Chapter 8 Antenna Theory

8-1 Calculation of EM Fields of Antennas

L. J. Chu (朱蘭成): 朱蘭成院士生於民國 2 年，民國 62 年逝世。民國 47 年 4 月

當選第二屆中研院院士，是電磁波及雷達研究方面的三大國際權威之一。

Y. T. Lo (羅遠梓): Yuen Tze Lo (MSEE’49, PhD’52) died in 2002.

He was 82. Lo invented the broadband television receiving antenna,
and he developed the cavity model theory for microstrip patch
antennas now used in global positioning systems (GPS). In 1986,
Lo was elected to the National Academy of Engineering for
inventions and innovative ideas that significantly advanced the
theory and design of antennas and arrays.

J. A. Kong(孔金甌): 孔教授 1942 年出生於中國江蘇，2007 年去世，享年 65 歲。

孔教授是孔子第七十四代孫，為臺大電機學士，交大碩士，美國 Syracuse 大學
博士，他自 1969 年任教麻省理工學院電機系，為電磁波泰斗，曾出版 30 本電
磁學著作和 700 篇研究論文。

   Je  jkR  1 
Case 1 Given J ( x, y , z , t ) , A
4 
v'
R
dv' , H   A,

 1 
E  H
j

1 e  jkR  
4 
Case 2 Given  ( x, y , z , t ) , V  dv' , J   ,
V'
R t

 A 1 
E  V    H
t j

Eg. (a) Assume the spatial distribution of the current on a very thin center-fed
half-wave dipole lying along the z-axis to be I0cos(βz), where β=2π/λ. Find the
charge distribution on the dipole.
 j dI ( z ) 
(Sol.)   J   j      j I 0 sin  z
 dz 

Stratton-Chu formulas for calculating EM Fields of antennas: (by L. J. Chu)

       
E (r )   [ jGJ   ' G  J
V'
m  ' G ]dV '  [ jG ( aˆ n  H )  ( aˆ n  E )' G  (aˆ n  E )  ' G
S'

   m    
H (r )  [ jGJ
V'
m 

' G  J  ' G ]dV '  [ jG (aˆ n  E )  ( aˆ n  H )' G  (aˆ n  H )  ' G
S'
 e  jkr
where G  is Green’s function in the free space.
4r
Elemental electrical dipole (Hertzian dipole):


p  zˆQd

dQ I
I    j Q , Q  
dt j

  Id e  jR  Id e  jR  aˆ A  aˆ A  aˆ A

 A  zˆ 0   (aˆ R cos   aˆ sin  ) 0  R R    
4 R 4 R

  0 Id e  jR
A
 R  A z cos   ( ) cos 
 4  R
  Id e  jR
  A   Az sin    0 ( ) sin  
 4 R
 A  0


 1 1  AR
H   A  aˆ  [ ( RA )  ]
0  0 R R 
Id 2 1 1
 aˆ   sin   [  ]e  jR
4 j R ( j R) 2
 1  1 1  1 
E  H  [aˆ R ( H  sin  )  aˆ ( RH  )]
j 0 j 0 R sin   R R

 Id 1 1  j R
 E R   4  0  2 cos  [ ( jR) 2  ( jR) 3 ]e
2


 Id 1 1 1
  E    0  2 sin  [   ]e  jR
 4 j R ( j  R ) ( j R )
2 3

 E  0, where    /   120 ()

  0 0 0

Far field of a Hertzian dipole: if βR=2πR/λ>>1
Id e  jR Id e  jR
H  j ( )  sin  , E  j ( ) 0  sin 
4 R 4 R


Elemental magnetic dipoles: m  zˆIS  zˆm
   0 I e  j R  1

4  R1
m  zˆIb  zˆm
2  A  d '

e  jR1  e  jR e  j ( R1  R )  e  jR [1  j ( R1  R)]

 
  0 I  j R d '    m
A e [(1  j R )   j  d ']  A  aˆ 0 (1  jR )e  jR sin 
4 R1 4R 2
 1   1 
H    A and E   H
0 j 0

 j 0 m 2 1 1
 E   sin  [  ]e  jR
 4 j  R ( j R ) 2

 j m 1 1
 H R   0  2 2 cos [  ]e  jR
 40 ( j R ) ( j R )
2 3

 j m 2 1 1 1
H    0  sin  [   ]e  jR
 40 j R ( j  R ) ( j R )
2 3

Far field of an elemental magnetic dipoles:

