This tutorial provides introductory knowledge on Artificial Intelligence.

It
would come to a great help if you are about to select Artificial Intelligence as
a course subject. You can briefly know about the areas of AI in which research
is prospering.

Audience
This tutorial is prepared for the students at beginner level who aspire to learn
Artificial Intelligence.

Prerequisites
The basic knowledge of Computer Science is mandatory. The knowledge of
Mathematics, Languages, Science, Mechanical or Electrical engineering is a
plus.

Since the invention of computers or machines, their capability to perform

various tasks went on growing exponentially. Humans have developed the
power of computer systems in terms of their diverse working domains, their
increasing speed, and reducing size with respect to time.

A branch of Computer Science named Artificial Intelligence pursues creating

the computers or machines as intelligent as human beings.

What is Artificial Intelligence?

According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The
science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent
computer programs”.

Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-

controlled robot, or a software think intelligently, in the similar manner
the intelligent humans think.

AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks, and how humans

learn, decide, and work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the
outcomes of this study as a basis of developing intelligent software and
systems.
Philosophy of AI
While exploiting the power of the computer systems, the curiosity of human,
lead him to wonder, “Can a machine think and behave like humans do?”

Thus, the development of AI started with the intention of creating similar

intelligence in machines that we find and regard high in humans.

Goals of AI
 To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior,
learn, demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.

 To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems that

understand, think, learn, and behave like humans.

What Contributes to AI?

Artificial intelligence is a science and technology based on disciplines such as
Computer Science, Biology, Psychology, Linguistics, Mathematics, and
Engineering. A major thrust of AI is in the development of computer functions
associated with human intelligence, such as reasoning, learning, and problem
solving.

Out of the following areas, one or multiple areas can contribute to build an
intelligent system.
Programming Without and With AI
The programming without and with AI is different in following ways −

Programming Without AI Programming With

AI

A computer program without AI can answer A computer program

the specific questions it is meant to solve. with AI can answer
the generic questions
it is meant to solve.
 AI programs can
absorb new
modifications by
putting highly
independent pieces of
Modification in the program leads to change in its
information together.
structure.
Hence you can modify
even a minute piece
of information of
program without
affecting its structure.

Modification is not quick and easy. It may lead to affecting Quick and Easy
the program adversely. program modification.

What is AI Technique?
In the real world, the knowledge has some unwelcomed properties −

 Its volume is huge, next to unimaginable.

 It is not well-organized or well-formatted.

 It keeps changing constantly.

AI Technique is a manner to organize and use the knowledge efficiently in

such a way that −

 It should be perceivable by the people who provide it.

 It should be easily modifiable to correct errors.

 It should be useful in many situations though it is incomplete or inaccurate.

AI techniques elevate the speed of execution of the complex program it is

equipped with.

Applications of AI
AI has been dominant in various fields such as −

 Gaming − AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-
toe, etc., where machine can think of large number of possible positions based
on heuristic knowledge.
  Natural Language Processing − It is possible to interact with the computer
that understands natural language spoken by humans.

 Expert Systems − There are some applications which integrate machine,

software, and special information to impart reasoning and advising. They provide
explanation and advice to the users.

 Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual

input on the computer. For example,

o A spying aeroplane takes photographs, which are used to figure out spatial
information or map of the areas.

o Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.

o Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with
the stored portrait made by forensic artist.

 Speech Recognition − Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and

comprehending the language in terms of sentences and their meanings while a
human talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang words, noise in the
background, change in human’s noise due to cold, etc.

 Handwriting Recognition − The handwriting recognition software reads the

text written on paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the
shapes of the letters and convert it into editable text.

 Intelligent Robots − Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human.
They have sensors to detect physical data from the real world such as light, heat,
temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure. They have efficient
processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence. In
addition, they are capable of learning from their mistakes and they can adapt to
the new environment.

History of AI
Here is the history of AI during 20th century −

Year Milestone / Innovation

1923 Karel Čapek play named “Rossum's Universal Robots” (RUR) opens in
London, first use of the word "robot" in English.

1943 Foundations for neural networks laid.

1945 Isaac Asimov, a Columbia University alumni, coined the term Robotics.

Alan Turing introduced Turing Test for evaluation of intelligence and

1950 published Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Claude Shannon
published Detailed Analysis of Chess Playing as a search.

