Variables are used to store values.

A string is a series of Dictionaries store connections between pieces of

List comprehensions
characters, surrounded by single or double quotes. information. Each item in a dictionary is a key-value pair.
squares = [x**2 for x in range(1, 11)]
Hello world A simple dictionary
Slicing a list
print("Hello world!") alien = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5}
finishers = ['sam', 'bob', 'ada', 'bea']
Hello world with a variable first_two = finishers[:2] Accessing a value

msg = "Hello world!" Copying a list print("The alien's color is " + alien['color'])
print(msg) copy_of_bikes = bikes[:]
Adding a new key-value pair
Concatenation (combining strings)
alien['x_position'] = 0
first_name = 'albert'
last_name = 'einstein' Tuples are similar to lists, but the items in a tuple can't be Looping through all key-value pairs
full_name = first_name + ' ' + last_name modified.
print(full_name) fav_numbers = {'eric': 17, 'ever': 4} for
Making a tuple
name, number in fav_numbers.items():
dimensions = (1920, 1080) print(name + ' loves ' + str(number))

Looping through all keys

fav_numbers = {'eric': 17, 'ever': 4} for

name in fav_numbers.keys():
If statements are used to test for particular conditions and
print(name + ' loves a number')
respond appropriately.

Conditional tests Looping through all the values

A list stores a series of items in a particular order. You
equals x == 42 fav_numbers = {'eric': 17, 'ever': 4} for
access items using an index, or within a loop.
not equal x != 42 number in fav_numbers.values():
Make a list
greater than x > 42 print(str(number) + ' is a favorite')
bikes = ['trek', 'redline', 'giant'] or equal to x >= 42
less than x < 42
Get the first item in a list
or equal to x <= 42
first_bike = bikes[0]
Conditional test with lists Your programs can prompt the user for input. All input is
Get the last item in a list stored as a string.
last_bike = bikes[-1] 'trek' in bikes
'surly' not in bikes Prompting for a value

Assigning boolean values name = input("What's your name? ")

print("Hello, " + name + "!")
game_active = True
can_edit = False Prompting for numerical input

A simple if test C
 if age >= 18: age = input("How old are you? ") age
print("You can vote!") = int(age)

If-elif-else statements pi = input("What's the value of pi? ") pi

= float(pi)
if age < 4:
ticket_price = 0
elif age < 18:
ticket_price = 10
else:
ticket_price = 15

Looping through a list

overs Python 3 and Python 2

for bike in bikes:

print(bike)
Adding items to a list
bikes = []
bikes.append('trek')
bikes.append('redline')
bikes.append('giant')
Making numerical lists
squares = [] for x in
range(1, 11):
squares.append(x**2)

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A while loop repeats a block of code as long as a certain A class defines the behavior of an object and the kind of Your programs can read from files and write to files. Files
condition is true. information an object can store. The information in a class are opened in read mode ('r') by default, but can also be
is stored in attributes, and functions that belong to a class opened in write mode ('w') and append mode ('a').
A simple while loop are called methods. A child class inherits the attributes and
methods from its parent class. Reading a file and storing its lines
current_value = 1 while
current_value <= 5: Creating a dog class filename = 'siddhartha.txt' with
print(current_value) open(filename) as file_object:
current_value += 1 class Dog(): lines = file_object.readlines()
"""Represent a dog.""" for line in
Letting the user choose when to quit def __init__(self, name): lines:
"""Initialize dog object.""" print(line)
msg = '' while msg != 'quit': msg = self.name = name def
input("What's your message? ") sit(self): Writing to a file
print(msg) """Simulate sitting."""
print(self.name + " is sitting.") filename = 'journal.txt' with
open(filename, 'w') as file_object:
my_dog = Dog('Peso') file_object.write("I love programming.")

print(my_dog.name + " is a great dog!") Appending to a file

Functions are named blocks of code, designed to do one my_dog.sit()
specific job. Information passed to a function is called an filename = 'journal.txt' with open(filename,
argument, and information received by a function is called a 'a') as file_object:
parameter. file_object.write("\nI love making games.")
Inheritance
A simple function
class SARDog(Dog):
def greet_user(): """Represent a search dog."""
"""Display a simple greeting.""" def __init__(self, name): Exceptions help you respond appropriately to errors that are
print("Hello!") """Initialize the sardog.""" likely to occur. You place code that might cause an error in
super().__init__(name) the try block. Code that should run in response to an error
greet_user() def goes in the except block. Code that should run only if the try
search(self):
block was successful goes in the else block.
Passing an argument """Simulate searching."""
print(self.name + " is searching.") Catching an exception
def greet_user(username):
"""Display a personalized greeting.""" my_dog = SARDog('Willie') prompt = "How many tickets do you need? "
print("Hello, " + username + "!") num_tickets = input(prompt)
print(my_dog.name + " is a search dog.") try: num_tickets =
greet_user('jesse') my_dog.sit() my_dog.search() int(num_tickets) except ValueError:
print("Please try again.") else:
Default values for parameters print("Your tickets are printing.")