 0 m e  jR  0 m e  jR
E  ( )  sin  , H    ( )  sin 
4 R 4 0 R

Eg. A small filamentary rectangular loop of dimensions Lx and Ly lies in the xy-
plane with its center at the origin and sides parallel to the x- and y-axes. The loop
carries a current i(t)=I0cos(ωt). Assuming Lx and Ly to be much less than the
wavelength, find the expressions for the following quantities at a point in the far
zone: (a) vector magnetic potential, (b) electric field intensity, (c) magnetic field
intensity.
   0 I 0 cos tL x L y
(Sol.) (a) m  zˆI 0 cos tL x L y , A  aˆ (1  jR)e  jR  sin 
4R
 0 I 0 cos tLx L y e  jR
(b) E  ( )  sin 
4 R
 0 I 0 cos tL x L y e  jR
H
(c)    ( )  sin 
4 0 R

Eg. A composite antenna consists of an elemental Hertzian electric dipole of

length L along the z-axis and an elemental magnetic dipole of area S lying in the
xy-plane. Equal time-harmonic currents of amplitude I0 and angular frequency
ω flow in the dipoles. (a) Verify that the far field of the composite antenna is
elliptically polarized. (b) Determine the condition for circular polarization.
 jI 0 L e  j R  0 I 0 S e  j R
(Sol.) (a) E  ˆ
a    sin   ˆ
a   sin   aˆ E  aˆ E
4
0
R 4 0 R
 0 S
(b) E  E   0 L 
0
Duality between elemental electric and magnetic dipoles: (Ee, He) due to electric
dipole and (Em, Hm) due to magnetic dipole
E
E e   0 H m , H e   m , Id  jm  jIS , d  S
0
8-2 Radiation Patterns of Antennas
Half-power beam width: Angular width
of main beam between the half-power (-
3dB) points

Sidelobe level: (|Emax| in one sidelobe)/( |

Emax| in main beam)

Null positions: Directions which have

no radiations in the far-field zone.

 2
4U 4 E max 2
Directivity: D= P max  2   2 , where U=R2Pav  R 2
E
r
 0 
0
E ( ,  ) sin dd

2  2
and Pr=  Pav dS   Ud  R 2 0 0 E sin dd is the time-average radiated

power
 2
4U ( ,  ) 4 E ( ,  )
Directivity gain: GD(θ,  )= Pr
 2   2 , ∴

0 0
E ( ,  ) sin dd

D=(GD)max
4U max
Power gain: GP = , where Pi= Pr+Pl, Pi: total input power, Pl: loss
Pi
Radiation efficiency: ηr= GP/D=Pr/Pi

Eg. Find the directive gain and the directivity of a Hertzian dipole.

1 1
(Sol.) Pav  Re E  H *  E H ,U
( Id) 2
32 2
 0  2 sin 2  .

2 2
4 sin 2  3
G D ( ,  )  2 
 sin 2  , D  G (  ,  ) =1.5=1.76 (dB).
2
  (sin  ) sin dd
2 D
2
0 0

Eg. Find the radiation resistance of a Hertzian dipole.

1 2 

2 0 
(Sol.) Pr  E H * R 2 sin dd
0
 I 2 (d) 2 2  I 2 (d) 2 I2 d I2
= 0  2   sin 3 dd   0  2  [80 2 ( ) 2 ]  Rr
32 2 0 0 12 2  2
d 2
∴ Rr  80 2 ( )

Eg. Find the radiation efficiency of an isolated Hertzian dipole made of a metal
wire of radius a, length d, and conductivity σ.
1 2 1
(Sol.) The ohmic power loss is P  I R . The radiated power is Pr  I 2 Rr
2 2
Pr 1 d
r   , R  R s ( ),
Pr  P 1  ( R / Rr ) 2a
1
f 0  
where Rs   r Rs  
 1 ( )( )
160 a d
3

Assume that a=1.8mm, d  2m , f  1.5MHz , and  = 5.80  10 7 ( S / m)


c
 200( m) , R    (1.50  10 6 )  (4 10 7 )
f s  3.20  10  4 () ,
5.80  10 7
2 2 2
R  3.20  10  4  ( )  0.057() , Rr  80 2 ( )  0.079() and
2 1.8  10 3
200
0.079
r   58%
0.079  0.057

Eg. A 1MHz uniform current flows in a vertical antenna of the length 15m. The
antenna is a center-fed copper rod having a radius of 2cm. Find (a) the radiation
resistance, (b) the radiation efficiency, (c) the maximum electric field intensity at
a distance of 20km, the radiated power of the antenna is 1.6kW.
3  10 8
(Sol.)   6
 300m  15m  d , a=0.02m, σcopper=5.8×107,
10

f c
Rs  =2.6×10-4
c

Rs
(a) Rr  80 2 (15 / 300) 2  1.97 , (b)  r  1 /(1  )  98%
160 ( / a )( / d)
3

I 2 (d) 2 Id  0 
(c) Pr   0  2 =1600  E ( )  1.9  10  2 V / m
12 max
4 R
Eg. A time-harmonic uniform current I0cos(ωt) flows in a small circular loop of
radius b(<<λ) lying in the xy-plane. (a) Find the radiation resistance Rr of the
magnetic dipole. (b) Obtain an expression for its radiation efficiency ηr if the loop
is made of radius a.
b 2 2 b
(Sol.) (a) Duality  d  b 2  Rr  80 2 ( )  320 6 ( ) 4
 
