Introduction to the Finite Volumes Method.

Application to the Shallow Water Equations.

Jaime Miguel Fe Marqués

Contents

1 Preliminary considerations 3
1.1 Study of the movement of a fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Number of dimensions of the model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Discretization techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Systems of hyperbolic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 The Shallow Water Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 One dimensional approach 7

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Conservative variables and conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 The Riemann problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Centered and non-centered discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Numerical diffusion or viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6 Conservative schemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6.1 Integral Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6.2 Numerical fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6.3 Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6.4 Consistency condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6.5 Stability condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6.6 Conservative scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6.7 Godunov Method for a scalar equation . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6.8 Rankine-Hugoniot jump condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.7 Hyperbolic linear systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.8 Non-centered schemes for linear systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3 Two-dimensional flow equations 25

3.1 Types of flow. Turbulent flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Average value and fluctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Navier-Stokes Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Reynolds Equations in 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5 The Shallow Water equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

1
CONTENTS 2

4 Application to the 2D SWE 31

4.1 Types of finite volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1.1 Cell-type finite volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1.2 Vertex-type finite volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.1.3 Edge-type finite volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2 Description of the finite volumes used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3 Terms considered in the equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.4 Integration and discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4.1 Discretization of the time derivative . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.4.2 Integration of the flux and source terms . . . . . . . . 36
4.4.3 Definition of the discretized flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4.4 Definition of the discretized source . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.4.5 Discretization of the boundary conditions . . . . . . . . 40
4.4.6 Obtaining of the time step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.5 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5 Some results 42
5.1 Types of boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.2 One dimensional problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.2.1 Straight channel with slope and bottom friction . . . . 43
5.2.2 Channel with an obstacle on the bottom . . . . . . . . 46
5.2.3 Dam break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2.4 Dam break with reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.3 Two dimensional problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3.1 Partial Dam Break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3.2 Flow in a fishway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

References 61
Chapter 1

Preliminary considerations

1.1 Study of the movement of a fluid

The motion of a viscous fluid in three dimensions is described by the Navier-
Stokes equations, a system of partial differential equations without analytical
solution. When solving these equations numerically we may use different
approaches. The most ambitious is the Direct Numerical Simulation that
solves all fluid movements. In this case we need to use a mesh size at least as
fine as the smallest eddies, which can lead, in a medium size problem, to a
number of computing nodes the order of 109 . Moreover, the frequency of the
fastest events can be about 104 Hz which imposes a time step of not more
than 10−4 s to treat it properly.
A second approach, less expensive, is to simulate only the large eddies
(Large Eddy Simulation, LES) modeling the effect of those of smaller size,
which cannot be solved with a given mesh. The process can be described as
“filtering equations”, after which the velocity field contains only the larger
components. This process introduces a stress terms representing the inter-
action between the two scales of motion and have a dissipative effect. To
calculate the effect of these stresses there are different models known in the
literature as SGS (subgrid scale models). The LES is based on the work of
Smagorinsky [24].
In engineering applications, there is usually no need to know all the de-
tails of a flow, but only some properties: the discharge through a channel,
the velocity distribution in a section or a substance concentration in a certain
volume. For these cases there is a third approach, far less expensive than the
other two, that produces sufficiently accurate results: they are the Reynolds
equations, which are obtained by averaging in time the Navier-Stokes equa-
tions (Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes, RANS). The time averaging of the

3
CHAPTER 1. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 4

variables produce, similarly to the LES case, some terms called Reynolds
stresses. The effect of these stresses can be modeled by estimating a turbu-
lent viscosity, for which a turbulence model is needed.

1.2 Number of dimensions of the model

These models take into account the motion of fluid particles in the three spa-
tial directions. This is a suitable approach to represent the three-dimensional
reality, but the complexity of 3D models can be intractable even for relatively
simple domains.
On the opposite end are the 1D models. They are accurate enough for
certain phenomena, such as the movement of fluid in a pipe. The free surface,
if it exists, is determined by the value of the variable depth (h). The equations
are greatly simplified, leading to significant savings in computation time. The
problem is that, in most cases, these models do not represent adequately the
real problem, not permitting, for instance, taking into account the effect of
a change of direction or an asymmetrical section.
However, there are a number of phenomena in which fluid motion occurs
mainly in two dimensions, for example when the bottom slope is small and
the movement of the particles is substantially parallel to it. This makes the
2D models an interesting option with considerable saving compared to 3D,
and they allow an approximation to reality much greater than that achieved
with 1D models.

1.3 Discretization techniques

With regard to the spatial discretization, most of the models used in Com-
putational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) use one of the three following techniques:
finite differences, finite elements or finite volumes.
The Finite Difference Method is the oldest of the three, although its pop-
ularity has declined, perhaps due to its lack of flexibility from the geometric
point of view. It is usually applied to structured meshes. Its implementation
is simple, so new numerical schemes can easily be developed (especially in
1D) that can be generalized to several dimensions and used in finite volume
formulations.
The Finite Volume formulation is now widely used in computational fluid
dynamics, being its use very common in the field of shallow water equations
[3] and 3D models [33]. It is applied to both structured and unstructured
meshes with different shapes of the volumes. Its flexibility and conceptual
CHAPTER 1. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 5

simplicity explain the acceptance it has. It has been used in commercial

programs [11]. In one dimension it is equivalent to the Finite Difference
Method and, depending on the mesh used and the type of discretization, it
can also be so with a higher number of dimensions.
The main advantage of the Finite Element Method stems from its rigor-
ous mathematical foundation that allows a posteriori error estimation. It is
conceptually more difficult than the Finite Volume Method and the physical
meaning of the proceedings is less easily seen than in this, although its flexi-
bility to adapt to any geometry is similar. It is used by different authors and
applied to commercial programs [6].
Some works [19, 35] compare both methods, showing that the Finite Vol-
ume Method shares the theoretical basis of the Finite Element Method, since
it is a particular case of the Weighted Residuals Formulation. However, the
weighting used in the first (constant volumes in the case of first order ap-
proximation) allows to take advantage of some properties of conservation,
and the resolution algorithms are posed in a very advantageous way.

1.4 Systems of hyperbolic equations

Hyperbolic equations systems have been studied by a number of authors
over the last decades. In a first phase, the studies focused on homogeneous
systems but, since the 80s, more interest has been put in problems with
source term, which have more practical applications.
The applications were initially oriented to compressible fluids, achieving
significant results in aerodynamics. The strong analogy between the equa-
tions of compressible and incompressible flows have permitted to apply sim-
ilar techniques to the shallow water equations, e.g. Glaister [14] using finite
differences, or Vázquez Cendón [31], with finite volumes. Donea and Huerta
[12] apply the Finite Element Method, in permanent and non-permanent
problems, both to compressible and incompressible fluids.

1.5 The Shallow Water Equations

The behavior of a viscous fluid is governed by the Navier Stokes equations.
These equations were derived in 1821 by Claude Navier and, independently,
by George Stokes in 1845. They form a hyperbolic system of nonlinear con-
servation laws and, due to their complexity, have no analytical solution. For
this reason, the 2D system of Shallow Water (or Saint Venant) Equations
has been obtained from them, by imposing several simplifying assumptions.
CHAPTER 1. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 6

These equations describe the behavior of a fluid in shallow areas. Despite

the strong assumptions used in their obtaining, the results are very close to
reality, even in cases where some of these hypotheses are not fulfilled. Some
of the the many problems that can be solved are flow in channels and rivers,
tidal flows, sea currents or progression of shockwaves. The one-dimensional
version of these equations is commonly used in the study of flow in open
channels.
Despite its considerable simplicity compared to the Navier Stokes equa-
tions, even 1D Saint Venant equations have no analytical solution and must
be solved by approximate methods. The increase, in recent decades, of the
computer power has allowed an increasing use of the two-dimensional shallow
water equations.
Since the 70s of last century, the Finite Element Method has begun to
be applied to the shallow water equations: Zienkiewicz [34], and Peraire [22]
are among the authors who have worked on this line.
In parallel to this, the use of the Finite Volume method has grown: see,
for instance, the worlks of Vázquez Cendón [31] and Alcrudo and Garcia-
Navarro [2] among many others.
The calculation of the velocity field in a given domain permits the study
of many problems of practical interest, such as the sediment transport, the
evolution of the salt concentration in an estuary or the dispersal of pollutants.
Chapter 2

One dimensional approach

2.1 Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to show the main aspects of the method in one
spatial dimension. First, several commonly used terms are defined and some
basic concepts in numerical modeling are introduced or reminded. To de-
scribe some of the techniques, simple equations in 1D are used, such as the
transport equation. In order to facilitate the application of the method to
the particular case of the shallow water equations, the final chapter defines
some terms commonly used in open channels hydraulics.

2.2 Conservative variables and conservation

laws
Conservative variables. There is some freedom to choose the variables
that describe the flow to study. One possible choice is to take the “primitive”
or “physical” variables: the density ρ, the pressure p and the three compo-
nents of velocity, u, v, w. Another one is to use the so-called “ conservative”
variables, which result from applying the fundamental laws of conservation
(of mass, momentum, energy). These variables are, for example: the three
components of momentum per unit volume ρu, ρv, ρw and the total energy
per unit volume. For systems of equations governing the free surface flow in
one or two dimensions, such as the Shallow Water system, the conservative
variables commonly used are the depth h and its product by the velocity
components: hu in one dimension and (hu, hv) in the two-dimensional case.
Conservation laws. They are systems of partial differential equations
expressing conservation of m quantities u1 , . . . um . If obtained from a control

7
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 8

volume fixed in space, which is crossed by the moving fluid, they are said
to be written in conservative form, this is the way that most resembles a
flow balance of mass and momentum [7, pg. 19]. If the control volume moves
with the fluid, so always contains the same particles, the non conservative
form is obtained [4, pg. 16]. A conservation law in conservative form is
written
Ut + Fx = 0, U = U(x, t), F = F(U). (2.1)
U is called Variables Vector and F(U) Flux Functions Vector. When ex-
pressing the conservation laws in differential form, it is assumed that the
solutions satisfy the relevant requirements of regularity.
Example 1 (scalar): The Transport equation (linear advection equation).
∂u ∂f
+ = 0 u = u(x, t), f (u) = au, a = constant. (2.2)
∂t ∂x
Example 2 (scalar): Burgers equation.
∂u ∂f 1
+ = 0 u = u(x, t), f (u) = u2 . (2.3)
∂t ∂x 2
Example 3 (system of conservation laws): the one-dimensional shallow
water equations.
  ( )
h hu
U= , F(U) = . (2.4)
hu hu2 + 21 gh2

Nonconservative Form. If, for instance, we replace f by its value in the

Burgers Equation we obtain the nonconservative form
∂u ∂u
+u = 0 u = u(x, t). (2.5)
∂t ∂x
If instead of an equation we consider a system of conservation laws, applying
the chain rule we obtain the following expression:
∂U dF ∂U ∂U ∂U
+ = +A =0 (2.6)
∂t dU ∂x ∂t ∂x
where A is the Jacobian matrix
 
∂f1 ∂f1
...
∂u1 ∂um
dF  .. .. ..

A= = . (2.7)
 
. . .
dU 
∂fm ∂fm

···
∂u1 ∂um
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 9

The nonconservative formulation (2.6) is equivalent to the conservative one

(2.1), and has the same solution, provided that this solution is sufficiently
regular. Otherwise the derivation which led to (2.6) is not valid. For example,
if the solution is discontinuous –e.g. a shock wave– erroneous results are
obtained.
Integral Form. The conservation laws can also be expressed in inte-
gral form. One reason for the use of this form is that the obtaining of the
equations is based on physical conservation principles, generally expressed as
integral relationships. On the other hand the integral formulation requires
less derivability conditions on solutions, which allows to obtain discontinuous
solutions. These discontinuous solutions do not verify the partial differen-
tial equation at every point because the derivatives are not defined at the
discontinuities, and must meet a “jump condition” along them, which is ob-
tained from the integral form (see 2.6.8, Rankine-Hugoniot condition). The
solutions of the integral form are known as weak solutions.