C
def make_pizza(topping='bacon'):
"""Make a single-topping pizza."""
print("Have a " + topping + " pizza!") If you had infinite programming skills, what would you
build? Simple is better than complex
make_pizza()
As you're learning to program, it's helpful to think
make_pizza('pepperoni') If you have a choice between a simple and a complex
about the real-world projects you'd like to create. It's
solution, and both work, use the simple solution. Your
Returning a value a good habit to keep an "ideas" notebook that you
code will be easier to maintain, and it will be easier
can refer to whenever you want to start a new project.
for you and others to build on that code later on.
def add_numbers(x, y): If you haven't done so already, take a few minutes
"""Add two numbers and return the sum.""" and describe three projects you'd like to create.
return x + y

sum = add_numbers(3, 5)
print(sum)

More cheat sheets available at

 If you
You
The want
can add
len() toelements
workreturns
function withtoantheelement
the end that
of a
number of you're
list, inremoving
or you
items can
a list.insert The sort() method changes the order of a list permanently.
A list stores a series of items in a particular order. from the list, you can "pop" The sorted() function returns a copy of the list, leaving the
them wherever you like in a the
list. element. If you think of the
Lists allow you to store sets of information in one Find
list asthe length
a stack of a list
of items, pop() takes an item off the top of the original list unchanged. You can sort the items in a list in
place, whether you have just a few items or millions Adding
stack. Byandefault
elementpop()toreturns
the end theoflast
theelement
list in the list, alphabetical order, or reverse alphabetical order. You can
num_users = len(users) also reverse the original order of the list. Keep in mind that
of items. Lists are one of Python's most powerful but you can also pop elements from any position in the list.
print("We have " + str(num_users) + " users.")
users.append('amy') lowercase and uppercase letters may affect the sort order.
features readily accessible to new programmers, and
Pop the last item from a list
they tie together many important concepts in Sorting a list permanently
programming. Starting with an empty list
most_recent_user = users.pop()
print(most_recent_user) users.sort()
users = []
users.append('val')
You can remove elements by their position in a list, or by Pop the first item in a list Sorting a list permanently in reverse alphabetical
users.append('bob')
the value of the item. If you remove an item by its value, order
users.append('mia')
Python removes only the first item that has that value. first_user = users.pop(0)
print(first_user)
Inserting elements at a particular position users.sort(reverse=True)
Deleting an element by its position

del users[-1] users.insert(0, 'joe') Sorting a list temporarily

users.insert(3, 'bea')
print(sorted(users))
Removing an item by its value
print(sorted(users, reverse=True))
users.remove('mia')
Use square brackets to define a list, and use commas to Reversing the order of a list
separate individual items in the list. Use plural names for
lists, to make your code easier to read. users.reverse()
Lists can contain millions of items, so Python provides an Making a list
efficient way to loop through all the items in a list. When
you set up a loop, Python pulls each item from the list one users = ['val', 'bob', 'mia', 'ron', 'ned']
at a time and stores it in a temporary variable, which you
provide a name for. This name should be the singular overs Python 3 and Python 2
version of the list name.
The indented block of code makes up the body of the Individual elements in a list are accessed according to their
loop, where you can work with each individual item. Any position, called the index. The index of the first element is
lines that are not indented run after the loop is completed. 0, the index of the second element is 1, and so forth.
Printing all items in a list Negative indices refer to items at the end of the list. To get
a particular element, write the name of the list and then the
for user in users: index of the element in square brackets.
print(user) Getting the first element
Printing a message for each item, and a separate first_user = users[0]
message afterwards
Getting the second element
for user in users:
print("Welcome, " + user + "!")
second_user = users[1]
print("Welcome, we're glad to see you all!")
Getting the last element

newest_user = users[-1] C
Once you've defined a list, you can change individual elements
in the list. You do this by referring to the index of the item you want to modify.
Changing an element
users[0] = 'valerie' users[-2] = 'ronald'
To copy a list make a slice that starts at the first item and
ends at the last item. If you try to copy a list without using
this approach, whatever you do to the copied list will affect
the original list as well.

