Concrete and its Ingredients

Concrete
 Composite construction material
 (cement + coarse aggregate + fine aggregate + water + admixtures)
 Comes from the Latin word "concretus“ which means compact or condensed
 Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a chemical
process known as hydration
 The initial hardening reaction usually occurs within a few hours. It takes some weeks for
concrete to reach full hardness and strength.

Roman Concrete
 The Romans discovered that by mixing lime and rubble with pozzolana sands and water, they
could make a very strong building material which they called opus caementicium.
 The Romans typically used concrete to construct walls and roofs.
 Forms were used with the stone and mortar being placed in alternating layers, with the mortar
being pounded into each layer of stone. Finished concrete was then faced with brick or tiles.

Modern Concrete
 The greatest driver behind the modern use of concrete was Smeaton's Tower, the
third Eddystone Lighthouse in Devon, England.
 To create this structure, between 1756 and 1759, British engineer John Smeaton pioneered the
use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate.
 Developed in England in the 19th century, a method for producing Portland cement was
patented by Joseph Aspdin in 1824.
 Aspdin named it due to its similarity of color to Portland limestone which was quarried on
the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England.
 His son William Aspdin is regarded as the inventor of "modern" Portland cement due to his
developments in the 1840s.
 Reinforced concrete was invented in 1849 by Joseph Monier. In 1889 the first concrete
reinforced bridge was built, and the first large concrete dams were built in 1936, Hoover Dam
and Grand Coulee Dam.

Cement
 Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of
concrete, mortar and many plasters.
 It consists of a mixture of calcium silicates, aluminates and ferrites - compounds which combine
calcium, silicon, aluminum and iron in forms which will react with water.
 Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating limestone with clay or shale and
grinding this product (called clinker) with a source of sulfate

Water
 Acts as the catalyst in the mixture
 As stated by Abrams' law, a lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more durable
concrete, whereas more water gives a free-flowing concrete with a higher slump.
 Impure water used to make concrete can cause problems when setting or in causing premature
failure of the structure.
Aggregate
 Aggregate is the general term applied to those chemically inactive materials which, when
bonded together by cement, form concrete.

Two types of aggregate:

Coarse Aggregate
 Aggregate size is more than 4.75mm
 Obtained by crushing various type of granites, hard limestone and good quality sand stones
 When very high strength is required , very fine grained granite is perhaps the best aggreagate
 Coarse grained rocks makes harsh concrete, and need high proportion of sand and high
water/cement ratio to get reasonable degree of workability
 Hard and closed grain crystalline lime stones are very suitable for aggregate, is cheap but should
only be used for plain concrete.
 The bricks should be clean, hard, well burnt and free from mortar and should not contain more
than half percent of soluble sulphates. It should not be used for reinforced concrete work since
it is porous and may corrode the reinforcement

Fine Aggregate
 Aggregate size is less than 4.75mm
 Natural sands are generally used as fine aggregate which may be obtained from pits, river, lake
or sea-shore.
 Angular grained sand produces good and strong concrete, because it has good
interlocking property, while round grained particles of sand do not afford such interlocking.

Suitability requirements for aggregates

 Aggregate used for concrete construction is required to comply with the norms laid down in IS:
383-1970 ‘Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from a natural source for concrete.’

Important characteristic of aggregates

Strength Size
Particle shape Surface texture
Grading Impermeability
Cleanliness Chemical inertness
Cost Co-efficient of thermal expansion
Physical and Chemical Stability at high temperatures

Reinforcement
 Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load.
However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing
the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete adds either steel reinforcing bars, steel fibers, glass
fibers, or plastic fibers to carry tensile loads

Admixtures
 These are the materials added to concrete during or before mixing. There are used to improve
the performance of concrete in certain situations as well as to lower its cost.
Ready Mixed Concrete

Definition
Ready-mixed concrete is often remixed once it arrives at the jobsite to ensure that the proper
slump is obtained. However, concrete that has been remixed tends to set more rapidly than concrete
mixed only once. Materials, such as water and some varieties of admixtures, are often added to the
concrete at the jobsite after it has been batched to ensure that the specified properties are attained
before placement.

Transmit Mixed Ready Mix VS Volumetric Mixed Ready Mix

 A centralized concrete batching plant can serve a wide area.
 The batch plants are located in areas zoned for industrial use, while the delivery trucks can
service residential districts or inner cities.
 Volumetric trucks often have a lower water demand during the batching process.
 Centralized batch systems are limited by the size of the fleet.
 Volumetric mixers can seamlessly change all aspects of the mix design while still producing
concrete.