2.3 The Riemann problem

We will analyze the Riemann problem for the importance it has on the Go-
dunov method, from which the method that is described here derives.
The transport equation, already mentioned, has the form
∂u ∂u
+a = 0 u = u(x, t), a = constante. (2.8)
∂t ∂x
The Cauchy problem, applied to this equation consist in solving it with
the initial condition
u(x, 0) = u0 (x). (2.9)
As it can easily be seen by substituting in the equation, the solution is given
by
u(x, t) = u0 (x − at), ∀x ∈ R, ∀t ≥ 0, (2.10)
which can be interpreted saying that the function u moves in time, along the
axis x, speed a without deforming.
The points of the plane x, t in which the above said occurs are called
characteristic curves. Their equation in this case is given by
 
dx dx 0
= a in general, = f (u) (2.11)
dt dt
and in them the solution u of the equation remains constant. Indeed, if u is
a solution of the equation, the total derivative satisfies
du ∂u ∂u dx ∂u ∂u
= + = +a = 0. (2.12)
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂t ∂x
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 10

The Riemann problem is a particular case of the former characterized by

the initial condition

uL si x < 0,
u(x, 0) = u0 (x) = (2.13)
uR si x > 0.
The initial discontinuity at x = 0 is propagated to a distance d = at at time
t. The characteristic curve x = at separates -in the plane x, t- the points in
which the solution is uL from those in which is uR and it is represented in
figure 2.2 in bold. The Riemann-problem that can be expressed briefly as
RP (UL , UR )- has as solution

uL si x − at < 0,
u(x, t) = u0 (x − at) = (2.14)
uR si x − at > 0.
If, for example, a > 0, the wavefront will move to the right. The solution
of the equation is uL at all points that have already been reached by the
wave, which are those to the left of the point x = at after time t (Figure 2.1).
The characteristic curves thus represent the pairs (x, t) corresponding to the

d=at

uL uL
uR uR

x=0 x=0

Figure 2.1: The Riemann Problem after time t, ad=at

> 0.
∗ u x = x∗ the variable takes a
advance of the
u wave. For example, at t = t and
L L

t
certain value. To know the position R u
ofu the point where the variable initially R

∗ ∗
took the same value, we gox=0 down the curve passing throughx=0 (x , p ) to find
the horizontal axis (Figure 2.2). The result, unsurprisingly, is x = x∗ − at∗ .
(x*,t*)
t

x<at x>at (x*,t*)

x
x*-at*
x
x*-at*

Figure 2.2: Caracteristic curves.

CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 11

2.4 Centered and non-centered discretization

Before describing the finite volume method (section 2.6) and applying it to
the shallow water equations (chapter 4), we apply the centered and non-
centered discretization to the Transport Equation.
Equation (2.8) is considered again
∂u ∂u
+a = 0 u = u(x, t), a = constant. (2.15)
∂t ∂x
Different discretizations for this equation can be obtained from the Taylor
series expansion. For example, if i is the spatial index and n the time index,

∂u n 1 ∂ 2 u n 2
un+1
i = uni + 4t +  4t + O(4t3 ) (2.16)
∂t i 2 ∂t2 i


and the time derivative can be approximated as

∂u n un+1
i − uni 1 ∂ 2 u n
 = −  4t + O(4t2 ), (2.17)
∂t i 4t 2 ∂t2 i
which is a first order forward discretization. Also
∂u n 1 ∂ 2 u n 2 1 ∂ 3 u n 3
uni+1 = uni +  4x +  4x +  4x + O(4x4 ), (2.18)
∂x i 2 ∂x2 i 6 ∂x3 i
∂u n 1 ∂ 2 u n 2 1 ∂ 3 u n 3
uni−1 = uni −  4x +  4x −  4x + O(4x4 ), (2.19)
∂x i 2 ∂x2 i 6 ∂x3 i
and subtracting these two equations, we obtain a space centered second order
discretization
∂u n uni+1 − uni−1 1 ∂ 3 u n 2 3
 = − 3  4x + O(4x ). (2.20)
∂x i 24x 6 ∂x i
Then equation (2.15) can be written in discretized form as

un+1
i − uni uni+1 − uni−1
+a =0 (2.21)
4t 24x
from which the following numerical algorithm results
1 a4t n
un+1 = uni − (u − uni−1 ). (2.22)
i
2 4x i+1
This scheme, first order in time and second in space is called Euler explicit
scheme and it can be shown that is unconditionally unstable [27, pg. 163].
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 12

In order to remedy the lack of stability observed in the above scheme, we

discretize spatially in non-centered form, which produces two options

∂u n uni − uni−1
 = , (2.23)
∂x i 4x
∂u n uni+1 − uni
 = , (2.24)
∂x i 4x
from which only one is successful, depending on the sign of the speed a of
the wave. If a > 0, the option (2.23) together with (2.17) results

un+1
i − uni uni − uni−1
+a =0 (2.25)
4t 4x
from where
un+1
i = uni − c(uni − uni−1 ), (2.26)
being
a4t
c= , (2.27)
4x
This scheme proves to be stable [27, pg. 164] provided that

0 ≤ c ≤ 1. (2.28)

The parameter c is called the Courant number or the CFL (Courant-

Friedrichs-Lewy) number. It can be considered as the ratio of two lengths:
the one traveled by the wave in time 4t and the mesh size 4x. As a is a
datum and 4x is usually determined by the desired degree of accuracy, one
can only vary 4t to satisfy the stability condition.
The scheme (2.26) is known as the first order upwind scheme and also
the CIR scheme, (Courant, Isaacson and Rees). The name upwind refers to
the fact that in the spatial discretization we use grid points from the side
where information comes. The CIR has the disadvantage, common to all first
order methods of being very diffusive: it tends to smooth discontinuities in
the solution and cut extreme values.
If, for a > 0, we introduce (2.17) and (2.24) in the transport equation
(2.15), the resulting downwind scheme

un+1
i = uni − c(uni+1 − uni ), (2.29)

is unconditionally unstable. That is, to obtain a useful non-centered scheme

the sign of a in the spatial discretization must be taken into account.
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 13

Another first order scheme is the Lax-Friedrichs, characterized for re-

placing the term uni in (2.22) by
1 n
(u + uni+1 ), (2.30)
2 i−1
i.e. the average of the values in the two neighboring nodes. The resulting
scheme
1 1
un+1
i = (1 + c)uni−1 + (1 − c)uni+1 (2.31)
2 2
is stable under the condition (2.28) [27, pg. 168].

2.5 Numerical diffusion or viscosity

We will try to clarify below the previous section assertion that the first order
schemes are diffusive. Let us consider Equation (2.8) without time derivative
∂u
a = 0, a > 0. (2.32)
∂x
If the non-centered discretization (2.23) is applied, we get
∂u  ui − ui−1
a  =a + O(4x). (2.33)
∂x i 4x
Moreover, from the Taylor series expansion (2.19),

∂u  1 ∂ 2 u 
ui−1 = ui −  4x +  4x2 + O(4x3 ), (2.34)
∂x i 2 ∂x2 i
whence, multiplying by a and rearranging, we obtain

∂u  1 ∂ 2 u  ui − ui−1
a  − a4x 2  = a + O(4x2 ). (2.35)
∂x i 2 ∂x i 4x
That is, the expression
ui − ui−1
a , (2.36)
4x
which represents a first order discretization of (2.32), is simultaneously a
second order discretization (thus more accurate) of

∂u a4x ∂ 2 u
a − = 0, (2.37)
∂x 2 ∂x2
containing a diffusive term with a coefficient a4x/2.
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 14

So when discretizing upwind Equation (2.32) a so-called numerical dif-

fusion is being introduced. The coefficient that quantifies this diffusion (also
called numerical viscosity) depends on the mesh size, so if 4x is sufficiently
small, thereby increasing the computation time, the diffusive effect tends to
disappear. If, however, the diffusive effect is high, the extreme values of the
solution tend to cut and discontinuities to spread.
Another solution to reduce the diffusive effect is to use higher order
schemes. These schemes take into consideration the values in a larger number
of nodes, so the programming is more complicated. Lowering the numerical
viscosity also reduces stability.

2.6 Conservative schemes.

The finite volume method in one spatial dimension is based on dividing the
spatial domain into intervals (called finite volumes or cells) making in each
of them an approximation of the integral of the conservative variables. At
each time step these values are updated using approximations of the flux
at the ends of the intervals, as it will be discussed below, using the scalar
conservation law
∂u ∂f
+ = 0, u = u(x, t), f = f (u), (2.38)
∂t ∂x
that represents the transport equation if f (u) = au, being a a constant.

2.6.1 Integral Form

A way to discretize (2.38), considering weak solutions, is to divide the spatial
domain into finite volumes and integrate the equation in each cell, trans-
forming it into an integral form. For simplicity, we will use intervals (finite
volumes) with equal length 4x and take a constant time step 4t. Thus the
spatial and temporal domains will be
4x 4x
h i h i
Ii = xi− 1 , xi+ 1 = xi − 2 , xi + 2 ,
2 2
(2.39)
In = [tn , tn+1 ] = [n4t, (n + 1)4t]

and the integral in the cell, of Equation (2.38)

Z x 1 
i+ 2 ∂u ∂f
+ dx = 0, (2.40)
x 1 ∂t ∂x
i− 2
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 15

becomes Z xi+ 1
2 ∂u
dx + f (u(xi+ 1 , t)) − f (u(xi− 1 , t)) = 0. (2.41)
xi− 1 ∂t 2 2
2

Since the interval ends xi± 1 do not depend on time, we can write
2
Z x 1
∂ i+ 2
u(x, t)dx + f (u(xi+ 1 , t)) − f (u(xi− 1 , t)) = 0. (2.42)
∂t x 1 2 2
i− 2

We define uni as the spatial average of the function u(x, t) in the interval Ii ,
at time tn = n4t, i.e.
Z x 1
n 1 i+ 2
ui = u(x, tn )dx, (2.43)
4x x 1
i− 2

Integrating (2.42) between tn and tn+1 , the time derivative disappears from
the first term, resulting
Z x 1
i+ 2
[u(x, tn+1 ) − u(x, tn )] dx
xi− 1
2
Z tn+1 h i
+ f (u(xi+ 1 , t)) − f (u(xi− 1 , t)) dt = 0 (2.44)
2 2
tn

and we see that the value of u in Ii only changes along time 4t due
to the value of the flux f at the ends of Ii . Then, using (2.43),
Z tn+1 h i
n+1 n


ui − ui 4x + f (u(xi+ 1 , t)) − f (u(xi− 1 , t)) dt = 0. (2.45)
2 2
tn

2.6.2 Numerical fluxes

In the above expression, the values of the integral of f at points xi± 1 will
2
not be generally known, so we replace them with
Z tn+1
n 1
fi± 1 ≈ f (u(xi± 1 , t))dt, (2.46)
2 4t tn 2

so we get
4t  n 
un+1
i = uni − n
fi+ 1 − fi− 1 . (2.47)
4x 2 2

The explicit algorithm (2.47) allows us to obtain the approximation of u in

each cell, at time tn+1 , from its value in the previous time and the numerical
n
fluxes fi± 1 at the ends of the cell.
2
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 16

These numerical fluxes represent approximations of the time average of

the physical flux at the edges of the cell and, depending on the way
they are calculated, we get different schemes. To calculate them, the
variables in cells adjacent to Ii are used
n n n n
fi± 1 = φ(ui−m , ui−m+1 , . . . , ui+l ), (2.48)
2

where m and l are two non-negative integers and φ is a certain function.