Making a copy of a list

finishers = ['kai', 'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe']

copy_of_finishers = finishers[:]

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unction to work with a set of You can use a loop to generate a list based on a range of A tuple is like a list, except you can't change the values in a
ange() function starts at 0 by numbers or on another list. This is a common operation, so tuple once it's defined. Tuples are good for storing
mber below the number passed to Python offers a more efficient way to do it. List information that shouldn't be changed throughout the life of
unction to efficiently generate a comprehensions may look complicated at first; if so, use the a program. Tuples are designated by parentheses instead
for loop approach until you're ready to start using of square brackets. (You can overwrite an entire tuple, but
comprehensions. you can't change the individual elements in a tuple.)
to 1000 To write a comprehension, define an expression for the
values you want to store in the list. Then write a for loop to Defining a tuple
(1001): generate input values needed to make the list.
dimensions = (800, 600)
Using a loop to generate a list of square numbers
to 1000 Looping through a tuple
squares = [] for x in
(1, 1001): range(1, 11): for dimension in dimensions:
square = x**2
print(dimension)
squares.append(square)
rs from 1 to a million Overwriting a tuple
Using a comprehension to generate a list of square
e(1, 1000001)) numbers dimensions = (800, 600)
print(dimensions)
squares = [x**2 for x in range(1, 11)]
dimensions = (1200, 900)
Using a loop to convert a list of names to upper case
mple statistics you can run on a list
a. names = ['kai', 'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe']

alue in a list upper_names = [] for name in names: When you're first learning about data structures such as
upper_names.append(name.upper()) lists, it helps to visualize how Python is working with the
17, 85, 1, 35, 82, 2, 77] information in your program. pythontutor.com is a great tool
) for seeing how Python keeps track of the information in a
Using a comprehension to convert a list of names to list. Try running the following code on pythontutor.com, and
value upper case then run your own code.
Build a list and print the items in the list
17, 85, 1, 35, 82, 2, 77] names = ['kai', 'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe']

upper_names = [name.upper() for name in names]

values

17, 85, 1, 35, 82, 2, 77]

ges)

et of elements from a list. A portion

o slice a list start with the index of
en add a colon and the index after
eave off the first index to start at C
and leave off the last index to slice
.
ems dogs = []
dogs.append('willie')
'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe'] dogs.append('hootz')
hers[:3] Readability counts dogs.append('peso')
dogs.append('goblin')
e items • Use four spaces per indentation level. for dog in dogs:
• Keep your lines to 79 characters or fewer. print("Hello " + dog + "!")
print("I love these dogs!")
shers[1:4] • Use single blank lines to group parts of your
program visually. print("\nThese were my first two
ems dogs:") old_dogs = dogs[:2] for old_dog
in old_dogs: print(old_dog)
ers[-3:]
del dogs[0]
dogs.remove('peso')
print(dogs)

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Use curly braces to define a dictionary. Use colons to You can store as many key-value pairs as you want in a You can loop through a dictionary in three ways: you can
connect keys and values, and use commas to separate dictionary, until your computer runs out of memory. To add loop through all the key-value pairs, all the keys, or all the
individual key-value pairs. a new key-value pair to an existing dictionary give the name values.
of the dictionary and the new key in square brackets, and A dictionary only tracks the connections between keys
Making a dictionary set it equal to the new value. and values; it doesn't track the order of items in the
This also allows you to start with an empty dictionary and dictionary. If you want to process the information in order,
alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5} add key-value pairs as they become relevant. you can sort the keys in your loop.
Adding a key-value pair Looping through all key-value pairs

You can modify the value associated with any key in a alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5} # Store people's favorite languages.
dictionary. To do so give the name of the dictionary and fav_languages = { 'jen':
enclose the key in square brackets, then provide the new alien_0['x'] = 0 'python',
value for that key. alien_0['y'] = 25 'sarah': 'c',
alien_0['speed'] = 1.5 'edward': 'ruby',
Modifying values in a dictionary 'phil': 'python',
Adding to an empty dictionary }
alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5}
print(alien_0) alien_0 = {} # Show each person's favorite language. for
alien_0['color'] = 'green' name, language in fav_languages.items():
# Change the alien's color and point value. alien_0['points'] = 5 print(name + ": " + language)
alien_0['color'] = 'yellow'
alien_0['points'] = 10 print(alien_0) Looping through all the keys

To access the value associated with an individual key give # Show everyone who's taken the survey. for
the name of the dictionary and then place the key in a set of name in fav_languages.keys():
square brackets. If the key you're asking for is not in the print(name)
You can remove any key-value pair you want from a dictionary, an error will occur.
dictionary. To do so use the del keyword and the dictionary You can also use the get() method, which returns None Looping through all the values
name, followed by the key in square brackets. This will instead of an error if the key doesn't exist. You can also
delete the key and its associated value. specify a default value to use if the key is not in the # Show all the languages that have been chosen.
dictionary. for language in fav_languages.values():
Deleting a key-value pair
Getting the value associated with a key print(language)
alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5}
print(alien_0) alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5} Looping through all the keys in order

del alien_0['points'] print(alien_0['color']) # Show each person's favorite language,

print(alien_0) print(alien_0['points']) # in order by the person's name. for
name in sorted(fav_languages.keys()):
Getting the value with get() print(name + ": " + language)

You can find the number of key-value pairs in a dictionary. alien_0 = {'color': 'green'}
Finding a dictionary's length alien_color = alien_0.get('color')
alien_points = alien_0.get('points', 0)
num_responses = len(fav_languages)
print(alien_color)
print(alien_points)
C
 overs Python 3 and Python 2

Try running some of these examples on pythontutor.com.