John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence. Demonstration of the

1956
first running AI program at Carnegie Mellon University.

1958 John McCarthy invents LISP programming language for AI.

Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT showed that computers can understand

1964
natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems correctly.

Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT built ELIZA, an interactive problem that carries

1965
on a dialogue in English.

Scientists at Stanford Research Institute Developed Shakey, a robot,

1969
equipped with locomotion, perception, and problem solving.

The Assembly Robotics group at Edinburgh University built Freddy, the

1973 Famous Scottish Robot, capable of using vision to locate and assemble
models.

1979 The first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle, Stanford Cart, was built.

1985 Harold Cohen created and demonstrated the drawing program, Aaron.
 Major advances in all areas of AI −

 Significant demonstrations in machine learning

 Case-based reasoning

 Multi-agent planning
1990
 Scheduling

 Data mining, Web Crawler

 natural language understanding and translation

 Vision, Virtual Reality

 Games

The Deep Blue Chess Program beats the then world chess champion, Garry
1997
Kasparov.

Interactive robot pets become commercially available. MIT displays Kismet,

2000 a robot with a face that expresses emotions. The robot Nomad explores
remote regions of Antarctica and locates meteorites.

While studying artificially intelligence, you need to know what intelligence is.
This chapter covers Idea of intelligence, types, and components of
intelligence.

What is Intelligence?
The ability of a system to calculate, reason, perceive relationships and
analogies, learn from experience, store and retrieve information from
memory, solve problems, comprehend complex ideas, use natural language
fluently, classify, generalize, and adapt new situations.

Types of Intelligence
As described by Howard Gardner, an American developmental psychologist,
the Intelligence comes in multifold −
 Intelligence Description Example

The ability to speak,

recognize, and use
mechanisms of phonology Narrators,
Linguistic intelligence
(speech sounds), syntax Orators
(grammar), and semantics
(meaning).

The ability to create,

communicate with, and
Musicians,
understand meanings
Musical intelligence Singers,
made of sound,
Composers
understanding of pitch,
rhythm.

The ability of use and

understand relationships in
the absence of action or Mathematicians,
Logical-mathematical intelligence
objects. Understanding Scientists
complex and abstract
ideas.

The ability to perceive

visual or spatial
information, change it, and
Map readers,
re-create visual images
Spatial intelligence Astronauts,
without reference to the
Physicists
objects, construct 3D
images, and to move and
rotate them.

The ability to use complete

or part of the body to solve
problems or fashion
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence products, control over fine Players, Dancers
and coarse motor skills,
and manipulate the
objects.
 The ability to distinguish
among one’s own feelings,
Intra-personal intelligence Gautam Buddhha
intentions, and
motivations.

The ability to recognize

and make distinctions Mass
Interpersonal intelligence among other people’s Communicators,
feelings, beliefs, and Interviewers
intentions.

You can say a machine or a system is artificially intelligent when it is

equipped with at least one and at most all intelligences in it.

What is Intelligence Composed of?

The intelligence is intangible. It is composed of −

 Reasoning

 Learning

 Problem Solving

 Perception

 Linguistic Intelligence

Let us go through all the components briefly −

 Reasoning − It is the set of processes that enables us to provide basis for

judgement, making decisions, and prediction. There are broadly two types −
 Inductive Reasoning Deductive
Reasoning

It starts with
a general
statement and
examines the
It conducts specific observations to makes broad general
possibilities to
statements.
reach a
specific,
logical
conclusion.

Even if all of the premises are true in a statement, inductive If something

reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false. is true of a
class of things
in general, it
is also true for
all members
of that class.

Example −
"All women of
age above 60
years are
Example − "Nita is a teacher. Nita is studious. Therefore, All grandmothers.
teachers are studious." Shalini is 65
years.
Therefore,
Shalini is a
grandmother."