In hyperbolic problems information propagates at a finite speed, so it
n n n
seems reasonable to assume that we can obtain fi− 1 from ui−1 and ui (the
2
average values of the variable on both sides of the boundary xi− 1 ), while
2
fi+ 1n is obtained from uni and uni+1 . Then the general expression (2.48) takes
2
the form
n n n n n n
fi− 1 = φ(ui−1 , ui ) ; fi+ 1 = φ(ui , ui+1 ). (2.49)
2 2

2.6.3 Convergence
The algorithm (2.47) allows us to obtain variable values forward in time. To
provide a good approximation of the law of conservation, the algorithm must
be convergent. which means that the numerical solution converges to the
solution of the differential equation when 4x, 4t → 0.
Convergence is ensured with two requirements: consistency and stabil-
ity. Indeed, Lax Theorem states that a consistent and stable scheme is
convergent. We will briefly discuss both.

2.6.4 Consistency condition

We say that a scheme is consistent if it represents faithfully the differential
equation when 4t → 0, 4x → 0. As we are getting the numerical flux from
the values of u in neighboring cells, if u has the same value in all of them,
the result must be the same in each one. Therefore, a consistency condition
required to function φ is:

φ(v, v, . . . , v) = f (v); (2.50)

Usually, continuity for the variable u is also required, i.e. φ(uni−1 uni ) → f (v),
when uni−1 , uni → v [20, pg. 68].
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 17

2.6.5 Stability condition

A method must be stable in the sense that a small error introduced at any
time step is not amplified indefinitely but remains bounded along the process.
In paragraph 2.4 it was said that the Euler explicit scheme was uncondition-
ally unstable, while the CIR scheme was stable when 0 ≤ c ≤ 1. These
statements are based on the stability criterion of Von Neumann, which is
based on Fourier analysis and is very useful in the study of linear systems.

2.6.6 Conservative scheme

A conservative scheme for the scalar conservation law (2.38) is a numerical
method of the form (2.47) that fulfills the condition (2.48).
We see that by applying a conservative scheme to a set of contiguous
cells N, N + 1 . . . M , the result verifies the same property (2.44) of the exact
solution (the value of u in Ii only changes in time 4t due to the value of the
flow f at the ends of Ii ). Indeed, adding the values of un+1 i obtained from
(2.47), for any set of consecutive cells, multiplying by 4x and rearranging,
we get
M M
!
X X  
un+1
i − u n
i 4x + f n
M+ 1
− f n
N− 1
4t = 0, (2.51)
2 2
i=N i=N

since fluxes at cell boundaries cancel each other, except for flows at the ends
x = xN − 1 and x = xM + 1 .
2 2
The interest of conservative schemes is that, as the Theorem of Lax-
Wendroff [15, pg. 168] says, if a consistent conservative scheme converges,
the result is a weak solution of the equation. In contrast, non-conservative
schemes may not converge to the correct solution, if a shock wave is present
[27, pg. 170]. Two examples of conservative schemes are the Godunov and
Lax-Friedrichs schemes.
We may say that the Lax-Wendroff theorem “continues” Lax’s Theorem.
That is, a scheme consistent, stable and conservative converges at a weak
solution of the equation.
The algorithm (2.47) can also be seen as a finite difference approximation
of the conservation law (2.38), as this law can be discretized as
n n
un+1 − uni fi+ 1 − f
i 2
i− 12
+ = 0, (2.52)
4t 4x
n n
where fi+ 1,f
i− 1
are approximations of the value of f at the endpoints.
2 2
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 18

2.6.7 Godunov Method for a scalar equation

Godunov conducted the first conservative extension of the CIR scheme to
nonlinear systems of conservation laws. The Godunov first order upwind
method is a conservative scheme in the form (2.47), where the numerical
fluxes at the boundaries of the cells, fi± 1 , are calculated using solutions
2
of local Riemann problems. It means that a Riemann Problem is solved
in every time step at every boundary between two cells, taking as initial
values at each side of the boundary, the average values of the variable in the
previous time step, as discussed below.
It is assumed that in each time step tn , variable u is piecewise constant,
taking on each cell Ii the value given by (2.43). There are, then, a pair of
steady states at each boundary of Ii : (ui−1 , ui ) on the left and (ui , ui+1 )
on the right, both of which can be considered as a local Riemann Problem,
originating at x = 0, t = 0. Thus, in the left side, x = xi− 1 , we have
2

∂u + ∂f = 0,
∂t ∂x
(2.53)
 n
ui−1 , x < 0,
u(x, 0) = u0 (x) =
uni , x > 0,

and, on the right side, x = xi+ 1 ,

2

∂u + ∂f = 0,
∂t ∂x
(2.54)
 n
ui , x < 0,
u(x, 0) = u0 (x) =
uni+1 , x > 0.

Let ũ(x, t) be the combined solution of RP (uni−1 , uni ) and RP (uni , uni+1 )
in Ii . Since ũ(x, t) is the exact solution of the conservation law (2.38), we
introduce it in the integral form (2.44), with spatial and temporal domains,
respectively
Ii = [xi− 1 , xi+ 1 ], In = [0, 4t] , (2.55)
2 2

obtaining
Z xi+ 1 Z xi+ 1
2 2
e(x, 4t)dx =
u u
e(x, 0)dx
xi− 1 xi− 1
2 2
Z 4t Z 4t
− f (e
u(xi+ 1 , t))dt + f (e
u(xi− 1 , t))dt = 0. (2.56)
2 2
0 0
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 19

Now we define, as in (2.43)

Z xi+ 1
= 1
2
uni ũ(x, 0)dx,
4x xi− 1
2
(2.57)
Z xi+ 1
= 1
2
un+1 ũ(x, 4t)dx,
i 4x xi− 1
2

and it results the conservative scheme (2.47)

4t  n 
un+1
i = uni − n
fi+ 1 − fi− 1 , (2.58)
4x 2 2

being Z 4t
1
f i± 12 = f (ũ(xi± 1 , t))dt. (2.59)
4t 0
2

The integrand in (2.59) depends on the exact solution to the Riemann Prob-
lem, at each end of the cell, along the time axis (in local coordinates, then
at x = 0). This is represented as

ũ(xi± 1 , t) = ui± 1 (0), (2.60)

2 2

whereby
fi± 1 = f (ui± 1 (0)). (2.61)
2 2

If, for instance, the flux function is f (u) = au, a > 0, it results

fi− 1 = auni−1 , fi+ 1 = auni (2.62)

2 2

(if, instead, we take a < 0 the result is auni on the left boundary and auni+1
on the right). Replacing in (2.58), we arrive at

4t a4t n
un+1 = uni + (auni−1 − auni ) = uni − (u − uni−1 ), (2.63)
i
4x 4x i

i.e. the CIR scheme (2.26).

Thus, Godunov Method considers the problem to be solved as a suc-
cession of states, constant in each finite volume. At each time step a
Riemann problem at the boundary of each cell is solved, taking the exact
solutions of each local problem as the fluxes in these boundaries. These
exact solutions must be calculated according to the equation in question, if
it is not linear; in [27, pg.176], the exact solutions of Riemann problem in the
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 20

case of the quasi-linear Burgers equation may be seen. Finally, the spatial
averaging of the dependent variables in each cell is performed.
To simplify the process, different authors [16, 23, 30] have used schemes
called approximate Riemann solvers, which they have applied to com-
pressible fluids. These schemes have been extended later [2, 14, 29, 31] to free
surface flows with very good results (in [20] different approximate Riemann
solvers are described). While it is true that these schemes will replace the
exact solution of the Riemann problem by an approximate one, the infor-
mation provided by the exact solution is partially lost in any case, due to
spatial averaging in each cell, which makes less significant the error in the
approximation [8].
In the conservative scheme of Lax-Friedrichs the fluxes at the ends are
calculated as
+ c f (un ) + c − 1 f (un ),
fi+ 1 = 1 2c
2
i 2c i+1
(2.64)
1 + c n c − 1
fi− 1 = 2c f (ui−1 ) + 2c f (ui ), n
2

where c takes the value given by (2.27). If f (u) = au and we replace (2.64)
in equation (2.47), the finite differences scheme (2.31) of Lax-Friedrichs is
obtained.

2.6.8 Rankine-Hugoniot jump condition

In the preceding description of Godunov’s Method, the integral form is dis-
cretized, looking for weak solutions to the differential equation (2.38), when
the initial condition is discontinuous (Riemann problem).
Of course, any function u that is a “classical” solution (hence differen-
tiable) of the equation will be a weak solution. And a weak solution is a
“classical” solution in the intervals in which it is differentiable.
In the event that there is a discontinuity in a weak solution u(x, t), the
function will take values uL and uR at both sides of the discontinuity. Then
the following relationship, known as the Rankine-Hugoniot condition, is ver-
ified,
(uR − uL )S = f (uR ) − f (uL ) (2.65)
being S the speed at which the jump is transmitted.
The Rankine-Hugoniot condition is shown in [27, pg. 70], using the Leib-
nitz formula and in [20, pg. 212] based on geometrical considerations. In the
following examples we obtain this velocity S in two cases.
Example 1. The transport equation, where f (u) = au, a constant.
f (uR ) − f (uL ) auR − auL
S= = = a. (2.66)
uR − uL uR − uL
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 21

As we already knew (2.3), the wave moves at a constant speed a.

Example 2. Burgers equation. Now f (u) = 12 u2 .
1 2 1
uR − u2L uR + uL
S= 2 2 = . (2.67)
uR − uL 2
In this case, the speed of advance of the wave depends on the values of u at
both sides of the discontinuity.

2.7 Hyperbolic linear systems

In paragraphs 2.4 to 2.6 we have referred to the case of a partial differential
equation. Conservation laws are usually given in the form of a system of
nonlinear equations. We will describe some techniques, for the case of linear
systems, which can be extended to nonlinear systems.
Let a linear system of partial differential equations

Ut + AUx = 0, U = {uj }, j = 1, 2 . . . m, (2.68)

where U is the variables vector and Am×m a constant matrix. The system
is called hyperbolic if A is diagonalizable, i.e. if it has m real eigenvalues
λi and m eigenvectors linearly independent ki . It is strictly hyperbolic if all
the eigenvalues are different.
Calling Λ the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues and X the matrix whose
columns are the eigenvectors ki , it holds

A = XΛX−1 . (2.69)

The existence of X−1 allows us to define a new vector of variables

V = {vj }j=1,2...m = X−1 U. (2.70)