Standard Python dictionaries don't keep track of the order

in which keys and values are added; they only preserve the
Python's dictionaries allow you to connect pieces of
association between each key and its value. If you want to
related information. Each piece of information in a preserve the order in which keys and values are added, use
dictionary is stored as a key-value pair. When you an OrderedDict.
provide a key, Python returns the value associated
with that key. You can loop through all the key-value Preserving the order of keys and values
pairs, all the keys, or all the values.
from collections import OrderedDict

# Store each person's languages, keeping

# track of who respoded first. fav_languages
= OrderedDict()

fav_languages['jen'] = ['python', 'ruby']

fav_languages['sarah'] = ['c']
fav_languages['edward'] = ['ruby', 'go']
fav_languages['phil'] = ['python', 'haskell']
# Display the results, in the same order
they
# were entered. for name, langs in
fav_languages.items(): print(name +
":") for lang in langs:
print("- " + lang)

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It's sometimes useful to store a set of dictionaries in a list;
this is called nesting.
Storing dictionaries in a list

# Start with an empty list. users

= []

# Make a new user, and add them to the list.

new_user = {
'last': 'fermi',
'first': 'enrico',
'username': 'efermi',
}
users.append(new_user)

# Make another new user, and add them as well.

new_user = {
'last': 'curie',
'first': 'marie',
'username': 'mcurie',
}
users.append(new_user)

# Show all information about each user.

for user_dict in users: for k, v in
user_dict.items(): print(k + ":
" + v) print("\n")

You can also define a list of dictionaries directly,

without using append():

# Define a list of users, where each user

# is represented by a dictionary. users
= [
{
'last': 'fermi',
'first': 'enrico',
'username': 'efermi',
},
{
'last': 'curie',
'first': 'marie',
'username': 'mcurie',
},
]

# Show all information about each user.

for user_dict in users: for k, v in
C
user_dict.items(): print(k + ":
" + v) print("\n")
Nesting is extremely useful in certain situations. However, be
aware of making your code overly complex. If you're You can use a loop to generate a large number of
dictionaries efficiently, if all the dictionaries start out with
similar data.
You can store a dictionary inside another dictionary. In this Storing a list inside a dictionary alows you to associate A million aliens
case each value associated with a key is itself a dictionary. more than one value with each key.

Storing dictionaries in a dictionary Storing lists in a dictionary aliens = []

users = { # Store multiple languages for each person. # Make a million green aliens, worth 5 points
'aeinstein': { fav_languages = { # each. Have them all start in one row.
'first': 'albert', 'jen': ['python', 'ruby'], for alien_num in range(1000000):
'sarah': ['c'], new_alien = {}
'last': 'einstein',
'edward': ['ruby', 'go'], new_alien['color'] = 'green'
'location': 'princeton',
new_alien['points'] = 5 new_alien['x']
}, 'phil': ['python', 'haskell'],
= 20 * alien_num new_alien['y'] = 0
'mcurie': { }
aliens.append(new_alien)
'first': 'marie',
'last': 'curie', # Show all responses for each person. # Prove the list contains a million aliens.
'location': 'paris', for name, langs in
num_aliens = len(aliens)
}, fav_languages.items(): print(name +
": ") for lang in langs:
} for username, user_dict in print("Number of aliens created:")
print("- " + lang)
users.items(): print("\nUsername: " print(num_aliens)
+ username) full_name = nesting items much deeper than what you see here there
user_dict['first'] + " " full_name are probably simpler ways of managing your data, such as
+= user_dict['last'] location = using classes.
user_dict['location']

print("\tFull name: " + full_name.title())

print("\tLocation: " + location.title())

More cheat sheets available at

 You can easily test whether a certain value is in a list. You
can also test whether a list is empty before trying to loop
through the list.
Testing if a value is in a list
>>> players = ['al', 'bea', 'cyn', 'dale']
>>> 'al' in players
True
>>> 'eric' in players
False

A boolean value is either True or False. Variables with

boolean values are often used to keep track of certain
conditions within a program.

Simple boolean values

 game_active = True
can_edit = False

Testing numerical values is similar to testing string values. Several kinds of if statements exist. Your choice of which to
use depends on the number of conditions you need to test.
Testing equality and inequality You can have as many elif blocks as you need, and the
else block is always optional.
>>> age = 18
>>> age == 18 Simple if statement
True
>>> age != 18 age = 19
False if age >= 18: print("You're old
enough to vote!")
Comparison operators

>>> age = 19 If-else statements

>>> age < 21
True age = 17
>>> age <= 21 if age >= 18: print("You're old
True enough to vote!") else: print("You
>>> age > 21 can't vote yet.")
If statements allow you to examine the current state
of a program and respond appropriately to that state. False
You can write a simple if statement that checks one >>> age >= 21
condition, or you can create a complex series of if False
The if-elif-else chain
statements that idenitfy the exact conditions you're
looking for.