 Learning − It is the activity of gaining knowledge or skill by studying, practising,

being taught, or experiencing something. Learning enhances the awareness of
the subjects of the study.

The ability of learning is possessed by humans, some animals, and AI-enabled

systems. Learning is categorized as −

o Auditory Learning − It is learning by listening and hearing. For example,

students listening to recorded audio lectures.
 o Episodic Learning − To learn by remembering sequences of events that
one has witnessed or experienced. This is linear and orderly.

o Motor Learning − It is learning by precise movement of muscles. For

example, picking objects, Writing, etc.

o Observational Learning − To learn by watching and imitating others. For

example, child tries to learn by mimicking her parent.

o Perceptual Learning − It is learning to recognize stimuli that one has

seen before. For example, identifying and classifying objects and
situations.

o Relational Learning − It involves learning to differentiate among various

stimuli on the basis of relational properties, rather than absolute
properties. For Example, Adding ‘little less’ salt at the time of cooking
potatoes that came up salty last time, when cooked with adding say a
tablespoon of salt.

o Spatial Learning − It is learning through visual stimuli such as images,

colors, maps, etc. For Example, A person can create roadmap in mind
before actually following the road.

o Stimulus-Response Learning − It is learning to perform a particular

behavior when a certain stimulus is present. For example, a dog raises its
ear on hearing doorbell.

 Problem Solving − It is the process in which one perceives and tries to arrive at
a desired solution from a present situation by taking some path, which is blocked
by known or unknown hurdles.

Problem solving also includes decision making, which is the process of selecting
the best suitable alternative out of multiple alternatives to reach the desired goal
are available.

 Perception − It is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and

organizing sensory information.

Perception presumes sensing. In humans, perception is aided by sensory organs.

In the domain of AI, perception mechanism puts the data acquired by the sensors
together in a meaningful manner.
  Linguistic Intelligence − It is one’s ability to use, comprehend, speak, and write
the verbal and written language. It is important in interpersonal communication.

Difference between Human and Machine

Intelligence
 Humans perceive by patterns whereas the machines perceive by set of rules and
data.

 Humans store and recall information by patterns, machines do it by searching

algorithms. For example, the number 40404040 is easy to remember, store, and
recall as its pattern is simple.

 Humans can figure out the complete object even if some part of it is missing or
distorted; whereas the machines cannot do it correctly.

The domain of artificial intelligence is huge in breadth and width. While

proceeding, we consider the broadly common and prospering research areas
in the domain of AI −
Speech and Voice Recognition
These both terms are common in robotics, expert systems and natural
language processing. Though these terms are used interchangeably, their
objectives are different.

Speech Recognition Voice Recognition

The speech recognition aims at The objective of voice recognition is

understanding and to recognize WHO is speaking.
comprehending WHAT was spoken.
It is used in hand-free computing, map, or It is used to identify a person by
menu navigation. analysing its tone, voice pitch, and
accent, etc.

Machine does not need training for Speech This recognition system needs
Recognition as it is not speaker dependent. training as it is person oriented.

Speaker independent Speech Recognition Speaker dependent Speech

systems are difficult to develop. Recognition systems are
comparatively easy to develop.

Working of Speech and Voice Recognition Systems

The user input spoken at a microphone goes to sound card of the system.
The converter turns the analog signal into equivalent digital signal for the
speech processing. The database is used to compare the sound patterns to
recognize the words. Finally, a reverse feedback is given to the database.

This source-language text becomes input to the Translation Engine, which

converts it to the target language text. They are supported with interactive
GUI, large database of vocabulary, etc.

Real Life Applications of Research Areas

There is a large array of applications where AI is serving common people in
their day-to-day lives −

Sr.No. Research Areas Real Life Application

1 Expert Systems

Examples − Flight-tracking systems, Clinical

systems.
 2 Natural Language Processing

Examples: Google Now feature, speech

recognition, Automatic voice output.

3 Neural Networks

Examples − Pattern recognition systems

such as face recognition, character
recognition, handwriting recognition.

4 Robotics

Examples − Industrial robots for moving,

spraying, painting, precision checking,
drilling, cleaning, coating, carving, etc.