1
r 
(b) Rs  
1 ( )( )
160 a b 2
3

Eg. The amplitude of the time-harmonic current distribution on a center-fed

short dipole antenna of length 2h (h<<λ) can be approximated by a triangular
z
function I ( z )  I 0 (1  ) . Find (a) the far-zone electric and magnetic field
h
intensities, (b) the radiation resistance, and (c) the directivity.
jI ( z )dz e  j R jR
(Sol.) (a) dE   0  sin  , R=R0-zcosθ in e-jβR, H   I 0 e  jR sin 
4 R 4R
h jI 0 z e  j ( R0  z ) jI 60 1  cos(h cos ) j 30h
E   (1  )   0  sin   dz  0 e  jR0 sin    I 0 e  jR sin 
h 4 h R0 R0 h cos 
2
R
1 2  I 02 h h
2 0 
(b) Pr  E H * R 2 sin dd  [80 2 ( ) 2 ]  Rr  80 2 ( ) 2
0 2  
2
4 E max
(c) D  2 
 1.5
 
2
E sin dd
0 0
8-3 Linear Dipole Antennas and Effective Lengths

I m sin  (h  z), z  0
Assume I(z)=I sinβ(h-|z|)= 
m

I m sin  (h  z), z  0
h I ( z ) dz e  jR '
Eθ=η0Hφ= 0  h  sin 
4 R'
( R  h, R '  ( R 2  z 2  2 Rz cos )1 / 2  R  z cos  )
I m 0  sin   jR h j 60 I m  jR
 Eθ  j e  sin  (h  z )e jz cos  dz  e  F ( )
4R  h R
cos( h cos  )  cos h
where F(θ)=
sin 
Half-wave dipole: 2h=λ/2, βh=π/2

 j60I m  jR  cos[( / 2) cos  ] 

E
 


R
e 
 sin 



1 * 15I cos[( / 2) cos ] 
2 2

  Pav  E H   m

H  jI m e  jR  cos[( / 2) cos  ]  2 R  sin 
2
  2R 
 sin 

 
Half-power beam width of a half-wave dipole:   1   2  78 , where θ1 and θ2
cos(( / 2) cos  ) 1
are two roots of  .
sin  2
2  cos 2 [( / 2) cos ]
 I m2
Pr = 0 Pav R 2 sin dd  30 I m2  d   36. 54 I 2
m ( w)  Rr
0 0 sin  2
15 4U max
 Rr=73.1Ω and Umax=R2Pav(θ=π/2)= I m2  D  =1.64>1.5
 Pr

Radiation patterns of linear dipoles:

E-plane radiation patterns for center-fed dipole antennas
Effective length of a transmitting linear dipole antenna, le(θ):

E   0 H   j
I m 0  sin   jR h
4R
e h
sin  (h  z )e jz cos  dz 
j 30  jR
R
e
h

h

sin   I ( z )e jz cos  dz 
j 30 I (0) sin  h

R
e  jR   ( ) , where le(θ)=
I ( 0) h
I ( z )e jz cos  dz is the effective

length.
1 h
Maximum of le(θ) occurs when θ=π/2  le(θ=π/2)=
I (0) 
h
I ( z )dz

Note: le=-Voc/Ei is the effective length of a receiving linear dipole antenna = that of
transmitting one.
Eg. Assume a sinusoidal current distribution on a center-fed, thin, straight half-
wave dipole. Find its effective length. What is its maximum value?
(Sol.) I(0)=Im, h=λ/4,

sin  /4  cos( cos )  2 
e ( ) 
I (0) 
 /4
I m sin  (
4
 z )e jz cos  dz 2
 [ 2 ] , e ( ) 
2

 
 sin 

Eg. A 1.5MHz uniform plane wave having a peak electric field intensity E0 is
incident on a half-wave dipole at an angle θ. (a) Find the expression for the open-
circuit voltage Voc at the terminals of the dipole. (b) If the dipole is connected to
a matched load, what is the maximum power PL delivered to the load?

cos( cos  )
(Sol.) (a)  E 2 ,   200m
Voc   E0 e   0
[ ]
 sin 
2
1 V0 c Voc2
(b) PL  RL 
2 Rr  R L 8 Rr

Eg. The transmitting antenna of a radio navigation system is a vertical metal

mast 40m in height insulated from the earth. A 180kHz source sends a current
having an amplitude of 100A into the base of the mast and the earth to be a
perfectly conducting plane, determine: (a) the effective length of the antenna (b)
the maximum field intensity at a distance 160km from the antenna (c) the total
radiated power.
1 h z h I0 30 I 0  h
(Sol.) (a) e 
I0 0
I 0 (1  ) dz   20m , (b) E
h 2 max

4R
 0   2  
R
2
1  2 E 2 I 
2 0
(c) Pr  2R 2 sin d   0 ( 0 ) 2  1.14kW
0 3 4
 Monopole antenna: Pr=18.27Im2W,
and Rr=2Pr/Im2=36.54Ω is exactly one-
half of the radiation resistance of a
half-wave antenna in the free space.
D=2πUmax/Pr=1.64 is the same as the
directivity of a half-wave antenna.