Using the relationships (2.69) and U = XV it results, from (2.68),

XVt + XΛX−1 XVx = XVt + XΛVx = X (Vt + ΛVx ) = 0, (2.71)

from where
Vt + ΛVx = 0. (2.72)
Thus the system in canonical or characteristic form has been obtained.
Each of the resulting m uncoupled equations have only one variable involved
∂vj ∂vj
+ λj =0 j = 1, 2 . . . m, (2.73)
∂t ∂x
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 22

and take the form of the 1D transport equation. Thus, the system can be seen
as a combination of m waves traveling at their characteristic velocities
given by the m eigenvalues λj . These eigenvalues (or characteristic values)
define the characteristic curves x(t) = x0 + λj t, (see 2.3, along which the
information corresponding to each one of the characteristic variables {vj }
propagates.
With the above said we have made a basis change to the set of eigenvectors
ki . The characteristic variables can be interpreted then as the components
of the variables vector U in the reference system formed by the eigenvectors
(being X−1 the basis change matrix) or, what is the same, as the projections
of the vector U on the eigenvectors.
After solving the system (2.73), the values U can be obtained from the
relationship (2.70). For example, let us consider the system
   
u1 2u1
Ut + Fx = 0, U = , F= (2.74)
u2 u1 + u2
which, by applying the rule of the chain, changes to
   
u1 2 0
Ut + AUx = 0, U = , A= . (2.75)
u2 1 1
From matrix A we obtain
   
1 0 −1 1 0
λ1 = 2, λ2 = 1, X = , X = . (2.76)
1 1 −1 1
Then, using the base change (2.70), the characteristic variables are found to
be       
v1 1 0 u1 u1
= = , (2.77)
v2 −1 1 u2 u2 − u1
and, using these variables, we obtain the decoupled system
∂v1 ∂v1
+2 =0 (2.78)
∂t ∂x
∂v2 ∂v2
+1 = 0. (2.79)
∂t ∂x
Then, if the initial condition of the problem is
v1 (x, 0) = v10 (x); v2 (x, 0) = v20 (x), (2.80)
the system solution will be, as in (2.10)
v1 (x, t) = v10 (x − 2t), v2 (x, t) = v20 (x − t), ∀x ∈ R, ∀t ≥ 0 (2.81)
and we can undo the variables change by using the matrix X
      
u1 1 0 v1 v1
= = . (2.82)
u2 1 1 v2 v1 + v2
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 23

2.8 Non-centered schemes for linear systems

As we have just seen, the linear hyperbolic system (2.68)

Ut + AUx = 0

can decouple, becoming m equations (2.73), each one involving a single vari-
able. But the non-centered conservative scheme studied in the scalar case
(2.38) can only be applied to this system if all eigenvalues have the same sign.
Then, in a general case, with eigenvalues of both signs, we will discretize up-
wind for the positive ones and downwind for the negatives. The practical
way to accomplish this is to decompose the matrix A into two, one with
positive or zero eigenvalues and the other with negative or zero eigenvalues.
Scheme CIR. Calling

+ λj si λj ≥ 0,
λj = (2.83)
0 si λj < 0,

− λj si λj ≤ 0,
λj = (2.84)
0 si λj > 0,

the CIR scheme (2.26) applied to a decoupled hyperbolic linear system (in
canonical form) is
4t +
4t −
{vj }n+1


= {vj }ni − λ {vj }ni − {vj }ni−1 − λ {vj }ni+1 − {vj }ni ,
i 4x j 4x j
j = 1, 2 . . . m.
(2.85)
Let Λ be the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues λj , Λ of the λj , Λ of the λ−
+ + −
j
and |Λ| of the absolute values |λj |. It holds

Λ = Λ+ + Λ− , (2.86)
|Λ| = Λ+ − Λ− . (2.87)

If we define

A+ = XΛ+ X−1 , (2.88)

A− = XΛ− X−1 , (2.89)
|A| = X |Λ| X−1 , (2.90)

it results

A+ + A− = A, (2.91)
A+ − A− = X |Λ| X−1 = |A| . (2.92)
CHAPTER 2. ONE DIMENSIONAL APPROACH 24

And the CIR scheme can be written then in vector form, either in terms of
characteristic variables
4t + n 4t − n
Vin+1 = Vin − n
Λ (Vi − Vi−1 )− Λ (Vi+1 − Vin ), (2.93)
4x 4x
or -by means of the matrix X - in terms of the starting variables
4t + n 4t − n
Un+1
i = Uni − A (Ui − Uni−1 ) − A (Ui+1 − Uni ). (2.94)
4x 4x

Techniques of flux splitting use expressions like (2.94).

Godunov Method. The linear hyperbolic system (2.68), is considered
again, now written in conservative form

Ut + Fx = 0, F(U) = AU. (2.95)

The Godunov first order upwind scheme uses the conservative formula anal-
ogous to (2.58)
n+1 n 4t  n n

Ui = Ui − Fi+ 1 − Fi− 1 , (2.96)
4x 2 2

where, similarly to (2.61), the flux terms of the cell borders are
 
Fi± 1 = F Ui± 1 (0) , (2.97)
2 2

being Ui− 1 (0) and Ui+ 1 (0) the solutions of RP (Uni−1 , Uni ) and RP (Uni , Uni+1 )
2 2
respectively.
Numerical flows at the ends of the interval are calculated from the values
of F and U in the anterior and posterior points yielding the expressions [27,
pg. 185]
1 n 1
Fi + Fni+1 − |A| Uni+1 − Uni ,



Fi+ 1 = (2.98)
2 2 2
1 n 1
Fi−1 + Fni − |A| Uni − Uni−1 ,



Fi− 1 = (2.99)
2 2 2
where |A| takes the value given by (2.90).
That is, the resulting value for the flux vector at the left and right borders
of the cell is the mean of the values at the points (i − 1, i) and (i, i + 1)
respectively, with an upwinding term.
The Q- schemes use expressions like (2.98) and (2.99).
Chapter 3

Two-dimensional flow equations

3.1 Types of flow. Turbulent flow

The importance of the inertia forces with respect to the viscous ones in a
particular flow is quantified by the dimensionless Reynolds number, which is
calculated as the quotient between the two forces. Considering the magni-
tudes involved in both forces one obtains the usual expression of Re

ρV 2 L2 VL
Re = = . (3.1)
µV L ν
V and L are the characteristic velocity and length of the flow and ν is the
ratio between the dynamic viscosity and the density, called kinematic viscos-
ity. It is observed experimentally that for values below the so-called critical
Reynolds number the adjacent fluid layers slide over each other in an orderly
way, which is called laminar regime. In a laminar regime, if the boundary
conditions do not vary with time, the flux is permanent.
For values above critical Re, the flow behavior changes, becoming random
and chaotic. The movement becomes non permanent, even with constant
boundary conditions. It is called turbulent regime.
The random nature of turbulent flow and the high frequency with which
the magnitudes vary make extremely difficult in practice a complete descrip-
tion of the movement of all fluid particles. Let u, v, w the velocity components
and p the pressure. One can decompose a magnitude (for instance a velocity
component u) in the sum of its average value (u) and the turbulent fluc-
tuation (u0 ). A turbulent flow is then characterized by the average values
(u, v, w, p) and the statistical properties of the fluctuations (u0 , v 0 , w0 , p0 ).
Even in flows where average velocities and pressures vary only in one or
two spatial dimensions, the turbulent fluctuations are three-dimensional. If

25
CHAPTER 3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW EQUATIONS 26

we can visualize a turbulent flow we find fluid portions in rotation, called

turbulent eddies. These have a wide spectrum of sizes being the largest
eddies comparable to the dimensions of the domain. Inertial forces dominate
in larger eddies, while its effect is negligible compared with the viscous forces
in the smallest.
The energy required to maintain the motion of the larger eddies flow
comes from the mean flow. On the other hand, smaller eddies obtained
energy mainly from the higher ones. Thus kinetic energy is transmitted to
increasingly smaller eddies through a cascade process, until it is dissipated
by viscous forces. This dissipation causes the additional energy losses related
to the turbulent flows.

3.2 Average value and fluctuation

As mentioned in the previous section, a magnitude ϕ, which generally de-
pends on time, can be decomposed into the sum of its average value plus a
fluctuation component around this value.

ϕ(t) = ϕ(t) + ϕ0 (t). (3.2)

Although it does not appear explicitly in the expression of ϕ and ϕ, both are
a function of the coordinates of the considered point (x, y, z).
The temporal average of ϕ(t), for a given point, can be defined in dif-
ferent ways. For the cases considered here, of unsteady flow we will use the
expression [21, pg. 278]
Z t+ 4t
1 2
ϕ(t) = ϕ(θ)dθ, (3.3)
4t t− 4t
2

where the choosen 4t must be greater than the time scale of the turbulence
and lower than the time scale of the average flow. For example, in an estuary
it can be considered that the period of the turbulent oscillation of the veloc-
ity is less than one second, while the tide period is about 12 hours. After
performing the time average (3.3), the mean flow continues oscillating under
the influence of the tide.

3.3 Navier-Stokes Equations

The shallow water equations are derived from the Navier-Stokes equations,
which govern the behavior of a viscous fluid in three dimensions.
CHAPTER 3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW EQUATIONS 27

In incompressible fluids, density is independent of the pressure. In these

fluids, mass per unit of volume can vary, for example due to temperature,
but is considered constant with respect to the position and time.
Be a Cartesian system x, y, z, with z positive upward. Calling u, v, w the
components of the velocity vector u, these equations are expressed as:
Continuity Equation (conservation of mass)

∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + = 0. (3.4)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Dynamic Equation (conservation of momentum)

du ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p
= +u +v +w = Fx − + ν∆u, (3.5)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x
dv ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v 1 ∂p
= +u +v +w = Fy − + ν∆v, (3.6)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂y
dw ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w 1 ∂p
= +u +v +w = Fz − + ν∆w. (3.7)
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂z

The vector F = (Fx , Fy , Fz )T is the force per unit mass; p is the pressure; ρ
µ
is the density; ν = ρ is the kinematic viscosity, µ is the dynamic viscosity.
Adding to each of the three dynamic equations the continuity equation
multiplied by u, v and w respectively, and using the ∇ operator for divergence
and ∇2 for the Laplacian, the system takes the form

∇·u = 0, (3.8)
∂u 1 ∂p
+ ∇ · uu = Fx − ∇2 u,
+ ν∇ (3.9)
∂t ρ ∂x
∂v 1 ∂p
+ ∇ · vu = Fy − ∇2 v,
+ ν∇ (3.10)
∂t ρ ∂y
∂w 1 ∂p
+ ∇ · wu = Fz − ∇2 w.
+ ν∇ (3.11)
∂t ρ ∂z

3.4 Reynolds Equations in 3D

These equations govern turbulent movement of an incompressible fluid. To
get them we replace, in the Navier-Stokes equations, the velocity and pressure
by their time-averaged values plus the fluctuation terms.

u = (u, v, w), u = u + u0 , v = v + v0, w = w + w0 , p = p + p0 (3.12)

CHAPTER 3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW EQUATIONS 28

and calculate the time average of each equation, obtaining

∇ · u = 0, (3.13)
∂u 1 ∂p
+ ∇ · u u + ∇ · u0 u0 = Fx − ∇2 u,
+ ν∇ (3.14)
∂t ρ ∂x
∂v 1 ∂p
+ ∇ · v u + ∇ · v 0 u0 = Fy − ∇2 v,
+ ν∇ (3.15)
∂t ρ ∂y
∂w 1 ∂p
+ ∇ · w u + ∇ · w0 u0 = Fz − ∇2 w.
+ ν∇ (3.16)
∂t ρ ∂z
The resulting equations have the same structure as equations (3.8)-(3.11),
with two differences: the variables u, v, w, p have been replaced by their
average values and new ones have been added on the left member. If we
develop them and place them on the right, we obtain the 3D Reynolds
equations:
∇ · u = 0, (3.17)
" #
∂u 1 ∂p ∂u0 2 ∂u0 v 0 ∂u0 w0
+ ∇ · u u = Fx − ∇2 u −
+ ν∇ + + , (3.18)
∂t ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
" #
∂v 1 ∂p ∂u 0v0 ∂v 02 ∂v 0 w0
+ ∇ · v u = Fy − ∇2 v −
+ ν∇ + + , (3.19)
∂t ρ ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z
" #
∂w 1 ∂p ∂u 0 w0 ∂v 0 w0 ∂w 02
+ ∇ · w u = Fz − ∇2 w −
+ ν∇ + + .(3.20)
∂t ρ ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
The cross products of the turbulent fluctuations of velocity multiplied by
density have dimensions of force/area and they are called Reynolds stresses.
According to the Boussinesq hypothesis, these stresses are proportional to
the derivative of the time averages of the velocity components, being µt ,
turbulent dynamic viscosity, the coefficient of proportionality. Operating,
simplifying and assuming ν + νt ≈ νt we obtain:
∇·u = 0, (3.21)
∂u 1 ∂p ∂u
+∇ · uu = Fx − + ∇ · νt ∇ u + ∇ · νt , (3.22)
∂t ρ ∂x ∂x
∂v 1 ∂p ∂u
+∇·vu = Fy − + ∇ · νt ∇ v + ∇ · νt , (3.23)
∂t ρ ∂y ∂y
∂w 1 ∂p ∂u
+∇·wu = Fz − + ∇ · νt ∇ w + ∇ · νt . (3.24)
∂t ρ ∂z ∂z
These expressions are very similar to the Navier Stokes Eq. (3.8)-(3.11) with
the difference that the instantaneous values of velocity and pressure have
CHAPTER 3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW EQUATIONS 29

been replaced by their time averages, the viscosity by the turbulent viscosity
νt = µt /ρ and a new addend has appeared in the source term, which is
negligible if we assume that the spatial variation of νt is very small.