5 Fuzzy Logic Systems

Examples − Consumer electronics,

automobiles, etc.

Task Classification of AI
The domain of AI is classified into Formal tasks, Mundane
tasks, and Expert tasks.
 Task Domains of Artificial Intelligence

Mundane (Ordinary) Formal Tasks Expert Tasks

Tasks

Perception
 Mathematics  Engineering

 Geometry  Fault Finding

 Computer Vision
 Logic  Manufacturing
 Speech, Voice
 Integration and  Monitoring
Differentiation

Natural Language Games Scientific Analysis

Processing
  Understanding  Go

 Language  Chess (Deep Blue)

Generation  Checkers
 Language
Translation

Common Sense Verification Financial Analysis

Reasoning Theorem Proving Medical Diagnosis

Planing Creativity

Robotics


 Locomotive

Humans learn mundane (ordinary) tasks since their birth. They learn by
perception, speaking, using language, and locomotives. They learn Formal
Tasks and Expert Tasks later, in that order.

For humans, the mundane tasks are easiest to learn. The same was
considered true before trying to implement mundane tasks in machines.
Earlier, all work of AI was concentrated in the mundane task domain.

Later, it turned out that the machine requires more knowledge, complex
knowledge representation, and complicated algorithms for handling mundane
tasks. This is the reason why AI work is more prospering in the Expert
Tasks domain now, as the expert task domain needs expert knowledge
without common sense, which can be easier to represent and handle.
MIDTERM

An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment. The agents act

in their environment. The environment may contain other agents.

What are Agent and Environment?

An agent is anything that can perceive its environment
through sensors and acts upon that environment through effectors.

 A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin
parallel to the sensors, and other organs such as hands, legs, mouth, for
effectors.

 A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for the sensors, and
various motors and actuators for effectors.

 A software agent has encoded bit strings as its programs and actions.

Agent Terminology
 Performance Measure of Agent − It is the criteria, which determines how
successful an agent is.

 Behavior of Agent − It is the action that agent performs after any given
sequence of percepts.

 Percept − It is agent’s perceptual inputs at a given instance.

  Percept Sequence − It is the history of all that an agent has perceived till date.

 Agent Function − It is a map from the precept sequence to an action.

Rationality
Rationality is nothing but status of being reasonable, sensible, and having
good sense of judgment.

Rationality is concerned with expected actions and results depending upon

what the agent has perceived. Performing actions with the aim of obtaining
useful information is an important part of rationality.

What is Ideal Rational Agent?

An ideal rational agent is the one, which is capable of doing expected actions
to maximize its performance measure, on the basis of −

 Its percept sequence

 Its built-in knowledge base

Rationality of an agent depends on the following −

 The performance measures, which determine the degree of success.

 Agent’s Percept Sequence till now.

 The agent’s prior knowledge about the environment.

 The actions that the agent can carry out.

A rational agent always performs right action, where the right action means
the action that causes the agent to be most successful in the given percept
sequence. The problem the agent solves is characterized by Performance
Measure, Environment, Actuators, and Sensors (PEAS).

The Structure of Intelligent Agents

Agent’s structure can be viewed as −

 Agent = Architecture + Agent Program

 Architecture = the machinery that an agent executes on.

 Agent Program = an implementation of an agent function.

Simple Reflex Agents

 They choose actions only based on the current percept.

 They are rational only if a correct decision is made only on the basis of current
precept.

 Their environment is completely observable.

Condition-Action Rule − It is a rule that maps a state (condition) to an

action.

Model Based Reflex Agents

They use a model of the world to choose their actions. They maintain an
internal state.

Model − knowledge about “how the things happen in the world”.

Internal State − It is a representation of unobserved aspects of current

state depending on percept history.

Updating the state requires the information about −

 How the world evolves.

 How the agent’s actions affect the world.

Goal Based Agents
They choose their actions in order to achieve goals. Goal-based approach is
more flexible than reflex agent since the knowledge supporting a decision is
explicitly modeled, thereby allowing for modifications.

Goal − It is the description of desirable situations.