8-4 Traveling–wave Antenna

Idz e  jR
I ( z )  I 0 e  jz , dE 0  j ( ) 0  sin  for a small dipole Idz
4 R
j 0  sin   jR L j 60 I 0  j [ R  ( L / 2 )(1cos )]
E 
4r
e 0
I ( z )e jz cos  dz 
R
e F ( ) , where

sin  sin[ L(1  cos  ) / 2]

F ( ) 
1  cos 

Some examples of coplanar antennas (by H. –C. Chen and Dr. I-Fong Chen):

X-Y Plane X-Z Plane Y-Z Plane

Test Result

Freq. X-Y Plane X-Z Plane Y-Z Plane

(MHz) Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal
2400 1.87 1.71 -10.04 -0.42 -12.74 2.26
2450 1.66 1.14 -10.00 -0.80 -13.37 1.55
2500 1.47 0.88 -10.42 -0.09 -13.68 1.93
Unit：dBi
2.4G~2.5GHz 的量測結果表
90 90
5 5
2400MHz X-Y Plane 2500MHz X-Y Plane
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
-20 -20
-25 -25
-30 -30
-35 -35
-40 -40
-45 -45
180 -50 180 -50

Max = 1.87 dBi Max = 1.47 dBi

Avg = -3.06 dBi Avg = -2.62 dBi
270 270
The Impedance of the Tab Monopole in the Smith Chart

The S11 parameter of the Tab Monopole

The VSWR of Tab Monopole
Test Result
X-Y Plane X-Z Plane Y-Z Plane
Freq.
(MHz) Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal

2400 1.57 1.30 -13.78 -0.76 -13.11 1.81

2450 1.24 0.84 -12.96 -0.87 -10.89 1.41

2500 1.10 1.31 -11.09 -0.43 -11.79 0.86

Unit：dBi
2.4G~2.5GHz 的量測結果表
The Impedance of the Semi-Circular Tab Monopole in the Smith Chart
The S11 parameter of the Semi-Circular Tab Monopole

The VSWR of the Semi-Circular Tab Monopole

8-5 Helical Antenna

Axial mode (s, 2b  λ): Its mainbeam placed in the endfire direction.
 N 0 I e  jR
E  aˆ E  aˆ E  ( )(aˆ js  aˆ b 2 ) sin  : Elliptically-polarized.
4 R
1 s
If s =βπb2 or b= , it becomes circularly-polarized.
 2

Eg. A helical antenna operating in the normal mode has N turns with diameter
2b and interturn spacing s. Both 2b and s are very small in comparison to  / N
and are adjusted to radiate circularly polarized waves. Find (a) its directive gain
and directivity, (b) its radiation resistance.
 N0 I e  jR
(Sol.) (a) E  ( )[aˆ js  aˆ b 2 ] sin  ,
4 R
 1  N  I e  j R
H  aˆ R  E  ( )[aˆ js  aˆ b 2 ] sin 
0 4 R
1    2 0
Circularly polarized: s =βπb , U  R aˆ R  Pav  R aˆ R Re[ E  H ] 
2 2 2
( NIs ) 2 sin 2 
2 16 2
2   2 0 4U 3 
Pr    U sin dd  ( NIs ) 2  G D  P  2 sin  , D  G D ( )  1.5
2

0 0 b r 2
2 P  ( NIs) 2
(b) Rr  2r  0  40( N 2b 2 ) 2
I 3

Note: Receiving antenna’s pattern is identical with transmitting one’s.

8-6 Antenna Arrays
Two-element antenna array: (In case of no coupling between antennas)
R1  R0  d sin  cos 
e  jR0 e j e  jR1
E  E 0  E1  E m F ( ,  )[  ]
R0 R1
F ( ,  )  jR0
 Em e [1  e jd sin  cos  e j ]
R0
F ( ,  )  jR0 j / 2 
 Em e e (2 cos ) , where Ψ=βdsinθcosφ+ξ
R0 2
2Em 
 E  F ( ,  )  cos =Element Factor×Array Factor
R.0 2

Eg. Plot the H-plane radiation patterns of two parallel dipoles for the following
two cases: (a) d   / 2,   0 , (b) d   / 4,    / 2 .
(Sol.) Let the dipole is z-directed
 1
In the H-plane (   / 2) : A( )  cos  cos ( d cos    )
2 2