3.5 The Shallow Water equations

There are flows in nature in which the horizontal dimensions are clearly
predominant. If, in addition, the vertical variation in the horizontal velocity
component is small and there are little vertical accelerations, these flows
can often be described by means of a set of equations in two dimensions,
resulting of the vertical integration of the 3D equations. To obtain them
some hypothesis are made:

a) Small bottom slope.

b) The distribution of pressure is assumed to be hydrostatic .

c) The main movement of particles occurs in horizontal planes.

d) The vertical distribution of u, v is nearly uniform.

e) The mass forces are gravity and the Coriolis force.

f) The vertical acceleration of the particles is negligible compared to g.

g) The contours friction in unsteady flow, can be evaluated using formulae

valid for steady flow, like Manning.

The shallow water equations in two dimensions are expressed as

∂U ∂F1 ∂F2
+ + = G, (3.25)
∂t ∂x ∂y
being the variables vector  
h
U =  hu  , (3.26)
hv
terms F1 and F2

hu hv
   

F1 =  hu2 + 21 gh2  , F2 =  huv , (3.27)

huv 2 1
hv + 2 gh2
CHAPTER 3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW EQUATIONS 30

and the source term

 
0
τsx
G =  f vh + ρ + gh(S0x − Sf x ) + St1  . (3.28)
 
τ
−f uh + ρsy + gh(S0y − Sf y ) + St2

The variable h represents the depth measured vertically, u, v are the averages
in the vertical of the horizontal components of the velocity, f is the Coriolis
coefficient, τs evaluates the effect of wind, S0 and SF are the geometric and
frictional slopes.
∂zb ∂zb
S0x = − , S0y = − , (3.29)
∂x ∂y
√ √
n2 u u2 + v 2 n2 v u 2 + v 2
Sf x = , Sf y = . (3.30)
h4/3 h4/3
The two components of the turbulent term St have the following expressions
    
∂ ∂u ∂ ∂v ∂u
St1 = 2νt h + νt h + , (3.31)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
    
∂ ∂v ∂u ∂ ∂v
St2 = νt h + + 2νt h . (3.32)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y

Expressions (3.25)-(3.28) are known as the Shallow Water Equations in con-

servative form. It is common not to take into account neither the Coriolis
and wind stress terms nor the turbulent term.
Chapter 4

Application to the 2D SWE

4.1 Types of finite volumes

The use of the finite volume method in computational fluid dynamics is
relatively recent. According to Hirsch [17, pg. 237] it was introduced by
McDonald in 1971 and independently by Mc Cormack and Paullay in 1972
for solving the Euler equations in 2D. In 1973 Rizzi and Inouye extended it
to three-dimensional flows. Eymard et al. [13] attribute their introduction,
ten years earlier, to Tichonov and Samarskii for solving convection-diffusion
equations. In [13, pg. 9] a long list of works devoted to the mathematical
analysis of the method is mentioned.
To use this method we usually start from a previous discretization of the
computational domain in elements, normally triangles or quadrangles, from
which the new mesh or finite volume cells is built. In each of these volumes
the integral form of the equations is obtained, simplified by applying the
divergence theorem and discretized. The resulting expressions establish the
exact conservation of relevant flow properties in each cell. The terms of
the equations are replaced by approximations of the finite difference type,
obtaining algebraic equations that are solved by an iterative process. We
briefly describe below some of the most commonly used finite volumes [4, 15].

4.1.1 Cell-type finite volumes

The cell type (or cell-center) finite volumes [15, pg. 366] are the same initial
grid cells and the values of the dependent variables are stored in the cell
center (centers of quadrilaterals or barycenters of triangles). This method
has the advantage of using the initial mesh and the disadvantage that the
nodes to which the variables values are assigned -which represent the cell

31
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATION TO THE 2D SWE 32

values and are used in the discretization- do not coincide with the nodes of
the original mesh.

4.1.2 Vertex-type finite volumes

The vertex type (or cell-vertex) finite volumes [15, pg. 368] use the vertices of
the initial mesh as nodes of the finite volume mesh and the new cells are built
around them. In contrast to the previous case, the initial mesh vertices are
used and assigned the variables values in each finite volume. In this method
the implementation of boundary conditions is simpler, since the value of the
variables in the boundary nodes are known. The drawback is that a new
mesh has to be built (dual mesh).

4.1.3 Edge-type finite volumes

This type of finite volumes, not usual in literature, is described in [31, pg.
87]. To obtain them we start from a mesh formed by triangles, each of which
is divided into three, by joining each vertex with the barycentre. Then the
subtriangles are joined in pairs so that each finite volume is formed by the
two subtriangles with an edge of the initial mesh in common. The center
of the finite volume is the midpoint of the edge. With this method, the
angular points of the contour -that belong to the initial mesh- are not nodes
of the finite volume mesh, what avoids two difficulties. The first is related
to the velocity vector: since fluid do not passes through the walls, in nodes
corresponding to solid boundary the velocity vector must be parallel to the
boundary, which gives problems in angular points. Another difficulty is the
calculation of the perpendicular to the boundary edges at such points, which
have two perpendicular. On the other hand, the initial nodes are not used.
To obtain the values in these nodes we must interpolate.

4.2 Description of the finite volumes used

The finite volumes used in this work are based on a triangular discretization
of the domains so that the nodes of the triangular mesh are used as the nodes
of the finite volume mesh.
For each node I, the barycenters of the triangles with I as a common vertex
and the mid-points of the edges that meet at I are taken. The boundary Γi
of the cell Ci is obtained by joining these points and Γij = AMB represents
the common part of Γi and Γj .
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATION TO THE 2D SWE 33

The outward normal vector to Γij is η ij and it can be different at AM

and at MB. The norm of η ij , kηη ij k, is the length of the edge and ηeij is the
corresponding unit vector
η ij
ηeij = αij , βeij )T .
= (e (4.1)
kηη ij k

The subcell Tij is the union of triangles AMI and MBI (see Figure 4.1). Their
areas are
kηijAM kdAM
ij kηijM B kdM
ij
B
Aij1 = , Aij2 = , (4.2)
2 2
where the values dij represent the triangle height.

K
Gi

I
Ci
Ti j I
A B
M B G
M ij
hijMB
A hijAM
J

Figure 4.1: Construction of the finite volumes.

4.3 Terms considered in the equations

To apply the finite volume method to the Shallow Water Equations, first one
has to decide which parts of the source term will be taken into account. In
this regard, 1) the Coriolis term has almost no importance if the domain is
not large; 2) it is usually neglected the influence of the wind, although in some
cases, such as estuaries of some magnitude, it may be advisable to consider
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATION TO THE 2D SWE 34

it; and 3) the turbulent term is frequently not taken into consideration,
assuming that its effects are included in the bottom friction term.
Removing the mentioned addends from the source term the equations
(3.25)-(3.28) reduce to
∂U ∂F1 ∂F2
+ + = G, (4.3)
∂t ∂x ∂y
being
hu hv
     
h
U =  hu  , F1 =  hu2 + 21 gh2  , F2 =  huv  , (4.4)
hv huv 2 1
hv + 2 gh2

 
0
G =  gh(S0x − Sf x )  . (4.5)
gh(S0y − Sf y )
The geometric slopes, defined in terms of zb by (3.29) (see Fig.4.2), will be
expressed in terms of H, which represents the distance to the bottom from a
fixed reference level, positive downward. Thus the slopes are positive if the
ground descend and negative otherwise.
∂H ∂H
S0x = , S0y = . (4.6)
∂x ∂y
The friction slopes are
√ √
n2 u u2 + v 2 n2 v u 2 + v 2
Sf x = , Sf y = , (4.7)
h4/3 h4/3
where n is the Manning coefficient, h the depth and u, v the horizontal com-
ponents of the velocity. The conservative variables hu, hv represent the dis-
charge per unit width in a rectangular channel. In Figure 4.2 a section of
the domain by a vertical plane y = y0 is represented.

4.4 Integration and discretization

Using the simbolic notation
F (U) = (F1 (U), F2 (U)), (4.8)
the system (4.3) can be written in a more compact form
∂U
+ ∇ · F = G, (4.9)
∂t
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATION TO THE 2D SWE 35

Z Water surface

h(x,y0,t)

H(x,y0)
Bottom surface

zb

Figure 4.2: Variables H and h.

 
being ∇ the operator ∂ , ∂ and ∇ · F the divergence of F .
∂x ∂y
The computational domain is divided into a set of finite volumes Ci ,
defined in 4.2, and the surface integral is calculated in each of them, obtaining
ZZ ZZ ZZ
∂U
dA + ∇ · F dA = G dA. (4.10)
Ci ∂t Ci Ci

The divergence theorem is applied to the second term, turning the surface
integral into a line integral along Γi , the cell border,
ZZ Z ZZ
∂U
dA + F · ηe dl = G dA. (4.11)
Ci ∂t Γi Ci

If the second term is moved to the other side and a minus sign is introduced
in the integral, it results
ZZ Z ZZ
∂U
dA = F · (−e
ηe) dl + G dA. (4.12)
Ci ∂t Γi Ci

This equation can be interpreted saying that in an arbitrary domain (in

particular, in each finite volume), the rate of variation of the conservative
variables contained in U bar is given by minus the integral form of the flux of
F normal to the boundary of the domain plus the “amount” of U generated
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATION TO THE 2D SWE 36

in the domain [22, pg. 6.20]. That is, the variation in time of U is due to
the net flux of F towards the inside of the cell plus the variation due to the
source term.