Utility Based Agents

They choose actions based on a preference (utility) for each state.
Goals are inadequate when −

 There are conflicting goals, out of which only few can be achieved.

 Goals have some uncertainty of being achieved and you need to weigh likelihood
of success against the importance of a goal.

The Nature of Environments

Some programs operate in the entirely artificial environment confined to
keyboard input, database, computer file systems and character output on a
screen.

In contrast, some software agents (software robots or softbots) exist in rich,

unlimited softbots domains. The simulator has a very detailed, complex
environment. The software agent needs to choose from a long array of
actions in real time. A softbot designed to scan the online preferences of the
customer and show interesting items to the customer works in the real as
well as an artificial environment.

The most famous artificial environment is the Turing Test environment,

in which one real and other artificial agents are tested on equal ground. This
is a very challenging environment as it is highly difficult for a software agent
to perform as well as a human.
Turing Test
The success of an intelligent behavior of a system can be measured with
Turing Test.

Two persons and a machine to be evaluated participate in the test. Out of the
two persons, one plays the role of the tester. Each of them sits in different
rooms. The tester is unaware of who is machine and who is a human. He
interrogates the questions by typing and sending them to both intelligences,
to which he receives typed responses.

This test aims at fooling the tester. If the tester fails to determine machine’s
response from the human response, then the machine is said to be intelligent.

Properties of Environment
The environment has multifold properties −

 Discrete / Continuous − If there are a limited number of distinct, clearly

defined, states of the environment, the environment is discrete (For example,
chess); otherwise it is continuous (For example, driving).

 Observable / Partially Observable − If it is possible to determine the complete

state of the environment at each time point from the percepts it is observable;
otherwise it is only partially observable.

 Static / Dynamic − If the environment does not change while an agent is acting,
then it is static; otherwise it is dynamic.

 Single agent / Multiple agents − The environment may contain other agents
which may be of the same or different kind as that of the agent.

 Accessible / Inaccessible − If the agent’s sensory apparatus can have access

to the complete state of the environment, then the environment is accessible to
that agent.

 Deterministic / Non-deterministic − If the next state of the environment is

completely determined by the current state and the actions of the agent, then
the environment is deterministic; otherwise it is non-deterministic.

 Episodic / Non-episodic − In an episodic environment, each episode consists

of the agent perceiving and then acting. The quality of its action depends just on
the episode itself. Subsequent episodes do not depend on the actions in the
 previous episodes. Episodic environments are much simpler because the agent
does not need to think ahead.

Searching is the universal technique of problem solving in AI. There are some
single-player games such as tile games, Sudoku, crossword, etc. The search
algorithms help you to search for a particular position in such games.

Single Agent Pathfinding Problems

The games such as 3X3 eight-tile, 4X4 fifteen-tile, and 5X5 twenty four tile
puzzles are single-agent-path-finding challenges. They consist of a matrix of
tiles with a blank tile. The player is required to arrange the tiles by sliding a
tile either vertically or horizontally into a blank space with the aim of
accomplishing some objective.

The other examples of single agent pathfinding problems are Travelling

Salesman Problem, Rubik’s Cube, and Theorem Proving.

Search Terminology
 Problem Space − It is the environment in which the search takes place. (A set
of states and set of operators to change those states)

 Problem Instance − It is Initial state + Goal state.

 Problem Space Graph − It represents problem state. States are shown by nodes
and operators are shown by edges.

 Depth of a problem − Length of a shortest path or shortest sequence of

operators from Initial State to goal state.

 Space Complexity − The maximum number of nodes that are stored in memory.

 Time Complexity − The maximum number of nodes that are created.

 Admissibility − A property of an algorithm to always find an optimal solution.

 Branching Factor − The average number of child nodes in the problem space
graph.

 Depth − Length of the shortest path from initial state to goal state.
Brute-Force Search Strategies
They are most simple, as they do not need any domain-specific knowledge.
They work fine with small number of possible states.

Requirements −

 State description

 A set of valid operators

 Initial state

 Goal state description

Breadth-First Search
It starts from the root node, explores the neighboring nodes first and moves
towards the next level neighbors. It generates one tree at a time until the
solution is found. It can be implemented using FIFO queue data structure.
This method provides shortest path to the solution.