 
(a) A( )  cos( cos  ) , (b) A( )  cos (cos   1)
2 4

General Uniform Linear Arrays:

Normalized array factor in the xy-plane (θ=π/2):

1
A( )  1  e j  e j 2   ...  e j ( N 1) 
N
1 1  e jN 1 sin( N / 2)
 j = , where Ψ=βdsin(θ)cosφ+ξ=βdcosφ+ξ if θ=π/2
N 1 e N sin(  / 2)


Mainbeam direction, φ0: ∵ Max at Ψ=0, ∴ βdcosφ0+ξ=0  cos  0 
d

N
Null locations:   k , k=1,2,3,…
2
N 
Sidelobe locations:   (2m  1) , m=1, 2, 3, …
2 2
 N 3 1 1
The first sidelobe level:  , A( )   0.212 ( as N  )
2 2 N sin( 2 / 3N )


Broadside array ( 0   ,   0) : |Emax| occurs at a direction ⊥ the line of arrays.
2
Endfire array ( 0  0,    d ) : |Emax| occurs at a direction // the line of arrays.
N1 N2 4
Beamwidth between two first nulls:  ,    1  2 
2 2 N
4
2   ( d cos 1   )  ( d cos  2   )  d (cos 1  cos  2 ) 
N
Let 1   0   ,  2   0  
 
( 0  )    sin 1 ( ) for a broadside array.
2 Nd
2
( 0  0)    for an endfire array.
Nd
Eg. For a uniform linear array of 12 elements spaced λ/2 apart. Sketch the
normalized array pattern A( ) .
 1 sin( N / 2) 1 sin( 6 )
(Sol.) d  , d   , A(  )  
2 N sin(  / 2) 12 sin(  / 2)

Endfire     ,   d cos      cos      (cos   1)

Broadside    0,   d cos      cos 

sin(6) 1 9.55( / d )
  2   
deg ree for endfire array
Half-power point:
12 sin( / 2) 2
deg ree for broadside array

46.78  / d
Eg. Consider a five-element broadside binomial array. (a) Determine the relative
excitation amplitudes in the array elements. (b) Plot the array factor for d=λ/2.
(c) Determine the half-power beamwidth and compare it with that of a five-
element uniform array having the same element spacings.
(Sol.) 1:4:6:4:1, broadside    0
1 1
(a) A( )  1  4e j  6e j 2   4e j 3  e j 4   6  8 cos   2 cos 2 , where
16 16
  d cos   

 1
(b) d  , d   , and   0  A( )  [1  cos( cos  )]2
2 4
1 1
(c) [1  cos( cos  )]2  ,   74.86 , ∴ 2  2(90  74.86)  30.28
4 2
 
Phased Array: ∵ cos  0  , ∴Vary ξ electrically  Vary φ0 (the direction of the
d
main beam). It can be utilized as a military radar system to scan and track a target.

Eg. Draw the far-field pattern of a phased array of dipoles with N=5, d=λ/2.
(Sol.) The effective scan range is about from  0  60  to  0  120  as follows.

    2
  0   0  0     0 
2 3 2 2 3

Eg. Obtain the pattern function of a uniformly excited rectangular array of

N1×N2 parallel half-wave dipoles. Assume that the dipoles are parallel to the z-
axis and their centers are spaced d1 and d2 apart in the x- and y-directions,
respectively.

cos( cos  )
F ( ,  )  2
(Sol.) sin 
 Ax ( x )  Ay (  y ) , where

N 1 x N 
sin( ) sin( 2 y )
1 2 1 2
Ax ( x )  , Ay ( y )  ,
N1 x N2 y
sin( ) sin( )
2 2
d1 d 2
x  sin  cos    x , and  y  sin  cos    y
2 2
An example of microstrip linear antenna array (by Dr. I-Fong Chen):

Characteristics:
An example of smart 4-beam phased antenna array: (by W. –R. Li and Dr. K. –H.
Lin)

Design of n×m Butler matrix:

Patterns:
Yagi-Uda Antenna: A kind of endfire array.

Two types:
8-7 Effective Areas of Antennas and Gains
Effective area: Ae=PL/Pav or PL= AePav
Relation between the gain and the effective area:
P P A G G G
Pav  t 2 G DA  L  eB 2DA , and DA  DB for all antennas
4r Pt 4r AeA AeB

Eg. Determine the effective area, Ae(θ), of an elemental electric dipole of a length
dl (<<λ) used to receive an incident plane electromagnetic wave of wavelength.
PL  3 3
(Sol.) Ae ( )   0 (d) 2 sin 2   ( sin  ) 2 . ∵ G D ( ,  )  sin 2  ,
Pav 4 Rr 8 2
(3 / 2) sin 2  G ( ,  ) 4 4
∴  D  2  G D ( ,  )  2 Ae ( ,  )
(3 / 8 )( sin  ) 2
Ae ( ,  )  
Voc2 ( e E i ) 2 Ei2
Under matched condition: PL   and Pav 
8 Rr 8 Rr 2 0
30 2
 Ae ( )   e ( )
Rr