4.4.1 Discretization of the time derivative

The solution of equation (4.3) is approximated by some values Uni , constant
in each cell Ci and time tn , which are assigned to node I corresponding to
the cell.
The time derivative is discretized by the Forward Euler Method
Un+1 − Uni

∂U  i
≈ . (4.13)
∂t Ci ,tn 4t

Then equation (4.11) becomes

Un+1 − Uni
ZZ Z ZZ
i
dA + F · ηe dl = GdA. (4.14)
Ci 4t Γi Ci

In the first term, Un+1

i , Uni and 4t have constant values in the cell, so they
can go out of the integral, resulting
Un+1 − Uni Un+1 − Uni
ZZ
i
dA = i Ai . (4.15)
Ci 4t 4t

4.4.2 Integration of the flux and source terms

In the second addend of (4.14) the line integral splits in a sum of integrals
along each of the edges Γij , j ∈ Ki
Z X Z
F · ηe dl = F · ηe dl. (4.16)
Γi j∈Ki Γij

The surface integral of the source term splits into a sum of integrals over the
subcells Tij , j ∈ Ki
ZZ X ZZ
GdA = GdA. (4.17)
Ci j∈Ki Tij

Thus (4.14) becomes

Un+1
i − Uni X Z X ZZ
Ai + F · ηe dl = GdA. (4.18)
4t j∈K Γij j∈K Tij
i i
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATION TO THE 2D SWE 37

4.4.3 Definition of the discretized flux

The sum (4.16) will now be expressed in terms of the values of the variables
at node I and Nj , j ∈ Ki , using an upwind scheme.
The dot product of F and ηe is called 2D flux through a segment of unit
length
Z = F · ηe = α
eF1 + βF
e 2, (4.19)
where (eα, β)
e are the components of the unit vector normal to the edge.
To discretize the flux different proposals have been made. In this case,
we will use the Van Leer Q-scheme [30], as proposed in [5, 31].
The Q-schemes are a family of upwind schemes, in which the numerical
flow is obtained as follows
Z(Uni , ηeij ) + Z(Unj , ηeij ) 1  
φ(Uni , Unj , ηeij )
= − Q(UnQ , ηeij ) (Unj − Uni ),
2 2
(4.20)
n n
where Ui , Uj represent the values of the variables vector at I and J; Q is
the jacobian matrix of flux
dZ dF1 e dF2
Q= =α
e +β ; (4.21)
dU dU dU
Matrix |Q| is obtained as

|Q| = X |Λ| X−1 , (4.22)

being |Λ| the diagonal matrix of the absolute values of the eigenvectors of Q
and X the matrix whose columns are the eigenvectors of Q; in the Van Leer
Q-scheme, |Q| is evaluated in the intermediate state

Uni + Unj
UnQ = . (4.23)
2
Then, expression (4.20) that discretizes the 2D flux in the middle point be-
tween I and J is obtained as the mean value of the fluxes at both points plus
an upwinding term.
Note that in (4.21), the derivatives of F1 and F2 with respect to the
variables vector U are the factors that appear when writing the equation
(4.3) in the nonconservative form.

∂U ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂U dF1 ∂U dF2 ∂U

+ + = + + = G. (4.24)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂t dU ∂x dU ∂y
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATION TO THE 2D SWE 38

The shallow water equations are a strictly hyperbolic system (see 2.7), i.e.
the flux Jacobian matrix has three different eigenvalues and three linearly
independent eigenvectors, so there will always be X−1 . Indeed
 
0 1 0
dF1 
= −u2 + gh 2u 0  , (4.25)
dU
−uv v u

 
0 0 1
dF2 
= −uv v u , (4.26)
dU 2
−v + gh 0 2v

therefore, applying (4.21), it results

 
0 α βe
dZ
e
= α e(−u2 + gh) + β(−uv) 2e
αu + βv βu . (4.27)
 e e e 
dU 2
α
e(−uv) + β(−v + gh)
e α
ev α
eu + 2βv
e

If c is the speed of the wave p

c= gh, (4.28)
the eigenvalues of the Jacobian matrix are

λ1 = α
eu + βv,
e
λ2 = λ1 + c, (4.29)
λ3 = λ1 − c,

and matrices |Λ| , X and X−1 can be calculated

 
|λ1 | 0 0
|Λ| =  0 |λ2 | 0  , (4.30)
0 0 |λ3 |

0 1 1
 

X =  −βce u+α ec u − αec  , (4.31)

α e v − βc
ec v + βc e
 
e − 2e
2βu αv −2βe 2e α
1 
X−1 =  c−αeu − βv α βe  . (4.32)
e 
2c
e
c+αeu + βv
e −eα −βe
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATION TO THE 2D SWE 39

Thus, the second member of (4.16) is discretized as

X Z X
F · ηe dl ≈ φnij ,
kηη ij kφ (4.33)
j∈Ki Γij j∈Ki

being φnij the discretized unit flux

(e e 2 )n + (e
αF1 + βF e 2 )n 1
αF1 + βF
i j
φnij = − (X |Λ| X−1 )UQn (Unj − Uni ). (4.34)
2 2

4.4.4 Definition of the discretized source

The convenience of the upwinding of the source term has been analyzed
by Vázquez Cendón [31]. In this work she studies the discretization of the
geometric source term in the 1D shallow water equations and proposes, for
the 2D case, an extension of the 1D expression, verifying that gives good
results. Here we will upwind the source term containing the geometric slope
and calculate the friction slope in the center of each cell. According to the
above, the two-dimensional discretized source in each subcell Tij is defined
as
ψ = X(I − |Λ| Λ−1 )X−1 G b0 + Gb f, (4.35)
ψ = (I − |Q| Q−1 )G b0 + Gb f where X, X−1 , |Λ| and Λ−1 are calculated at
(UnQ , ηeij ), Matrices |Λ| , X y X−1 are given respectively by (4.30), (4.31) and
(4.32). Λ−1 is  
1/λ1 0 0
Λ−1 =  0 1/λ2 0 , (4.36)
0 0 1/λ3
G
b 0 approximates the geometric source term
 
0
 
 hni + hnj Hj − Hi
 

G  g
b0 =  2 dij
α (4.37)
e 

 
 
 hn + hn H − H 
g i 2 j j ie
β
dij
and G
b f approximates the friction source term, evaluated en each cell center.
 
0
 
 
Gb f =  ghni (−Sf x )ni . (4.38)
 
 
ghni (−Sf y )ni
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATION TO THE 2D SWE 40

(e
α, β)
e and dij take the values given by expressions (4.1) and (4.2) and the
friction slopes aregiven by (4.7). The sum of (4.17) is then expressed as
X ZZ X
G dA ≈ Aij ψ nij , (4.39)
j∈Ki Tij j∈Ki

where Aij takes the expressions given in (4.2) for each subtriangle of the
subcell Tij and ψ nij is calculated from (4.35). Note that dij represents the
distance from I to the edge AM .

4.4.5 Discretization of the boundary conditions

To discretize the flux term in the contour of the cell and the source term
in each subcell we use the variables values at I and its neighbor J. In the
case of the boundary nodes, there are no neighboring nodes on the other side
of the edge (Figure 4.1). We assume, for these edges, that the neighboring
node is the same node I, which means that we do not upwind the flux (as
the upwinding term is zero). Furthermore, the area of each subcell is a factor
of the discretized source. As edges have zero area, we do not consider the
source terms in these nodes.

4.4.6 Obtaining of the time step

There are different expressions for calculating the time step that ensures
stability. For the one dimensional case, taking a maximum value of Courant
number equal to 1, the condition used in [18, pg. 283] is

min (4x)i
4t ≤ , (4.40)
max (|u| + c)i

being (4x)i the cell width, u the velocity and c the celerity.
For the 2D case, [1, pg. 233] proposes
!
Dij
4t ≤ min √ , (4.41)
2( u2 + v 2 + c)ij

being Dij the distances beween node I and its four neighborgs. This has
been the formula used in the present work.
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATION TO THE 2D SWE 41

4.5 Algorithm
A forward discretization of the time derivative and two others for the flux
and source terms, which are evaluated at time tn have been obtained. Thus
(4.18) now takes the form

Un+1
i − Uni X X
Ai + φnij =
kηη ij kφ Aij ψ nij , (4.42)
4t j∈K j∈K
i i

from where
!
4t X X
Un+1
i = Uni + Aij ψ nij − φnij
kηη ij kφ . (4.43)
Ai j∈Ki j∈Ki

The above expression provides a explicit in time iterative method for cal-
culating the value of the variables vector U on each node I and in every
moment, from the variables values in the previous time, on the same node I
and the Nj , j ∈ Ki that surround it.
Chapter 5

Some results

5.1 Types of boundary conditions

The conditions usually used for channel flow are of Dirichlet type: the values
of some variables at certain points are set.

• Upstream section. In subcritical flow: discharge. In supercritical flow:

discharge and depth.

• Downstream section. In subcritical flow: depth. In supercritical flow:

none.

• Side walls: In channels where we simulate unidimensional flow, we

impose the slip-condition, i.e. we cancel the velocity component per-
pendicular to the wall. This means considering section wide enough to
neglect the friction on the walls. In the two-dimensional flow, the wall
friction is considered by changing the value of the hydraulic radius of
the nodes in contact with it.

5.2 One dimensional problems

Both the one dimensional and the two dimensional examples have been cal-
culated with the two dimensional model. In the one dimensional ones a
symmetric channel with a symmetric mesh has been considered with the slip-
condition (no friction) as the boundary condition in walls. In these cases, we
represent the depth along a longitudinal section.

42
CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 43

5.2.1 Straight channel with slope and bottom friction

The calculations have been performed for a channel 2 m wide by 1, 000 m
long. The mesh is formed by right angled triangles whose arms are 1 m long
with a total of 3003 nodes. The unit discharge is q = 4 m2 /s, and the critical
depth is
 2 1/3
q
yc = = 1.18 m. (5.1)
g
Two flows, one subcritical and another supercritical have been simulated.

a) Subcritical flow: The slope is S0 = 0.001 and the Manning coefficient

n = 0.015 (concrete) [10, pg. 109]. The normal depth is

n0.6 q 0.6
yn = = 1.47 m, (5.2)
S00.3

greater than yc . As the flow is subcritical, the imposed boundary con-

ditions are: discharge at the inlet section and depth at the outlet. Two
cases are solved: the first one with an imposed depth of hbc = 1.75 m,
greater than yn , the second one with hbc = 1.20 m < yn . In both cases
the initial conditions are still water and constant depth equal to the
hbc . The flow profile (of type M1 and M2, respectively) can be seen in
figures 5.1 and 5.2. In both cases the depth gradually approaches its
normal value.