If branching factor (average number of child nodes for a given node) = b

and depth = d, then number of nodes at level d = bd.

The total no of nodes created in worst case is b + b2 + b3 + … + bd.

Disadvantage − Since each level of nodes is saved for creating next one, it
consumes a lot of memory space. Space requirement to store nodes is
exponential.

Its complexity depends on the number of nodes. It can check duplicate nodes.
Depth-First Search
It is implemented in recursion with LIFO stack data structure. It creates the
same set of nodes as Breadth-First method, only in the different order.

As the nodes on the single path are stored in each iteration from root to leaf
node, the space requirement to store nodes is linear. With branching
factor band depth as m, the storage space is bm.

Disadvantage − This algorithm may not terminate and go on infinitely on

one path. The solution to this issue is to choose a cut-off depth. If the ideal
cut-off is d, and if chosen cut-off is lesser than d, then this algorithm may
fail. If chosen cut-off is more than d, then execution time increases.

Its complexity depends on the number of paths. It cannot check duplicate

nodes.

Bidirectional Search
It searches forward from initial state and backward from goal state till both
meet to identify a common state.

The path from initial state is concatenated with the inverse path from the
goal state. Each search is done only up to half of the total path.

Uniform Cost Search

Sorting is done in increasing cost of the path to a node. It always expands
the least cost node. It is identical to Breadth First search if each transition
has the same cost.

It explores paths in the increasing order of cost.

Disadvantage − There can be multiple long paths with the cost ≤ C*.
Uniform Cost search must explore them all.

Iterative Deepening Depth-First Search

It performs depth-first search to level 1, starts over, executes a complete
depth-first search to level 2, and continues in such way till the solution is
found.

It never creates a node until all lower nodes are generated. It only saves a
stack of nodes. The algorithm ends when it finds a solution at depth d. The
number of nodes created at depth d is bd and at depth d-1 is bd-1.

Comparison of Various Algorithms Complexities

Let us see the performance of algorithms based on various criteria −

Breadth Depth Uniform Interactive

Criterion Bidirectional
First First Cost Deepening

Time bd bm bd/2 bd bd

Space bd bm bd/2 bd bd

Optimality Yes No Yes Yes Yes

Completeness Yes No Yes Yes Yes

Informed (Heuristic) Search Strategies

To solve large problems with large number of possible states, problem-
specific knowledge needs to be added to increase the efficiency of search
algorithms.

Heuristic Evaluation Functions

They calculate the cost of optimal path between two states. A heuristic
function for sliding-tiles games is computed by counting number of moves
that each tile makes from its goal state and adding these number of moves
for all tiles.

Pure Heuristic Search

It expands nodes in the order of their heuristic values. It creates two lists, a
closed list for the already expanded nodes and an open list for the created
but unexpanded nodes.

In each iteration, a node with a minimum heuristic value is expanded, all its
child nodes are created and placed in the closed list. Then, the heuristic
function is applied to the child nodes and they are placed in the open list
according to their heuristic value. The shorter paths are saved and the longer
ones are disposed.

A * Search
It is best-known form of Best First search. It avoids expanding paths that are
already expensive, but expands most promising paths first.

f(n) = g(n) + h(n), where

 g(n) the cost (so far) to reach the node

 h(n) estimated cost to get from the node to the goal

 f(n) estimated total cost of path through n to goal. It is implemented using

priority queue by increasing f(n).
Greedy Best First Search
It expands the node that is estimated to be closest to goal. It expands nodes
based on f(n) = h(n). It is implemented using priority queue.

Disadvantage − It can get stuck in loops. It is not optimal.

Local Search Algorithms

They start from a prospective solution and then move to a neighboring
solution. They can return a valid solution even if it is interrupted at any time
before they end.

