decimal places in the answer because 2 has no decimal places that would be significant.
Therefore, we can only report to the ones place.
It is a good idea to keep extra significant figures while calculating, and to round off to the correct number of
significant figures only in the final answers. The reason is that small errors from rounding while calculating can
sometimes produce significant errors in the final answer. As an example, try
calculating 5,098−(5.000)×(1,010) to obtain a final answer to only two significant figures. Keeping all significant
during the calculation gives 48. Rounding to two significant figures in the middle of the calculation changes it
to 5,100 – (5.000) × (1,000) = 100,which is way off. You would similarly avoid rounding in the middle of the
calculation in counting and in doing accounting, where many small numbers need to be added and subtracted
accurately to give possibly much larger final numbers.

Significant Figures in this Text

In this textbook, most numbers are assumed to have three significant figures. Furthermore, consistent numbers of
significant figures are used in all worked examples. You will note that an answer given to three digits is based on
input good to at least three digits. If the input has fewer significant figures, the answer will also have fewer
significant figures. Care is also taken that the number of significant figures is reasonable for the situation posed. In
some topics, such as optics, more than three significant figures will be used. Finally, if a number is exact, such as
the 2 in the formula, c=2πr, it does not affect the number of significant figures in a calculation.

Graphing in Physics
 Most results in science are presented in scientific journal articles using graphs. Graphs present data in a way that is
easy to visualize for humans in general, especially someone unfamiliar with what is being studied. They are also
useful for presenting large amounts of data or data with complicated trends in an easily-readable way.

One commonly-used graph in physics and other sciences is the line graph, probably because it is the best graph
for showing how one quantity changes in response to the other. Let’s build a line graph based on the data in Table
1.5, which shows the measured distance that a train travels from its station versus time. Our two variables, or
things that change along the graph, are time in minutes, and distance from the station, in kilometers. Remember
that measured data may not have perfect accuracy.
1. Draw the two axes. The horizontal axis, or x-axis, shows the independent variable, which is the variable that is controlled
or manipulated. The vertical axis, or y-axis, shows the dependent variable, the non-manipulated variable that changes with (or
is dependent on) the value of the independent variable. In the data above, time is the independent variable and should be plotted
on the x-axis. Distance from the station is the dependent variable and should be plotted on the y-axis.
2. Label each axes on the graph with the name of each variable, followed by the symbol for its units in parentheses. Be sure
to leave room so that you can number each axis. In this example, use Time (min) as the label for the x-axis.
3. Next, you must determine the best scale to use for numbering each axis. Because the time values on
the x-axis are taken every 10 minutes, we could easily number the x-axis from 0 to 70 minutes with a tick mark
every 10 minutes. Likewise, the y-axis scale should start low enough and continue high enough to include all of
the distance from station values. A scale from 0 km to 160 km should suffice, perhaps with a tick mark every 10
km.
In general, you want to pick a scale for both axes that 1) shows all of your data, and 2) makes it easy to identify
trends in your data. If you make your scale too large, it will be harder to see how your data change. Likewise, the
smaller and more fine you make your scale, the more space you will need to make the graph. The number of
significant figures in the axis values should be coarser than the number of significant figures in the
measurements.

4. Now that your axes are ready, you can begin plotting your data. For the first data point, count along the x-axis until you
find the 10 min tick mark. Then, count up from that point to the 10 km tick mark on the y-axis, and approximate where 22 km is
along the y-axis. Place a dot at this location. Repeat for the other six data points

5. Add a title to the top of the graph to state what the graph is describing, such as the y-axis parameter vs. the x-axis
parameter. In the graph shown here, the title is train motion. It could also be titled distance of the train from the station vs.
time.
6. Finally, with data points now on the graph, you should draw a trend line (Figure 1.27). The trend line represents the
dependence you think the graph represents, so that the person who looks at your graph can see how close it is to the real
data. In the present case, since the data points look like they ought to fall on a straight line, you would draw a straight line
as the trend line. Draw it to come closest to all the points. Real data may have some inaccuracies, and the plotted points
may not all fall on the trend line. In some cases, none of the data points fall exactly on the trend line.
Analyzing a Graph Using Its Equation

One way to get a quick snapshot of a dataset is to look at the equation of its trend line. If the graph produces a straight line, the
equation of the trend line takes the form
y=mx+b.