Advantages
1. Quality assured concrete.
2. High speed of construction.
3. Reduction in cement consumption by 10 – 12 % due to better handling and proper mixing.
4. Versatility in uses and methods of placing.
5. Since ready mixed concrete (RMC) uses bulk cement instead of bagged cement, dust pollution
will be reduced and cement will be saved.
6. Conservation of energy and resources because of saving of cement.
7. Environment pollution is reduced due to less production of cement.
8. With better durability of structure, their overall service life increase and there is saving in life-
cycle cost.
9. Eliminating or minimizing human error and reduction in dependency on labour.
10. Timely deliveries in large as well as small pours.
11. No need for space for storing the materials like coarse and fine aggregate, cement, water and
admixtures.
12. No delay due to site based batching plant erection/ dismantling; no equipment to hire; no
depreciation of costs.
13. Reduced noise and air pollution; less consumption of petrol and diesel and less time loss to
business.

Disadvantages

1. As the Ready Mixed Concrete is not available for placement immediately after preparation of
concrete mix, loss of workability occurs.
2. Because of large quantity of concrete available in short span, special placing and form work
arrangement are required to be made in advance.
 Types of Ready Mix Concrete

 Standard Ready-Mix Concrete

 Architectural and Decorative Concrete
 Rapid-setting Concrete
 Fiber-reinforced Concrete
 Fluid-fill Concrete
 Roller-compacted Concrete
 Self-consolidating Concrete (SCC)
 Pervious Concrete
 Antibacterial Concrete

Types of Ready Mix Concrete (depending on the mixing of various ingredients)

1. Transit Mixed Concrete

 Concrete mixed at jobsite
 Concrete mixed in transit
 Concrete mixed in the yard
2. Shrink Mixed Concrete
3. Central Mixed Concrete

Mix Design

Definition
Concrete mix design is the process of finding the proportions of concrete mix in terms of ratios
of cement, sand and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete mix of proportions 1:2:4 means that
cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix contains one part of cement, two
parts of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse aggregate. The concrete mix design proportions are
either by volume or by mass. The water-cement ratio is usually expressed in mass.

Types of concrete Mix Design

 Nominal Mixes
 Standard Mixes
 Designed Mixes

Advantages
1. Good quality concrete as per requirements – this means the concrete will have required
strength, workability, permeability, durability, density and homogeneity.
2. Nominal mix concrete may suggest more cement than other materials, and concrete mix designs
give the accurate quantity of cement consumption. Thus it is an economical solution for large
projects.
3. Best use of available materials: The nominal mix of concrete does not consider the quality of
local construction materials. The concrete mix design is based on the quality of available
 materials locally. Thus it is also an economical solution to reduce the transportation cost of
materials from long distance.
4. Desired Concrete Properties: The designed mix concrete will have desired concrete properties
based on project or construction requirements. Requirements such as durability, strength,
setting times, workability etc. can be controlled with the type of construction with concrete mix
design.

Factors affecting Concrete Mix design Strength

 Water/Cement Ratio
 Cement Content
 Relative proportion of fine and coarse aggregates
 Use of admixtures

Information Requirements
1. Characteristic strength of concrete required: Characteristic strength is the strength of concrete
below which not more than 5% of test results of samples are expected to fall. This can also be
called as the grade of concrete required for mix design.
2. Workability requirement of concrete: The workability of concrete is commonly measured by
slump test. The slump value or workability requirement of concrete is based on the type of
concrete construction.
3. Quality control at site: The strength and durability of concrete depends on the degree of quality
control during construction operation at site. Nominal mixes of concrete assumes the worst
quality control at site based on past experiences.
4. Weather conditions: Weather impacts the setting time of concrete. In hot climate, the concrete
tends to set early due to loss in moisture, and in this case, the concrete need to have higher
water cement ratio or special admixtures to delay initial setting of concrete. Recommendations
for concrete cooling agents also required to be mentioned in the mix design for very hot
weather conditions.