Hill-Climbing Search
It is an iterative algorithm that starts with an arbitrary solution to a problem
and attempts to find a better solution by changing a single element of the
solution incrementally. If the change produces a better solution, an
incremental change is taken as a new solution. This process is repeated until
there are no further improvements.

function Hill-Climbing (problem), returns a state that is a local maximum.

inputs: problem, a problem
local variables: current, a node
neighbor, a node
current <-Make_Node(Initial-State[problem])
loop
do neighbor <- a highest_valued successor of current
if Value[neighbor] ≤ Value[current] then
return State[current]
current <- neighbor

end

Disadvantage − This algorithm is neither complete, nor optimal.

Local Beam Search

In this algorithm, it holds k number of states at any given time. At the start,
these states are generated randomly. The successors of these k states are
computed with the help of objective function. If any of these successors is
the maximum value of the objective function, then the algorithm stops.

Otherwise the (initial k states and k number of successors of the states = 2k)
states are placed in a pool. The pool is then sorted numerically. The highest
k states are selected as new initial states. This process continues until a
maximum value is reached.
function BeamSearch( problem, k), returns a solution state.
start with k randomly generated states
loop
generate all successors of all k states
if any of the states = solution, then return the state
else select the k best successors
end

Simulated Annealing
Annealing is the process of heating and cooling a metal to change its internal
structure for modifying its physical properties. When the metal cools, its new
structure is seized, and the metal retains its newly obtained properties. In
simulated annealing process, the temperature is kept variable.

We initially set the temperature high and then allow it to ‘cool' slowly as the
algorithm proceeds. When the temperature is high, the algorithm is allowed
to accept worse solutions with high frequency.

Start

 Initialize k = 0; L = integer number of variables;

 From i → j, search the performance difference Δ.

 If Δ <= 0 then accept else if exp(-Δ/T(k)) > random(0,1) then accept;

 Repeat steps 1 and 2 for L(k) steps.

 k = k + 1;

Repeat steps 1 through 4 till the criteria is met.

End

Travelling Salesman Problem

In this algorithm, the objective is to find a low-cost tour that starts from a
city, visits all cities en-route exactly once and ends at the same starting city.
Start
Find out all (n -1)! Possible solutions, where n is the total number of cities.
Determine the minimum cost by finding out the cost of each of these (n -1)! solutions.
Finally, keep the one with the minimum cost.
end
Fuzzy Logic Systems (FLS) produce acceptable but definite output in response
to incomplete, ambiguous, distorted, or inaccurate (fuzzy) input.

What is Fuzzy Logic?

Fuzzy Logic (FL) is a method of reasoning that resembles human reasoning.
The approach of FL imitates the way of decision making in humans that
involves all intermediate possibilities between digital values YES and NO.

The conventional logic block that a computer can understand takes precise
input and produces a definite output as TRUE or FALSE, which is equivalent
to human’s YES or NO.

The inventor of fuzzy logic, Lotfi Zadeh, observed that unlike computers, the
human decision making includes a range of possibilities between YES and NO,
such as −
CERTAINLY YES

POSSIBLY YES

CANNOT SAY

POSSIBLY NO

CERTAINLY NO
The fuzzy logic works on the levels of possibilities of input to achieve the
definite output.

Implementation
 It can be implemented in systems with various sizes and capabilities ranging from
small micro-controllers to large, networked, workstation-based control systems.

 It can be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination of both.

Why Fuzzy Logic?

Fuzzy logic is useful for commercial and practical purposes.

 It can control machines and consumer products.

 It may not give accurate reasoning, but acceptable reasoning.

 Fuzzy logic helps to deal with the uncertainty in engineering.

Fuzzy Logic Systems Architecture

It has four main parts as shown −

 Fuzzification Module − It transforms the system inputs, which are crisp

numbers, into fuzzy sets. It splits the input signal into five steps such as −

LP x is Large Positive

MP x is Medium Positive

S x is Small

MN x is Medium Negative

LN x is Large Negative

 Knowledge Base − It stores IF-THEN rules provided by experts.

 Inference Engine − It simulates the human reasoning process by making fuzzy

inference on the inputs and IF-THEN rules.

 Defuzzification Module − It transforms the fuzzy set obtained by the inference

engine into a crisp value.
The membership functions work on fuzzy sets of variables.