Eg. Assume that a linearly polarized plane electromagnetic wave is incident on a

half-wave dipole, (a) obtain an expression for the effective area Ae(θ). (b)
Calculate the maximum value of Ae for 100MHz.
2 cos[( / 2) cos ]
(Sol.) (a) For a half-wave dipole, e ( )  [ ]
 sin 
30 2 30 2 cos[( / 2) cos  ] 2
 Ae ( )   e ( )  e  1.282e ( )  0.1292 [ ]
Rr 73.1 sin 
2  100  10 6 2 2  3 , dAe ( )  0     
(b)    , max , Ae (  )  1.17cm 2
3  10 8
3   d 2 2
8-8 Friis Transmission Formula and Radar Equation
Friis transmission formula:
Define σbs= radar cross section of target,
PL A A 4A A A G G 2
 ( e 22 )G D1  e 22  2 e1  e12 2e 2  D1 D 22
Pt 4r 4r  r  (4r )
Eg. Communication is to be established between two stations 1.5km apart that
operate at 300MHz. Each is equipped with a half-wave dipole. (a) If 100W is
transmitted from one station, how much power is received by a matched load at
the other station? (b) Repeat (a) assuming that both antennas are Hertzian
dipoles.
PL G D1G D 2 2
(Sol.) (a)  . Half-wave dipole: GD=1.64, f=300×106  λ=1m
Pt 16 2 r 2
1.64 2  12
Pt=100W, PL  Pt   7.6  10 7 W  0.76 W
16  (1500)
2 2

(b) GD=1.5  PL  6.33  10 7 W  0.633W

Radar equation: Radar is a transmit–receive system.

∵ Usually, a radar has an antenna to transmit or receive waves, ∴ GD1=GD2=GD.

Pt G D  bs PT
Define PT= as power density at a distance r, as power density
4r 2 4r 2
PT  bs Pt
reflected by the target  PL  Ae   Ae bs ( )G D ( ,  )
4r 2
(4r 2 ) 2
2 PL  bs 2  A
∵ Ae  G D ( ,  ) , ∴  G D2 ( ,  )  bs ( e2 ) 2
4 Pt (4 ) r
3 4
4 r

Eg. Assuming that 50kW is fed into the antenna of a radar system operating at
3GHz. The antenna has an effective area of 4m2 and a radiation efficiency of
90%. The minimum detectable signal power (over noise inherent in the receiving
system and from the environment) is 1.5pW, and the power reflection coefficient
for the antenna on receiving is 0.05. Determine the maximum usable range of the
radar for detecting a target with a backscatter cross section of 1m2.
(Sol.) f=3×109Hz, σbs=1m2, λ=0.1m, Ae=4m2, Pt=0.9×5×104=4.5×104W,
1  A P 2
PL  1.5  10 12
( )  1.58  10 12 W , ∵ r 4  bs 2e ( t ) , ∴ r=4.2×104 m
1  0.05 4 PL
Eg. The antenna at the earth station of a satellite communication link having a
gain of 55dB at 14GHz is aimed at a geostationary satellite 36500km away.
Assume that the antenna on the satellite has a gain of 35dB in transmitting the
signal back toward the earth station at 12GHz. The minimum usable signal is
8pW. (a) Neglecting antenna ohmic and mismatch losses, find the minimum
satellite transmitting power required. (b) Find the peak transmitting pulse power
needed at the earth station in order to detect the satellite as a passive object,
assuming the backscatter cross section of the satellite including its solar panels as
25m2 and the minimum detectable return pulse power to be 0.5pW.

(4r ) 2
(Sol.) (a) Pt  PL , λe=2.14×10-2, λs=2.5×10-2, r=3.65×107m, PL=8×10-12W,
Ge G s  s
2

Ge=1055/10=3.16×105, Gs=1035/10=3.16×103  Pt=2.7W

4 e r 2 2 2
(b) Pt  ( ) PL , Ae  e Ge =15.7m2  Pt=1.13×109 W
 bs Ae 4

Radar Cross Section (RCS):

Define Pi as the time-average incident power density at the object, Ps: time-average
scattered power density at the receiver site, σbs: backscatter cross section, and r:
2 Ps  P
distance between scatter and receiver. σbs= 4r or Ps= bs 2i . Note: Ps is
Pi 4r
inversely proportional to r2 for large r, so that σbs does not change with r.
Different airplanes have distinct radar cross sections. A radar system can utilize this
characteristic to identify the target.