Information Required for Concrete Mix Design

1. Exposure conditions of concrete: Exposure conditions play an important role in the mix design of
concrete. The exposure conditions such as chemical actions, coastal areas etc. needs to be
considered for the given site. Generally exposure conditions as per code of practices are mild,
moderate, severe, very severe and extreme exposure conditions for concrete constructions.
2. Batching and mixing methods: There are two types of batching method, i.e. volumetric batching
and batching by weight. These two conditions should be known for concrete mix design
calculations.
3. Quality of materials: Each construction material should have been tested in laboratory before it
is considered for mix design calculations. The type of material, their moisture content, suitability
for construction, and their chemical and physical properties affects the mix design of concrete.
Type of cement to be used for construction, coarse and fine aggregates sources, their size and
shape should be considered.
4. Special Requirements of concrete: Special requirement of concrete such as setting times, early
strength, flexural strength,
Factors Affecting the Choice of Concrete Mix Design
1. Compressive Strength of Concrete
2. Workability of Concrete
3. Durability of Concrete
4. Maximum Nominal Size of Aggregate
5. Grading and Type of Aggregate
6. Quality Control At Site

Trial and Error Method

In Trial and Error Method of concrete mix design, the proportion of fine aggregate to coarse
aggregate is finding out by trial, which gives the maximum weight of the combined aggregate. The
density of particle of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate is nearly the same; the mixture which will give
the maximum weight will have the maximum solid matter therefore the least voids and surface area. In
another method of trial mix fine aggregate and coarse aggregate are combined in several proportions.
The quantity of cement per unit volume of concrete is found to give a certain water-cement
ratio for each mixture. The percentage of sand is known as optimum percentage.
Cement required will be more for the same consistency if sand used is more than optimum. The
mix will become harsh for low quantity of sand. Optimum percentage of sand is lower for lower water-
cement ratio

ACI Method
ACI method of concrete mix design is based on the estimated weight of the concrete per unit
volume. This method takes into consideration the requirements for consistency, workability, strength
and durability.

Properties of Fresh Concrete

1. Consistency – Measure of the stiffness or sloppiness of the concrete mix.

Slump Test – Measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets.
2. Workability - The relative ease, with which the concrete can be placed, compacted and finished
without separation or segregation of the individual materials.
3. Settlement and Bleeding - Cement and aggregate have densities three times that of water. In
fresh concrete they consequently tend to settle and displace mixing water which migrates
upward and may collect on the top surface of the concrete.
4. Plastic Shrinkage - If water is removed from the compacted concrete before it sets, the volume
of the concrete is reduced by the amount of water removed. This volume reduction is called
plastic shrinkage.
5. Slump Loss - From the time of mixing, fresh concrete gradually loses consistency. This gives rise
to the problems only if the concrete becomes to stiff to handle, place and compact properly.

Properties of Hardened Concrete

1. Strength - When we refer to concrete strength, we generally talk about compressive strength of
concrete. Because, concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak in tension and bending.
2. Creep - Deformation of concrete structure under sustained load. Long term pressure or stress on
concrete can make it change shape. This deformation usually occurs in the direction the force is
applied.
 3. Durability - the ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion
while maintaining its desired engineering properties.
4. Shrinkage - Shrinkage is the volume decrease of concrete caused by drying and chemical
changes. In another word, the reduction of volume for the setting and hardening of concrete is
defined as shrinkage.
5. Modulus of Elasticity - The modulus of Elasticity of concrete depends on the Modulus of
Elasticity of the concrete ingredients and their mix proportions.
6. Water Tightness - Water tightness of concrete is directly related to the durability of concrete.
The lesser the permeability, the more the durability of concrete. Sometime, it’s called
impermeability of concrete.

High Strength Concrete

 A term used to describe concrete with special properties not attributed to normal concrete.
 A high strength concrete has low shrinkage, low permeability, a high modulus of elasticity or
high strength.
 It can’t be only achieved by just using conventional materials and normal mixing, placing, and
curing practices.
 The requirements may involve enhancements of placement and compaction without
segregation, long-term mechanical properties, early-age strength, toughness, volume stability,
or service life in severe environments.
 High-strength concrete is typically recognized as concrete with a 28-day cylinder compressive
strength greater than 6000 psi or 42 Mpa.

Concrete with a uniaxial compressive strength

 Strengths of up to 20 000 psi (140 Mpa)
 Laboratories have produced strengths approaching 60,000 psi (480 Mpa).

Advantages
1. Resists loads that cannot be resisted by normal-strength concrete.
2. Increases the strength per unit cost, per unit weight, and per unit volume as well.

Disadvantages
1. Must meet high-performance standards consistently in order for it to be effective.
2. Careful materials selection is necessary.
3. Allowable stress design discourages the use of high-strength concrete
4. Minimum cover over reinforcement or minimum thickness of members may restrict the
realization of maximum benefits.
5. Available pre stress force in a member may be inadequate to achieve maximum strength
6. Since service ability conditions such as deflection can control design, increased capacity may not
be fully utilized.