Membership Function
Membership functions allow you to quantify linguistic term and represent a
fuzzy set graphically. A membership function for a fuzzy set A on the
universe of discourse X is defined as μA:X → [0,1].

Here, each element of X is mapped to a value between 0 and 1. It is

called membership value or degree of membership. It quantifies the
degree of membership of the element in X to the fuzzy set A.

 x axis represents the universe of discourse.

 y axis represents the degrees of membership in the [0, 1] interval.

There can be multiple membership functions applicable to fuzzify a numerical

value. Simple membership functions are used as use of complex functions
does not add more precision in the output.

All membership functions for LP, MP, S, MN, and LN are shown as below −
The triangular membership function shapes are most common among various
other membership function shapes such as trapezoidal, singleton, and
Gaussian.

Here, the input to 5-level fuzzifier varies from -10 volts to +10 volts. Hence
the corresponding output also changes.

Example of a Fuzzy Logic System

Let us consider an air conditioning system with 5-level fuzzy logic system.
This system adjusts the temperature of air conditioner by comparing the
room temperature and the target temperature value.
Algorithm

 Define linguistic Variables and terms (start)

 Construct membership functions for them. (start)

 Construct knowledge base of rules (start)

 Convert crisp data into fuzzy data sets using membership functions.
(fuzzification)

 Evaluate rules in the rule base. (Inference Engine)

 Combine results from each rule. (Inference Engine)

 Convert output data into non-fuzzy values. (defuzzification)

Development
Step 1 − Define linguistic variables and terms

Linguistic variables are input and output variables in the form of simple words
or sentences. For room temperature, cold, warm, hot, etc., are linguistic
terms.

Temperature (t) = {very-cold, cold, warm, very-warm, hot}

Every member of this set is a linguistic term and it can cover some portion of
overall temperature values.

Step 2 − Construct membership functions for them

The membership functions of temperature variable are as shown −

Step3 − Construct knowledge base rules

Create a matrix of room temperature values versus target temperature

values that an air conditioning system is expected to provide.

RoomTemp.
Very_Cold Cold Warm Hot Very_Hot
/Target

Very_Cold No_Change Heat Heat Heat Heat

Cold Cool No_Change Heat Heat Heat

Warm Cool Cool No_Change Heat Heat

Hot Cool Cool Cool No_Change Heat

Very_Hot Cool Cool Cool Cool No_Change

Build a set of rules into the knowledge base in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE
structures.

Sr. No. Condition Action

IF temperature=(Cold OR Very_Cold) AND target=Warm Heat

1
THEN

IF temperature=(Hot OR Very_Hot) AND target=Warm Cool

2
THEN

3 IF (temperature=Warm) AND (target=Warm) THEN No_Change

Step 4 − Obtain fuzzy value

Fuzzy set operations perform evaluation of rules. The operations used for OR
and AND are Max and Min respectively. Combine all results of evaluation to
form a final result. This result is a fuzzy value.

Step 5 − Perform defuzzification

Defuzzification is then performed according to membership function for

output variable.
Application Areas of Fuzzy Logic
The key application areas of fuzzy logic are as given −

Automotive Systems

 Automatic Gearboxes

 Four-Wheel Steering

 Vehicle environment control

Consumer Electronic Goods

 Hi-Fi Systems

 Photocopiers

 Still and Video Cameras

 Television

Domestic Goods

 Microwave Ovens

 Refrigerators

 Toasters

 Vacuum Cleaners

 Washing Machines
Environment Control

 Air Conditioners/Dryers/Heaters

 Humidifiers

Advantages of FLSs
 Mathematical concepts within fuzzy reasoning are very simple.

 You can modify a FLS by just adding or deleting rules due to flexibility of fuzzy
logic.

 Fuzzy logic Systems can take imprecise, distorted, noisy input information.

 FLSs are easy to construct and understand.

 Fuzzy logic is a solution to complex problems in all fields of life, including medicine,
as it resembles human reasoning and decision making.

Disadvantages of FLSs
 There is no systematic approach to fuzzy system designing.

 They are understandable only when simple.

 They are suitable for the problems which do not need high accuracy.