While loops run as long as certain conditions remain You can check multiple conditions at the same time. The
true. You can use while loops to let your programs and operator returns True if all the conditions listed are
run as long as your users want them to. True. The or operator returns True if any condition is True.

More cheat sheets available at

 Using and to check multiple conditions age = 12
if age < 4:
>>> age_0 = 22 price = 0
A conditional test is an expression that can be evaluated as >>> age_1 = 18 elif age <
True or False. Python uses the values True and False to >>> age_0 >= 21 and age_1 >= 21 18: price
decide whether the code in an if statement should be False = 5 else:
executed. price = 10
>>> age_1 = 23
Checking for equality >>> age_0 >= 21 and age_1 >= 21 True
print("Your cost is $" + str(price) + ".")
A single equal sign assigns a value to a variable. A double equal
sign (==) checks whether two values are equal.
Using or to check multiple conditions
>>> car = 'bmw'
>>> car == 'bmw' >>> age_0 = 22
True >>> age_1 = 18
>>> car = 'audi' >>> age_0 >= 21 or age_1 >= 21
>>> car == 'bmw' True
False >>> age_0 = 18
>>> age_0 >= 21 or age_1 >= 21
Ignoring case when making a comparison False

>>> car = 'Audi'

>>> car.lower() == 'audi'
True

Checking for inequality

>>> topping = 'mushrooms'

>>> topping != 'anchovies'
True

Covers Python 3 and Python 2

 Using continue in a loop
You can allow your users to enter input using the input()
statement. In Python 3, all input is stored as a string. banned_users = ['eve', 'fred', 'gary', 'helen']

Simple input prompt = "\nAdd a player to your team." prompt

+= "\nEnter 'quit' when you're done. "
name = input("What's your name? ") players = [] while True:
print("Hello, " + name + ".") player = input(prompt) if
player == 'quit': break
Accepting numerical input elif player in banned_users:
print(player + " is
age = input("How old are you? ") age banned!") continue else:
= int(age) players.append(player)
if age >= 18: print("\nYou
can vote!") else: print("\nYour team:")
print("\nYou can't vote yet.") for player in players:
print(player)

Accepting input in Python 2.7

Use raw_input() in Python 2.7. This function interprets all input as a
string, just as input() does in Python 3.

name = raw_input("What's your name? ")

print("Hello, " + name + ".")

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 Every while loop needs a way to stop running so it won't
Testing if a value is not in a list Letting the user choose when to quit
continue to run forever. If there's no way for the condition to
banned_users = ['ann', 'chad', 'dee'] user prompt = "\nTell me something, and I'll " become False, the loop will never stop running.
= 'erin' prompt += "repeat it back to you."
if user not in prompt += "\nEnter 'quit' to end the program. "
An infinite loop
banned_users: message = "" while
message != 'quit': while True: name = input("\nWho are you?
print("You can play!")
message = input(prompt) ") print("Nice to meet you, " + name +
Checking if a list is empty if message != "!")
'quit':
players = []A while loop repeats a block of code as long as a condition The remove() method removes a specific value from a list,
print(message) but it only removes the first instance of the value you
if players:is True.for player in players:
print("Player: " + player.title()) else: provide. You can use a while loop to remove all instances of
Counting
print("We have to 5 yet!")
no players Using a flag a particular value.

prompt = "\nTell me something, and I'll " Removing all cats from a list of pets
current_number = 1
while current_number <= prompt += "repeat it back to you." pets = ['dog', 'cat', 'dog', 'fish', 'cat',
5: prompt += "\nEnter 'quit' to end the program. " 'rabbit', 'cat'] print(pets) while 'cat' in
print(current_number) active = True while pets: pets.remove('cat') print(pets)
Sublime Text doesn't run programs that prompt the user for active: message =
current_number += 1
input. You can use Sublime Text to write programs that input(prompt)
prompt for input, but you'll need to run these programs from if message ==
a terminal. 'quit': active =
False else:
You can use the break statement and the continue statement
print(message)
with any of Python's loops. For example you can use break to
quit a for loop that's working through a list or a dictionary. You
can use continue to skip over certain items when looping
through a list or dictionary as well. Using break to exit a loop
prompt = "\nWhat cities have you visited?"
prompt += "\nEnter 'quit' when you're done. "
while True: city = input(prompt)
if city == 'quit': break else:
print("I've been to " + city + "!")