b) Supercritical flow: The values are S0 = 0.002 and n = 0.01 (glass). In

this case the normal depth results

n0.6 q 0.6
yn = = 0.94 m, (5.3)
S00.3

smaller than yc . The boundary conditions (supercritical flow) are im-

posed at the inlet. In the first case hbc = 1.15 m > yn and in the second
hbc = 0.70 m < yn . The initial conditions are the same as above. The
flow profiles are of types S2 and S3, (figures 5.3 and 5.4 respectively).
Again the depth gradually approaches its normal value in both cases.
 Z0 H+Z0
732 1 2.472732 2
945 0.98 2.454945 2
571 0.96 2.43571 2
548 0.94 2.416548 CHAPTER
2 5. SOME RESULTS 44
465 0.92 2.397465 2
467 0.9 2.378467 2
562 0.88 2.359562 2
755 0.86 2.340755 2
Superficie libre Solera
057 0.84 2.322057 2
476 0.82 2.303476 2 3.25
022 0.8 2.285022 2 3
704 0.78 2.266704 2 2.75
532 0.76 2.248532 2 2.5
514 0.74 2.230514 2 2.25
658 0.72 2.212658 2 2
974 0.7 2.194974 2 1.75
472 0.68 2.177472 2 1.5
161 0.66 2.160161 2 1.25
053 0.64 2.143053 2 1
158 0.62 2.126158 2 0.75
489 0.6 2.109489 2 0.5
055 0.58 2.093055 2 0.25
869 0.56 2.076869 2
0
941 0.54
Z0 2.060941
H+Z0 2
283 0.52 2.045283 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
015 1 2.466015 2
904
507 0.5
0.98 2.029904
2.447507 2
814
411 0.48
0.96 2.014814
2.427411 2
022 0.46 2.000022
Figure 5.1: Subcritical flow (M1). Downstream depth h > hn .
304 0.94 2.407304 2
537
185 0.44
0.92 1.985537
2.387185 2
366
052 0.42
0.9 1.971366
2.367052 2
516
906 0.4
0.88 1.957516
2.346906 2
993
743 0.38
0.86 1.943993
2.326743 2
802
563 0.36
0.84 1.930802
2.306563 2
945 0.34 1.917945 Superficie libre Solera
363 0.82 2.286363 2
425
143 0.32
0.8 1.905425
2.266143 2 3.25
244
899 0.3
0.78 1.893244
2.245899 2 3
401
563 0.28
0.76 1.881401
2.22563 2 2.75
898
333 0.26
0.74 1.869898
2.205333 2 2.5
732
004 0.24
0.72 1.858732
2.185004 2 2.25
903
642 0.22
0.7 1.847903
2.164642 2 2
408
242 0.2
0.68 1.837408
2.144242 2 1.75
245
638 0.18
0.66 1.827245
2.1238 2 1.5
409
313 0.16
0.64 1.817409
2.103313 2 1.25
896
775 0.14
0.62 1.807896
2.082775 2 1
787
218 0.12
0.6 1.7987
2.06218 2 0.75
816
524 0.1
0.58 1.789816
2.041524 2 0.5
237
799 0.08
0.56 1.781237
2.020799 2 0.25
955
998 0.06
0.54 1.772955
1.999998 2 0
964
113 0.04
0.52 1.764964
1.979113 2
255
133 0.02
0.5 1.757255
1.958133 2 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
1.75
049 0.480 1.75
1.937049 2
848 0.46 1.915848 2
516 0.44 1.894516 2
Figure 5.2: Subcritical flow (M2). Downstream depth h < hn .
038 0.42 1.873038 2
396 0.4 1.851396 2
569 0.38 1.829569 2
535 0.36 1.807535 2
264 0.34 1.785264 2
726 0.32 1.762726 2
882 0.3 1.739882 2
688 0.28 1.716688 2
088 0.26 1.693088 2
019 0.24 1.669019 2
398 0.22 1.644398 2
126 0.2 1.619126 2
H Z0 H+Z0
1.15 2 3.15 2
6159 1.96 3.036159 2
1311 1.92 2.961311 2
9393 1.88 2.899393 CHAPTER
2 5. SOME RESULTS 45
3739 1.84 2.843739 2
1874 1.8 2.791874 2
2563 1.76 2.742563 2
5088 1.72 2.695088 2
Superficie libre Solera
8991 1.68 2.648991 2
3958 1.64 2.603958 2 3.25
9768 1.6 2.559768 2 3
6253 1.56 2.516253 2 2.75
5329 1.52 2.47329 2 2.5
5078 1.48 2.43078 2 2.25
8646 1.44 2.388646 2 2
6827 1.4 2.346827 2 1.75
5272 1.36 2.305272 2 1.5
4394 1.32 2.26394 2 1.25
2797 1.28 2.222797 2 1
1815 1.24 2.181815 2 0.75
4097 1.2 2.14097 2 0.5
0243 1.16 2.100243 2 0.25
9615 1.12 2.059615 2 0
9074 1.08 2.019074 2
8607 1.04 1.978607 2 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
8203 Z0 1 H+Z0
1.938203 2
0.7
7854 2
0.96 2.7 22
1.897854
7175
7553 1.96
0.92 2.677175
1.857553 22
Figure 5.3: Supercritical flow (S2). Upstream depth h > hn .
3436
7292 1.92
0.88 2.653436
1.817292 22
8993
7066 1.88
0.84 2.628993
1.777066 22
3832
6871 1.84
0.8 2.603832
1.736871 22
7942
6702 1.8
0.76 2.577942
1.696702 22
1314
6556 1.76
0.72 2.551314
1.656556 22
Superficie libre Solera
3942
6431 1.72
0.68 2.523942
1.616431 22
5822
6328 1.68
0.64 1.576328 22 3.25
2.495822
6956
6252 1.64
0.6 2.466956
1.536252 22 3
7347
6207 1.6
0.56 1.496207 22 2.75
2.437347
7007
6196 1.56
0.52 2.407007
1.456196 22 2.5
5947
6206 1.52
0.48 1.416206 22 2.25
2.375947
4188
6226 1.48
0.44 2.344188
1.376226 22 2
1751
3625 1.44
0.4 2.311751
1.33625 22 1.75
8662
6274 1.4
0.36 2.278662
1.296274 22 1.5
4953
9363 1.36
0.32 2.244953
1.2563 22 1.25
6326
0655 0.28
1.32 1.216326 22
2.210655 1
6353
5803 0.24
1.28 1.176353 22 0.75
2.175803
6381
0434 0.2
1.24 1.136381 22
2.140434 0.5
6409
4585 0.16
1.2 1.096409 22 0.25
2.104585
6439
8294 0.12
1.16 1.056439 22
2.068294 0
3647
1597 0.08
1.12 1.01647 22
2.031597
6501
4531 0.04
1.08 0.976501 22
1.994531 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
6773
7129 1.040 0.936773 22
1.957129
9425 1 1.919425 2
1449 0.96 1.881449 2
Figure 5.4: Supercritical flow (S3). Upstream depth h < hn .
2323 0.92 1.84323 2
4794 0.88 1.804794 2
6166 0.84 1.766166 2
7367 0.8 1.727367 2
8418 0.76 1.688418 2
9335 0.72 1.649335 2
0136 0.68 1.610136 2
0834 0.64 1.570834 2
1442 0.6 1.531442 2
1972 0.56 1.491972 2
2433 0.52 1.452433 2
CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 46

5.2.2 Channel with an obstacle on the bottom

We study now the flow over an obstacle. The channel is 25 m long and 1 m
wide, with a parabolic obstacle in the bottom. The mesh is formed by right
angled triangles whose arms are 0.25 m long with a total of 505 nodes. The
bottom levels are given by

0.2 − 0.05(x − 10)2 si 8 < x < 12,
z(x) = (5.4)
0 en el resto del dominio.

The Manning coefficient is n = 0.01. Three cases are shown:

• Subcritical flow. The unit discharge is q = 4.42 m2 /s and the down-

stream fixed depth hbc = 2 m. The flow is subcritical and there must
be a decrease in the fluid depth when passing over the bump [9, pg.
35]. The computational result is represented in Figure 5.5.

• Transcritical flow with hydraulic jump. The unit discharge is q =

0.18 m2 /s and the downstram fixed depth 0.33 m. A flow transition
is produced over the obstacle (from sub to supercritical); then, due to
the downstream fixed depth (greater than yc ) there is a second flow
transition (from super to subcritical) through a hydraulic jump. The
result can be seen in Figure 5.6.

• Transcritical flow without hydraulic jump. The unit discharge is q =

1.53 m2 /s and the downstream depth is set at 0.66 m, only while the
flow is subcritical. As in the previous case, the flow is subcritical at
the beginning. Over the obstacle a flow transition is produced but,
by eliminating the downstream depth, the flow does not change to
subcritical. The result is shown in Figure 5.7.

The initial conditions are the same in the three cases: still water and hori-
zontal flow profile corresponding to the downstream depth hbc . The results
obtained in the tests coincide with those of [32].
 CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 47

Superficie libre Solera

2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.5429 0
0.543
0 5 10 15 20 25
0.543
0.5431
0.5431 Figure 5.5: Subcritical flow over a bump.
0.5432
0.5433
0.5433
0.5434
0.5434
0.5435
Superficie libre Solera
0.5436 0.42
0.5436
0.5437 0.36
0.5437
0.5438 0.3
0.5439
0.5439 0.24
0.544
0.544 0.18
0.5441
0.5442 0.12
0.5442
0.5443 0.06
0.5443
0.5444 0
0.5445
0 5 10 15 20 25
0.5445
0.5446
0.5446 Figure 5.6: Transcritical flow with hydraulic jump.
0.5447
0.5448
0.5448
0.5449
0.5449
0.545
0.545
0.5451
0.5452
0.5452
0.5453
0.5453
1.5235
1.5235
1.5233
1.5226 0.14
1.5195
1.599
1.6984
1.8054 0
1.9186
0
CHAPTER 5 RESULTS
5. SOME 10 15 20 25 48
2.0376
2.1621
2.2916
2.4254
2.558 Water surface Bottom
2.6536 1.251
2.8222
2.9858
3.1373
3.3513 0.834
3.5397
3.7248
3.7251
3.7254
3.7255 0.417
3.7255
3.7255
3.7255
3.7254 0
3.7254
0 5 10 15 20 25
3.7255
3.7256
Figure 5.7: Transcritical flow without hydraulic jump.

5.2.3 Dam break

In this section we simulate the progression of a wavefront in the so-called
Dam Break problem. The fluid is still with different depths on both sides
of one imaginary gate. At time t = 0 the gate is removed and the fluid is
allowed to evolve freely. The slip-condition is imposed on all the boundary.
The domain is a channel 4 x 200 m2 . The triangles that form the mesh
arms 1 m long with a total of 1, 005 nodes. The bottom is flat and without
friction. The gate is located at the midpoint of the channel. The calculation is
performed with dry and wet bottom, i.e. with the following initial conditions:
• Wet bottom
– Upstream depth: H1 = 1 m.
– Downstream depth: H0 = 0.1 m.
• Dry bottom
– Upstream depth: : H1 = 1 m.
– Downstream depth: H0 = 0.0 m.
In the first case, the depths are represented in the instant t = 25 s. The
model captures well the discontinuity that the front represents. In the second
CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 49

problem, with dry bottom, the depths at time t = 15 s are shown in Figure
5.9
In both cases the result is a good approximation of the exact solution for
1D, obtained from [28]. The analytical solutions can be found in[31, pg. 60]
and its obtaining in [25, pgs. 308 y 333].

5.2.4 Dam break with reflection

The last one dimensional problem is another case of Dam Break, in a channel
1 x 50 m2 , also with flat bottom and no friction. The arms of the triangles
of the mesh are 0.25 m long with a total of 1, 005 nodes. The gate is located
at the midpoint of the channel. The boundary conditions are slip-condition
on the sidewalls and zero discharge in the first and last channel sections.
After eliminating the gate, the wave begins to move on dry bed. Upon
reaching the limit of the domain, a reflection takes place and the front starts
moving in the opposite direction, now over wet bed. This going and coming
is repeated again and again, in each cycle decreasing the height of the front.
After 3140 seconds the representation of the free surface is a horizontal line
with the scale used in Figure 5.11.
 CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 50
200 0.1 0 0.1 0

Exacta Calculada
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200

Figure 5.8: Dam break over wet bed. t = 25 s.

199 0 0 0 0
200 0 0 0 0

Exacta Calculada
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200

Figure 5.9: Dam break over dry bed. t = 15 s.

CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 51

t=0 seg. t=2.1 seg. t=4 seg.

1 1 1

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2 0.2
0
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

t=5.7 seg. t=7.5 seg. t=9.5 seg.

1 1 1

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

t=11.5 seg. t=13.7 seg. t=15.9 seg.

1 1 1

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

Figure 5.10: Dam Break with reflection 1.

t=18.2 seg. t=20.8 seg. t=23.8 seg.

1 1 1

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

t=26.6 seg. t=29.3 seg. t=32 seg.

1 1 1

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

t=49.7 seg. t=65.8 seg. t=3140 seg.

1 1 1

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

Figure 5.11: Dam Break with reflection 2.

 CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 52

5.3 Two dimensional problems

5.3.1 Partial Dam Break
Now a two-dimensional Dam Break problem is solved. The domain is now
square divided into two parts by a wall. The gap in the wall is partial and
asymmetric. The domain is 200 x m2 with nodes every 5 m, with 1656
computational nodes. There is no friction on the bottom and walls.
Two cases are solved with the following initial conditions of depth:

• Depth: upstream
Frame 001  22 Apr 2004  ROTURA_P5 , DELTAT=
.310000, N= 23
H1 = 10 m and downstream H0 = 5 m.
Z
• Depth: upstream H1 = 5 m and downstream H0 = 0 m.