中華民國 空軍軍歌
凌雲御風去，報國把志伸，遨遊崑崙上空，俯瞰太平洋濱，看五嶽三江雄關要
塞，美麗的錦繡河山，輝映著無敵機群，
緬懷先烈莫辜負創業艱辛，發揚光大尤賴我空軍人，同志們努力，努力矢勇矢
勤，國祚皇皇萬世榮。

盡瘁為空軍，報國把志伸，哪怕風霜雪露，只信雙手萬能，看鐵翼蔽空馬達齊
鳴，美麗的錦繡河山，輝映著無敵機群，
我們要使技術發明日日新， 我們要用血汗永固中華魂，同志們努力，努力同德
同心，國祚皇皇萬世榮。
Eg. A comparison among Mig-19, Mig-21, Mig-23, Mig-25, Su-27, 中共殲十戰鬥
機 (above in PRC), IDF, F-16, Mirage-2000, and new IDF (above in ROC).
Mig-19 Mig-21

Mig-23 Mig-25

Su-27 中共殲十(J-10)戰鬥機

IDF F-16

Mirage-2000 new IDF

Stealth airplanes/vessels: (1) Specific shape to reduce RCS. (2) Coating can be
utilized to absorb EM waves radiated by enemy’s radar systems.
Eg. USA F-117 stealth bomber (airborne) and a comparison between F16, F22,
and F35 fighters.
F-117 F22

Eg. 中共可匿蹤之殲二十(J-20)戰鬥機與傳統式殲十戰鬥機。
J-20 J-10

Eg. A comparison between Lafeya vessel and a common vessel.

Eg. 雷達未發明之前的空戰情況：我國 814 空戰英雄/空軍第 4 航空大隊大隊
長高志航的電影─「筧橋英烈傳」與美國支援對日抗戰飛虎隊陳納德將軍的紀
錄片。
8-9 Wave Propagation near Earth’s Surface
    e  j R  e  j R '
E  E 1  E 2 , where E 1  k ( ) sin  , E 2  11 ( )k ( ) sin  ' , and
R R'
jId 0 
k
4
2 2 (h2  h1 ) 2
and R '  AC  BC  A' B  [d 2  (h2  h1 ) 2 ]1 / 2  d  ,
2d
(h2  h1 ) 2 2h h
R  [d 2  ( h2  h1 ) 2 ]1 / 2  d  ,  R ' R  1 2
2d d
 e  j R
 E  aˆ k ( )(sin  )[1  11 ( )e  j ( R '  R ) ]
R
e  j R e jR
 aˆ k ( )(sin  )[1  11 ( )e  j ( h1h2 / d ) ]  aˆ k ( )(sin  )  F
R R
If the earth is perfect conducting,
2h1 h2
11 ( )  1  F  1  e  j 2  ( h1h2 / d )  2 sin( ) .
d

Eg. A transmitting vertical half-wave dipole 60m above the ground radiated
400W at 100MHz. Assume the ground to be perfectly conducting. (a) Calculate
the power available at a vertical half-wave receiving antenna 50km away at
height 30m above the ground. (b) At a distance 50km from the transmitting
antenna, where (at what altitudes) would there be a null field?
2
 2 2  2h1 h2 
(Sol.) (a) PL  G 2 ( ) Pt ' , Pt '  F Pt  2 sin( )  Pt
4r  d 
Pt  400W , h1  60m , h2  30m ,   3m, d  50000m  P't  0.0225Pt  9W ,
G=1.64  PL  5.5  10 10 W
2h1 h2
(b) Nulls:  n , h1  60 (m), h2  1.25n (m), n=1, 2, 3, ……
d
8-10 Broadband Antennas
Frequency-independent Antenna: The pattern and impedance characteristics are
independent of frequency, because it is described entirely by angles, not dimension.
1 r
r  r0 e a (  ) ,     ln( )
a r0

Log-Periodic Antenna: The antenna is operated in the discrete

rn 1 r0 e a (  )
frequency.  a (  2  )
 e 2a   , where f n  f n 1 or
rn r0 e

1
ln( f n 1 )  ln( f n )  ln( )


 n 1 rn 1
Log-periodic Dipole Antenna:   ,
n rn
d n 1
d n  rn  rn 1  rn (1   ) (or  )
dn
 n  (1   ) 1  
tan   n 
2 2rn 2d n 4

Azimuth pattern Elevation pattern

8-11 Waveguide Antennas
8-12 Reflector Antennas

  j 0 e  jkR  
Far-field formula: E ( R ,  ,  ) 
4R  ( J  ( J  aˆ
surface
R )aˆ R )e jk 'aˆ R dS ( ' ,  ' ) ,
  
where J  2( aˆ n  H inc ) , H inc
is the incident magnetic field which is radiated by the
feed, â n is the unit normal vector on the point of the reflector’s surface, ρ’ is the
distance between the origin and the point of the reflector’s surface.
In case of a circular parabolic reflector, of which focal length is f, the diameter of the
aperture is D , focus is located at the origin, and the tip is at (x,y,z)=(0,0,-f), then we
2f ' ' '
have  ' ( ' ,  ' )  , aˆ n   xˆ cos cos  ' yˆ cos sin  ' zˆ sin ,
1  cos  ' 2 2 2
'
dS ( ' ,  ' )   ' 2 sin  ' csc d ' d ' , 2 tan 1 (4 f / D)   '   , and 0≦φ’≦2π.
2