The b in the equation is the y-intercept while the m in the equation is the slope. The y-intercept tells you at what yvalue the line
intersects the y-axis. In the case of the graph above, the y-intercept occurs at 0, at the very beginning of the graph. The y-intercept,
therefore, lets you know immediately where on the y-axis the plot line begins.
The m in the equation is the slope. This value describes how much the line on the graph moves up or down on the y-axis along the
line’s length. The slope is found using the following equation
m=Y2−Y1X2−X1.

In order to solve this equation, you need to pick two points on the line (preferably far apart on the line so the slope you calculate
describes the line accurately). The quantities Y2 and Y1 represent the y-values from the two points on the line (not data points) that
you picked, while X2 and X1 represent the two x-values of the those points.
What can the slope value tell you about the graph? The slope of a perfectly horizontal line will equal zero, while the slope of a
perfectly vertical line will be undefined because you cannot divide by zero. A positive slope indicates that the line moves up the y-
axis as the x-value increases while a negative slope means that the line moves down the y-axis. The more negative or positive the
slope is, the steeper the line moves up or down, respectively. The slope of our graph in Figure 1.26 is calculated below based on the
two endpoints of the line
m=Y2−Y1X2−X1m=(80 km) – (20 km)(40 min) – (10 min)m=60 km30 minm=2.0 km/min.

Equation of line:y=(2.0 km/min)x+0

Because the x axis is time in minutes, we would actually be more likely to use the time t as the independent (x-axis) variable and
write the equation as

1.4y=(2.0 km/min)t+0.

The formula y=mx+b only applies to linear relationships, or ones that produce a straight line. Another common type of line in
physics is the quadratic relationship, which occurs when one of the variables is squared. One quadratic relationship in physics is
the relation between the speed of an object its centripetal acceleration, which is used to determine the force needed to keep an
object moving in a circle. Another common relationship in physics is the inverse relationship, in which one variable decreases
whenever the other variable increases. An example in physics is Coulomb’s law. As the distance between two charged objects
increases, the electrical force between the two charged objects decreases. Inverse proportionality, such the relation
between x and y in the equation
y=k/x,

for some number k, is one particular kind of inverse relationship. A third commonly-seen relationship is the exponential
relationship, in which a change in the independent variable produces a proportional change in the dependent variable. As the value
of the dependent variable gets larger, its rate of growth also increases. For example, bacteria often reproduce at an exponential rate
when grown under ideal conditions. As each generation passes, there are more and more bacteria to reproduce. As a result, the
growth rate of the bacterial population increases every generation (Figure 1.28).

Using Logarithmic Scales in Graphing

Sometimes a variable can have a very large range of values. This presents a problem when you’re trying to figure out the best scale
to use for your graph’s axes. One option is to use a logarithmic (log) scale. In a logarithmic scale, the value each mark labels is
the previous mark’s value multiplied by some constant. For a log base 10 scale, each mark labels a value that is 10 times the value
of the mark before it. Therefore, a base 10 logarithmic scale would be numbered: 0, 10, 100, 1,000, etc. You can see how the
logarithmic scale covers a much larger range of values than the corresponding linear scale, in which the marks would label the
values 0, 10, 20, 30, and so on.
If you use a logarithmic scale on one axis of the graph and a linear scale on the other axis, you are using a semi-log plot. The
Richter scale, which measures the strength of earthquakes, uses a semi-log plot. The degree of ground movement is plotted on a
logarithmic scale against the assigned intensity level of the earthquake, which ranges linearly from 1-10 (see Figure 1.29 (a)).
If a graph has both axes in a logarithmic scale, then it is referred to as a log-log plot. The relationship between the wavelength and
frequency of electromagnetic radiation such as light is usually shown as a log-log plot (Figure 1.29(b)). Log-log plots are also
commonly used to describe exponential functions, such as radioactive decay.