In Figure 5.12 a wavefront can be seen that, after a time t = 7.1 s, reaches
Y X
the right side of the contour. Figure 5.13 represents the velocity field. The
wavefront in Figure 5.14 is clearly different, due to dry bed condition. Finally
(Figure 5.15) shows the mesh used in both cases.

10

8
H

6
200

150
200
150 100
X
100 50
50
Y 0
0

Figure 5.12: 2D Dam Break. H1 /H0 = 2. t = 7.1 s.

 CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS
Frame 001  22 Apr 2004  ROTURA_P5 , DELTAT= .310000, N= 23
53

200

175

150

125

100
Y

75

50
Frame 001  22 Apr 2004  ROTURA_P6 , DELTAT= .310000, N= 23

25
Z

0 X
0 50 100 150 200 Y
X

Figure 5.13: 2D Dam Break. H1 /H0 = 2. Velocities. t = 7.1 s.

4
H

200
0
150
200
150 100
X
100 50
50
Y 0
0

Figure 5.14: 2D Dam Break. H0 = 0. t = 7.1 s.

 CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS
Frame 001  22 Apr 2004  ROTURA_P5 , DELTAT= .310000, N= 23
54

200

175

150

125

100
Y

75
Frame 001  27 Apr 2004  EscalaPcs3,CICLO= 1,ITKE= 0,TIEMPO= 23.3137 TIEMKE= 0.0000,RNUCTE=0.000000

50

25

0
0 50 100 150 200
X

Figure 5.15: 2D Dam Break. Computational mesh.

0.8

0.6
Y

0.4

0.2

0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4

X
Figure 5.16: Fishway. Computational mesh.
CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 55

5.3.2 Flow in a fishway

A dam in a river is a barrier to the free movement of fish, which is particularly
important in the case of species that need to go upstream to spawn. To solve
this problem fishways can be used, but their slope is generally high, producing
an excessive water velocity. It can be reduced by means of deflectors that
generate high energy dissipation, creating areas of low speed, where the fish
can rest during the climb.
In the Center for Technology Innovation in Building and Civil Engineering
(CITEEC), University of A Coruña, measurements were made of depths and
velocities with two fishway designs for different slopes and discharges [26].
The experimental setup consists of nine pools, four of each type with an
intermediate of transition. The two types are shown in Figures 5.17 and
5.18 and, in the first one, also the position of the measurement points. The
experimental measurements for the different slopes and discharges analyzed,
have been made in the pool 7, the third from the bottom. This is why the
computational domain is a set of three pools, numbered 1 through 3 in the
direction of flow, to compare the values of the variables in the number 1 with
the experimental results.
The calculations have been performed for a slope of 5.7% and a discharge
of 24.6 l/s. The Manning coefficient is 0.015. Despite the steep slope and
because of the action of the deflectors, the flow is subcritical. The boundary
condition of depth is imposed on the outlet section of pool 3, fixing in each
point of the section the depth obtained from the measurements.
Figure 5.16 shows the mesh used. In Figures 5.19 to 5.21 velocity vectors,
velocity modules and depth values are shown. In the six following figures a
comparison is made between the computational values obtained for the first
pool and the experimental values.
CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 56

Figure 5.17: Fishway. Type I. Distances in cm.

Figure 5.18: Fishway. Type II. Distances in mm.

Frame 001  27 Apr 2004  EscalaPcs3,CICLO= 1,ITKE= 0,TIEMPO= 23.3137 TIEMKE= 0.0000,RNUCTE=0.000000

CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 57

1
Y

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
X
Figure 5.19: Fishway. Velocities.

Frame 001  27 Apr 2004  EscalaPcs3,CICLO= 1,ITKE= 0,TIEMPO= 23.3137 TIEMKE= 0.0000,RNUCTE=0.000000

1.5
VM: 0.05 0.125 0.2 0.275 0.35 0.425 0.5 0.575 0.65 0.725 0.8 0.875 0.95

1
Y

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
X
Figure 5.20: Fishway. Velocity modulus.

1.5
H: 0.165 0.17 0.175 0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2 0.205 0.21 0.215 0.22 0.225 0.23 0.235

1
Y

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
X
Figure 5.21: Fishway. Depths.
 CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 58

0.8

0.6
Y

0.4
Frame 001  27 Apr 2004 

0.2
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
X
Figure 5.22: Fishway, pool 1. Computational velocities.

0.8

0.6
Y

0.4

0.2
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
X
Figure 5.23: Fishway, pool 1. Measured velocities.
 CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 59

VM
0.8 0.95
0.875
0.8
0.725
0.65
0.575
0.6 0.5
0.425
0.35
Y

0.275
0.2
0.4 0.125
0.05
Frame 001  19 Oct 2004 

0.2
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
X
Figure 5.24: Fishway, pool 1. Computational velocity modulus.

VM
0.8 0.95
0.875
0.8
0.725
0.65
0.575
0.6 0.5
0.425
0.35
Y

0.275
0.2
0.4 0.125
0.05

0.2
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
X
Figure 5.25: Fishway, pool 1. Measured velocity modulus.
Frame 001  27 Apr 2004  EscalaPcs3,CICLO= 1,ITKE= 0,TIEMPO= 23.3137 TIEMKE= 0.0000,RNUCTE=0.000000

CHAPTER 5. SOME RESULTS 60

0.8 H
0.235
0.23
0.225
0.22
0.215
0.21
0.205
0.6 0.2
0.195
0.19
0.185
0.18
Y

0.175
0.17
0.165
0.4

0.2
Frame 001  27 Apr 2004 

1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

X
Figure 5.26: Fishway, pool 1. Computational depth.

0.8 H
0.235
0.23
0.225
0.22
0.215
0.21
0.205
0.6 0.2
0.195
0.19
0.185
0.18
0.175
Y

0.17
0.165
0.4

0.2

1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

X
Figure 5.27: Fishway, pool 1. Measured depth.
References

[1] Alcrudo, F. (1992), Esquemas de alta resolución de variación total de-

creciente para el estudio de flujos discontinuos de superficie libre, Tesis
doctoral, Universidad de Zaragoza.

[2] Alcrudo, F. & Garcı́a-Navarro, P. (1993), A high resolution Godunov

type scheme in finite volumes for the 2D shallow-water equations, Inter-
national Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids 16, 489-505.

[3] Alcrudo, F. (2002), A state of the art review on mathematical model of

flood propagation, Proceedings of the 1st IMPACT project workshop,
HR Wallingford, UK, 16-17 May, 2002 (www.impact-project.net).

[4] Anderson, J.D.; Degrez, G.; Dick, E. & Grundmann, R. (1996), Com-
putational fluid dynamics. An introduction, Wendt, J.F. (ed.), Springer.

[5] Bermúdez, A.; Dervieux, A.; Desideri, J. & Vázquez, M.E. (1998), Up-
wind schemes for the two dimensional shallow water equations with vari-
able depth using unstructured meshes, Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering 155, 49-72.

[6] Brigham Young University (1996), User´s guide to RMA2 version 4.3
Salt Lake City, EEUU.

[7] Brufau, P. (2000), Simulación bidimensional de flujos hidrodinámicos

transitorios en geometrı́as irregulares, Tesis doctoral, Universidad de
Zaragoza.

[8] Caleffi, V., Valiani, A. & Zanni, A. (2003), Finite volume method for
simulating extreme flood events in natural channels, Journal of Hydraulic
Research, 41 , 2, 167-177.

[9] Chaudhry, M.H. (1993), Open channel flow, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

[10] Chow, V.T. (1994), Hidráulica de canales abiertos, Mc Graw-Hill.

61
REFERENCES 62

[11] DHI Software (2001), MIKE 21: A modelling system for estuaries,
coastal waters and seas, Danish Hydraulic Institute Water and Envi-
ronment, Horsholm, Denmark.

[12] Donea, J. & Huerta, A. (2003), Finite element methods for flow prob-
lems, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, England.

[13] Eymard, R.; Gallouët, T. & Herbin, R. (1997), Finite volume methods,
Prepublication n0 97-19 of LATP, umr 6632, Marseille. To appear in
Handbook of Numerical Analysis, P.G. Ciarlet and J.L. Lions eds.

[14] Glaister, P. (1988), Approximate Riemann solutions of the shallow water

equations, Journal of Hydraulic Research 26, 3, 293-306.

[15] Godlewski, E & Raviart, P. (1996), Numerical approximation of hyper-

bolic systems of conservation laws, Springer, Berlin.

[16] Harten, A.; Lax, P. & Van Leer, B. (1983), On upstream differencing and
Godunov-type schemes for hyperbolic conservation laws, SIAM Rev. 25,
35-61 (en Upwind and high-resolution schemes, Springer, Berlin 1997).

[17] Hirsch, C. (2000), Numerical computation of internal and external flows

(Volume I. Fundamentals of numerical discretization), John Wiley &
Sons, Chichester.

[18] Hirsch, C. (2000), Numerical computation of internal and external flows

(Volume II. Computational methods for inviscid and viscous flows), John
Wiley & Sons, Chichester.

[19] Idelsohn, S.R. & Oñate, E. (1993), Finite volumes and finite elements:
two good friends, International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engi-
neering 37, 19, 3323-3341.

[20] LeVeque, R. J. (2002), Finite volume methods for hyperbolic problems,

Cambridge University Press.

[21] López Peña, F. (2000), Mecánica de fluidos, Servicio de publicaciones,

Universidad de A Coruña.

[22] Peraire, J. (1986), A finite element method for convection dominated

flows, Ph.D. Thesis, University College of Swansea.

[23] Roe, P.L. (1981), Approximate Riemann solvers, parameter vectors and
difference schemes, Journal of Computational Physics, 43, 357-372.
REFERENCES 63

[24] Smagorinsky, J. (1963), General circulation experiments with the prim-

itive equations, part I: the basic experiment, Monthly Weather Review
91, 99-164.

[25] Stoker, J.J. (1992), Water waves. The mathematical theory with appli-
cations, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

[26] Teijeiro, T. (2001), Criterios de diseño de escalas de peces de hendidura

vertical, Tesis doctoral, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela.

[27] Toro, E.F. (1997), Riemann solvers and numerical methods for fluid
dynamics. A practical introduction, Springer, Berlin.

[28] Toro, E.F. (2000), Numerica. A library of source codes for teaching,
research and applications, Numeritek Ltd., Cheshire.

[29] Toro, E.F. (2001), Shock-capturing methods for free-surface shallow

flows, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.

[30] Van Leer, B. (1977), Towards the ultimate conservative difference

scheme III. Upstream-centered finite-difference schemes for ideal com-
pressible flow, Journal of Computational Physics 23, 263-275.

[31] Vázquez Cendón, M.E. (1994), Estudio de esquemas descentrados para

su aplicación a las leyes de conservación hiperbólicas con términos
fuente, Tesis doctoral, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela.

[32] Vázquez Cendón, M.E. (1999), Improved treatment of source terms in

upwind schemes for the shallow water equations in channels with irreg-
ular geometry, Journal of Computational Physics 148, 497-526.

[33] Wright, N. (2001), Conveyance implications for 2-D and 3-D modelling.
Scoping study for reducing uncertainty in river flow conveyance, HR
Wallingford.

[34] Zienkiewicz, O.C. & Heinrich, J.C. (1979), A unified treatment of steady-
state shallow water and two dimensional Navier-Stokes equations. Finite
element penalty function approach, Computer Methods in Applied Me-
chanics and Engineering 17/18, 673-698.

[35] Zienkiewicz, O.C. & Oñate, E. (1990), Finite volumes vs. finite elements.
Is there really a choice?, CIMNE, Barcelona.