C
 The two main kinds of arguments are positional and A function can return a value or a set of values. When a
keyword arguments. When you use positional arguments function returns a value, the calling line must provide a
Python matches the first argument in the function call with variable in which to store the return value. A function stops
the first parameter in the function definition, and so forth. running when it reaches a return statement.
With keyword arguments, you specify which parameter
each argument should be assigned to in the function call. Returning a single value
When you use keyword arguments, the order of the
arguments doesn't matter. def get_full_name(first, last):
"""Return a neatly formatted full
Using positional arguments name.""" full_name = first + ' ' + last
Functions are named blocks of code designed to do return full_name.title()
one specific job. Functions allow you to write code def describe_pet(animal, name):
once that can then be run whenever you need to """Display information about a pet.""" musician = get_full_name('jimi', 'hendrix')
print("\nI have a " + animal + ".") print(musician)
accomplish the same task. Functions can take in the
print("Its name is " + name + ".")
information they need, and return the information they
Returning a dictionary
generate. Using functions effectively makes your describe_pet('hamster', 'harry')
programs easier to write, read, test, and fix. describe_pet('dog', 'willie') def build_person(first, last):
"""Return a dictionary of information
Using keyword arguments about a person.
The first line of a function is its definition, marked by the """
keyword def. The name of the function is followed by a set def describe_pet(animal, name): person = {'first': first, 'last': last}
of parentheses and a colon. A docstring, in triple quotes, """Display information about a pet.""" return person
describes what the function does. The body of a function is print("\nI have a " + animal + ".")
indented one level. print("Its name is " + name + ".") musician = build_person('jimi', 'hendrix')
To call a function, give the name of the function followed print(musician)
by a set of parentheses. describe_pet(animal='hamster', name='harry')
describe_pet(name='willie', animal='dog') Returning a dictionary with optional values
Making a function
def greet_user(): def build_person(first, last, age=None):
"""Display a simple greeting.""" """Return a dictionary of information about
print("Hello!") a person.
You can provide a default value for a parameter. When """ person = {'first': first,
function calls omit this argument the default value will be 'last': last} if age:
greet_user() used. Parameters with default values must be listed after person['age'] = age return person
parameters without default values in the function's definition
so positional arguments can still work correctly. musician = build_person('jimi', 'hendrix', 27)
print(musician)
Using a default value
musician = build_person('janis', 'joplin')
print(musician)

More cheat sheets available at

 def describe_pet(name, animal='dog'):
"""Display information about a pet."""
Information that's passed to a function is called an print("\nI have a " + animal + ".") Try running some of these examples on pythontutor.com.
argument; information that's received by a function is called print("Its name is " + name + ".")
a parameter. Arguments are included in parentheses after
the function's name, and parameters are listed in describe_pet('harry', 'hamster')
parentheses in the function's definition. describe_pet('willie')

Passing a single argument overs Python 3 and Python 2

Using None to make an argument optional
def greet_user(username): def describe_pet(animal, name=None):
"""Display a simple greeting.""" """Display information about a pet."""
print("Hello, " + username + "!") print("\nI have a " + animal + ".")
if name: print("Its name is " +
greet_user('jesse') name + ".")
greet_user('diana')
greet_user('brandon') describe_pet('hamster', 'harry')
describe_pet('snake')

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You can pass a list as an argument to a function, and the
function can work with the values in the list. Any changes
the function makes to the list will affect the original list. You
can prevent a function from modifying a list by passing a
copy of the list as an argument.

Passing a list as an argument

def greet_users(names):
"""Print a simple greeting to
everyone.""" for name in names:
msg = "Hello, " + name + "!"
print(msg)

usernames = ['hannah', 'ty', 'margot']

greet_users(usernames)

Allowing a function to modify a list

The following example sends a list of models to a function for
printing. The original list is emptied, and the second list is filled.

def print_models(unprinted, printed):

"""3d print a set of models.""" while
unprinted: current_model =
unprinted.pop() print("Printing "
+ current_model)
printed.append(current_model)

# Store some unprinted designs,

# and print each of them. unprinted =
['phone case', 'pendant', 'ring'] printed =
[]
print_models(unprinted, printed)

print("\nUnprinted:", unprinted)
print("Printed:", printed)

Preventing a function from modifying a list

The following example is the same as the previous one, except the
original list is unchanged after calling print_models().

More cheat sheets available at

def print_models(unprinted, printed):
"""3d print a set of models.""" while
unprinted: current_model =
unprinted.pop() print("Printing "
+ current_model)
printed.append(current_model)

# Store some unprinted designs,

# and print each of them. original =
['phone case', 'pendant', 'ring'] printed =
[]

print_models(original[:], printed)
print("\nOriginal:", original)
print("Printed:", printed)

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You can store your functions in a separate file called a
module, and then import the functions you need into the file
containing your main program. This allows for cleaner
program files. (Make sure your module is stored in the
same directory as your main program.)
Storing a function in a module
File: pizza.py
def make_pizza(size, *toppings):
"""Make a pizza."""
print("\nMaking a " + size + "
pizza.") print("Toppings:") for
topping in toppings: print("- " +
topping)
Importing an entire module
File: making_pizzas.py
Every function in the module is available in the program file.
import pizza

pizza.make_pizza('medium', 'pepperoni')
pizza.make_pizza('small', 'bacon', 'pineapple')

More cheat sheets available at

Importing a specific function
Only the imported functions are available in the program file.