The most common method of creating high-strength concrete is to design and control the
combination of cementitious material, aggregates, water, and admixtures. Cementitious materials
include portland cement, fly ash, silica fume, ground granulated blast furnace slag, or natural pozzolans.
Typically, fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag substituted for some of the portland cement is
an effective method to increase the long-term strength of a mixture.

Workability and Related Mix Properties

 The lower water/cm ratio for high-strength concrete yields a very low slump and thus poor
workability.
 Limiting aggregate size increases workability
 Rheological tests can be performed at the mixing site and superplasticizers added as required

Concrete Specification and Strength

 The uses of the fresh and hardened concrete
 The curing conditions
 The dimensions of the structure, this effects heat development
 The environmental exposure conditions
 Surface finish
 Maximum nominal aggregate size
 Restrictions on suitability of materials

 High-strength concrete has a compressive strength greater than 40 MPa (5800 psi)
 Stamped concrete is an architectural concrete which has a superior surface finish.

High performance Concrete

 Ultra-high-performance concrete is a new type of concrete that is being developed by agencies
concerned with infrastructure protection. UHPC is characterized by being a steel fibre-reinforced
cement composite material with compressive strengths in excess of 150 Mpa
 Micro-reinforced ultra-high-performance concrete is the next generation of UHPC. In addition to
high compressive strength, durability and abrasion resistance of UHPC, micro-reinforced UHPC is
characterized by extreme ductility, energy absorption and resistance to chemicals, water and
temperature.
 Self-consolidating concrete
 Vacuum concrete
 Shotcrete
 Lime Crete
 Cellular concrete
 Roller-compacted concrete
 Refractory cement
 Gypsum concrete

Self-Compacting Concrete
 Self-compacting concrete, which flows under its own weight and does not require any external
vibration for compaction, has revolutionized concrete placement.

Materials Used
 Cement -Ordinary Portland cement (Grade 43) was used.
  Admixtures -Polycarboxylic ether based superplaticizer complying with ASTM C-494 type F, was
used.
 Aggregates -4.75mm maximum size was used as fine aggregate and 16mm maximum size was
used as coarse aggregate.

Test Methods
1. Slump Flow Test
- Used to assess the horizontal free flow of SCC in the absence of obstructions
2. V-funnel Test
- The flow ability of the fresh concrete can be tested with the V-funnel test, whereby the flow
time is measured.
3. L-box Test
- The passing ability is determined using the L-box Test

Durability of Concrete – It can be defined to mean ‘its resistance to deteriorating influences, which may
reside inside the concrete itself, or which are present in the environment to which the concrete is
exposed’.

Features of Durable Concrete

 A durable concrete is one that performs satisfactorily in the working environment during its
anticipated exposure conditions during service.
 Durable concrete will retain its original form, quality and serviceability when exposed to its
environment.
 It should not disintegrate or show again of wearing under adverse conditions

Significance of durability
 In late 1930’s it was found that series of failures of concrete pavements have taken place due to
frost attack.
 It is not always entirely true that the strong concrete is always a durable concrete.
 A structure which is very strong when it is constructed but can’t withstand for a long time the
effect of the environment in which it has to exist is not really useful.

Damage of Concrete due to lack of Durability

 Fine to wide cracks developed in concrete.
 Scaling of concrete can takes place.
 Spalling of concrete can happen.
 Disintegration of concrete takes place.
 Deposits of salts can take place, which is called efflorescence of concrete.
 Complete structure failure can occur.

Factors Influencing the Durability

 Environment, freezing and thawing, exposure to aggressive chemicals.
 Cover to embedded steel.
 Type and quality of constituent materials.
 Cement content and water-cement ratio.
 Workmanship to obtain full compaction and efficient curing.
 Shape and size of member.
Admixtures

 Admixtures are those ingredients in concrete other than Portland cement, water, and
aggregates that are added to the mixture immediately before or during mixing.

Classification of admixtures by functions:

1. Air-entraining admixtures
2. Water-reducing admixtures
3. Plasticizers
4. Accelerating admixtures
5. Retarding admixtures
6. Corrosion inhibitors
7. Shrinkage reducers

Reasons for using admixtures

1. To reduce the cost of concrete construction.
2. To achieve certain properties in concrete more effectively than by other means.
3. To maintain the quality of concrete during the stages of mixing, transporting, placing, and curing
in adverse weather conditions.
4. To overcome certain emergencies during concreting operations