Feed of reflector antenna

Classification of dual reflector antennas:

1. Cassegrain Reflector: It is a combination of a primary concave mirror and a
secondary convex mirror, both aligned symmetrically about the optical axis. The
primary mirror is of paraboloid type, while the secondary mirror is of hyperboloid
type.
2. Gregorian Reflector: It consists of two mirrors; the primary mirror is a concave
paraboloid which collects the light and brings it to a focus before the secondary
mirror. The secondary mirror is an ellipsoid.
 Cassegrain Reflector Gregorian Reflector
Symmetrical

Type

Non-

symmetrical

Type

8-13 Aperture Antennas


E a  xˆE a , P(R0,θ,φ) at the far zone (βR>>1)


E p  xˆE p , where
 j 
Ep 
R0  E
aperture
a ( x ' , y ' )e  jR dx' dy '

∵ βR>>1,
∴

R  R 0  ( xˆx' yˆy ' )  ( xˆ sin  cos   yˆ sin  sin  )

 R0  ( x' sin  cos   y ' sin  sin  )
 j  jR0
 Ep  e  F ( ,  ) , where
R0

F(θ,φ)=  E a ( x ' , y ' )e
j sin  ( x 'cos   y 'sin  )
dx ' dy '
aperture

4U max 1  2 1  2
Directivity: D 
Pr
, U max 
2 0
R02 E p max 
2 0 2  E a ( x ' , y ' ) dx ' dy '
 2

1  2 4
 E a ( x' , y ' )dx' dy'
aperture
Pr 
2 0  E a ( x' , y ' ) dx' dy '  D 
2  2
 E a ( x' , y ' )
aperture
dx' dy '

If Ea(x’,y’) is constant  D=4π/λ2

Case 1 φ=0 (in the xz-plane) Case 2 φ=π/2 (in the yz-plane)
Eg. Assume that the field in an a×b rectangular aperture in an xy-plane is linearly polarized in
the y-direction and that the aperture excitation has a uniform phase and a triangular amplitude
2 a
distribution f ( x )  1  x , x  . Find (a) the pattern function in the xz-plane, (b) the
a 2
half-power beamwidth, (c) the location of the first nulls, and (d) the level of the first sidelobes.
(Sol.) (a) The xz-plane    0 , cos   1, sin   0, E a ( x' , y ' )  f ( x)  1

 E ( x' , y ' )  e
j sin  ( x 'cos   y 'sin  )
F ( ,  )  dx' dy ' ,
aperture

a
sin 2 ( sin  )
2 a/2 b/2 ab 
F ( ,   0)   [1  x ]e jx 'sin  dx' 1  dy '    Fxz ( )
a / 2 a  b / 2 2 a
( sin  ) 2


a
sin 2 ( sin  )
 1  
(b)   2  2  0.326  0.652 
a 2 a a
( sin  ) 2


a sin  2
(c) sin( )  0   null  sin 1 ( )
 a

d sin 2  3 sin 2 
(d) ( )  0     0.045
d  2
2 2
1
∴ The first sidelobe level = 20 log10 ( )  26.9dB
0.045

Eg. A linearly polarized uniform electric field E a  xˆE 0 exists in a circular aperture of radius b
in a conducting plane at z=0. Assuming b to be large in comparison to wavelength, (a) find an
expression for the far-zone electric field, and (b) determine the width of the main beam between
first nulls.
(Sol.) (a) x '   ' cos  ' , y '   ' sin  ' , and
x' cos   y ' sin    ' (cos  cos  ' sin  sin  ' )   ' cos(   ' ).
b 2 b J 1 (  b sin  )
F ( ,  )  E 0   e j 'sin  cos(  ')  ' d ' d '  E 0  2J 0 (  ' sin  )  ' d '  E 0 2b 2 [ ]
0 0 0 b sin 
 2b 2  jR0 J 1 (u ) 2b
E p  aˆ x jE 0 e [ ] , where u   b sin   sin  .
R0 u 
(b) The first null of the radiation pattern occurs at the first zero of J 1 (u ) : u11 =3.832
3.832 3.832 
1  sin 1 ( )  1.22 (rad ) , where D=2b. The width of the main beam
2b 2b D
between the first nulls is 2 1  2.44 / D ( rad ) .
2
Formulae: 0
e j cos  ' d '  2J 0 ( w) and  wJ 0 ( w) dw  wJ 1 ( w)