C
 from pizza import make_pizza As you can see there are many ways to write and call a
Sometimes you won't know how many arguments a function function. When you're starting out, aim for something
will need to accept. Python allows you to collect an arbitrary make_pizza('medium', 'pepperoni') that simply works. As you gain experience you'll
number of arguments into one parameter using the * make_pizza('small', 'bacon', 'pineapple') develop an understanding of the more subtle
operator. A parameter that accepts an arbitrary number of advantages of different structures such as positional
arguments must come last in the function definition.
Giving a module an alias and keyword arguments, and the various approaches
The ** operator allows a parameter to collect an arbitrary import pizza as p to importing functions. For now if your functions do
number of keyword arguments. what you need them to, you're doing well.
p.make_pizza('medium', 'pepperoni')
Collecting an arbitrary number of arguments
p.make_pizza('small', 'bacon', 'pineapple')
def make_pizza(size, *toppings): Giving a function an alias
"""Make a pizza.""" from
You can pizza
modify import make_pizza
an attribute's as mpor you can
value directly,
print("\nMaking a " + size + " write methods that manage updating values more carefully.
pizza.") print("Toppings:") for mp('medium', 'pepperoni') mp('small',
topping in toppings: print("- " + Modifying
'bacon',an'pineapple')
attribute directly
topping)
Importing all
my_new_car = functions
Car('audi', from'a4',
a module
2016)
# Make three pizzas with different toppings. my_new_car.fuel_level = 5 you see it in others' code. It can
Don't do this, but recognize it when
make_pizza('small', 'pepperoni') result in naming conflicts, which can cause errors.
make_pizza('large', 'bacon bits', 'pineapple') Writing
from apizza
method import *
to update an attribute's value
make_pizza('medium', 'mushrooms', 'peppers',
'onions', 'extra cheese') make_pizza('medium', 'pepperoni')
def update_fuel_level(self, new_level):
make_pizza('small',
"""Update the fuel level."""'bacon', 'pineapple')
if
Collecting an arbitrary number of keyword arguments new_level <= self.fuel_capacity:
self.fuel_level = new_level else:
def build_profile(first, last, **user_info): print("The tank can't hold that much!")
"""Build a user's profile dictionary."""
# Build a dict with the required keys.
profile = {'first': first, 'last': last}
Writing a method to increment an attribute's value
# Add any other keys and values.
for key, value in user_info.items(): def add_fuel(self, amount): """Add fuel to
profile[key] = value the tank.""" if (self.fuel_level + amount
<= self.fuel_capacity):
return profile self.fuel_level += amount print("Added
fuel.") else: print("The tank
# Create two users with different kinds won't hold that much.")
# of information. user_0 =
build_profile('albert', 'einstein',
location='princeton')
user_1 = build_profile('marie', 'curie',
location='paris', field='chemistry')

print(user_0)
print(user_1)

More cheat sheets available at

 If the class you're writing is a specialized version of another
Classes are the foundation of object-oriented
class, you can use inheritance. When one class inherits
programming. Classes represent real-world things from another, it automatically takes on all the attributes and
you want to model in your programs: for example methods of the parent class. The child class is free to
dogs, cars, and robots. You use a class to make introduce new attributes and methods, and override
objects, which are specific instances of dogs, cars, attributes and methods of the parent class.
To inherit from another class include the name of the
and robots. A class defines the general behavior that
parent class in parentheses when defining the new class.
a whole category of objects can have, and the
information that can be associated with those objects. The __init__() method for a child class
Classes can inherit from each other – you can write a
class that extends the functionality of an existing class ElectricCar(Car):
class. This allows you to code efficiently for a wide """A simple model of an electric car."""
def __init__(self, make, model,
variety of situations.
year): """Initialize an electric
car.""" super().__init__(make,
model, year)

# Attributes specific to electric cars.

# Battery capacity in kWh.
self.battery_size = 70
# Charge level in %.
self.charge_level = 0

Adding new methods to the child class

class ElectricCar(Car):
--snip-- def
charge(self):
"""Fully charge the vehicle."""
self.charge_level = 100
print("The vehicle is fully charged.")

Using child methods and parent methods

my_ecar = ElectricCar('tesla', 'model s', 2016)

my_ecar.charge()
my_ecar.drive()

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 Consider how we might model a car. What information Creating an object from a class
would we associate with a car, and what behavior would it
have? The information is stored in variables called my_car = Car('audi', 'a4', 2016)
attributes, and the behavior is represented by functions.
Functions that are part of a class are called methods. Accessing attribute values
The Car class print(my_car.make)
print(my_car.model)
class Car(): print(my_car.year)
"""A simple attempt to model a car."""
def __init__(self, make, model,
Calling methods
year): """Initialize car my_car.fill_tank()
attributes.""" self.make = make my_car.drive()
self.model = model self.year =
year Creating multiple objects
# Fuel capacity and level in gallons. my_car = Car('audi', 'a4', 2016)
self.fuel_capacity = 15 self.fuel_level my_old_car = Car('subaru', 'outback', 2013)
= 0 my_truck = Car('toyota', 'tacoma', 2010)
def
fill_tank(self):
"""Fill gas tank to capacity."""
self.fuel_level = self.fuel_capacity
print("Fuel tank is full.")
def
drive(self):
"""Simulate driving."""
print("The car is moving.")

There are many ways to model real world objects and situations in code, and sometimes that variety can feel overwhelming. Pick an approach and try it – if your first attempt doesn't
work, try a different approach.

More cheat sheets available at

In Python class names are written in CamelCase and object
names are written in lowercase with underscores. Modules that
contain classes should still be named in lowercase with
underscores.

overs Python 3 and Python 2

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Overriding parent methods
class ElectricCar(Car):
--snip-- def
fill_tank(self):
"""Display an error message."""
print("This car has no fuel tank!")
Class files can get long as you add detailed information and
functionality. To help keep your program files uncluttered,
you can store your classes in modules and import the
classes you need into your main program.

Storing classes in a file

car.py

"""Represent gas and electric cars."""

class
Car():
"""A simple attempt to model a car."""
--snip—
class
Battery():
"""A battery for an electric car."""
--snip--
class
ElectricCar(Car):
"""A simple model of an electric car."""
--snip--

Importing individual classes from a module my_cars.py

from car import Car, ElectricCar

my_beetle = Car('volkswagen', 'beetle', 2016)

my_beetle.fill_tank() my_beetle.drive()

my_tesla = ElectricCar('tesla', 'model s',

my_tesla.charge()
my_tesla.drive()

Importing an entire module

import car

my_beetle = car.Car(
'volkswagen', 'beetle', 2016)
my_beetle.fill_tank()
my_beetle.drive()

my_tesla = car.ElectricCar(
'tesla', 'model s', 2016)
my_tesla.charge()
my_tesla.drive()
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Importing all classes from a module
(Don’t do this, but recognize it when you see it.)
 from car import *
A class can have objects as attributes. This allows classes
Classes should inherit from object
to work together to model complex situations. my_beetle = Car('volkswagen', 'beetle', 2016)
class ClassName(object):
A Battery class
The Car class in Python 2.7
class Battery():
"""A battery for an electric car.""" class Car(object):
def __init__(self,
size=70): A list can hold as many items as you want, so you can Child class __init__() method is different
"""Initialize battery attributes.""" make a large number of objects from a class and store
them in a list. class ChildClassName(ParentClass):
# Capacity in kWh, charge level in %.
Here's an example showing how to make a fleet of rental def __init__(self):
self.size = size self.charge_level =
0 cars, and make sure all the cars are ready to drive. super(ClassName, self).__init__()
def A fleet of rental cars The ElectricCar class in Python 2.7
get_range(self):
"""Return the battery's range.""" class ElectricCar(Car): def
from car import Car, ElectricCar
if self.size == 70: __init__(self, make, model, year):
return 240 super(ElectricCar, self).__init__(
elif self.size == 85: # Make lists to hold a fleet of
cars. gas_fleet = [] electric_fleet make, model, year)
return 270
= [] More cheat sheets available at
Using an instance as an attribute
# Make 500 gas cars and 250 electric cars.
for _ in range(500): car = Car('ford',
class ElectricCar(Car):
'focus', 2016) gas_fleet.append(car) for
--snip-- _ in range(250): ecar =
def __init__(self, make, model, ElectricCar('nissan', 'leaf', 2016)
year): """Initialize an electric electric_fleet.append(ecar)
car.""" super().__init__(make,
model, year) # Fill the gas cars, and charge electric
cars. for car in gas_fleet:
# Attribute specific to electric cars. car.fill_tank() for ecar in electric_fleet:
self.battery = Battery() ecar.charge()
def
charge(self): print("Gas cars:", len(gas_fleet))
"""Fully charge the vehicle.""" print("Electric cars:", len(electric_fleet))
self.battery.charge_level = 100
print("The vehicle is fully charged.")

Using the instance

my_ecar = ElectricCar('tesla', 'model x', 2016)

my_ecar.charge()
print(my_ecar.battery.get_range())
my_ecar.drive()
 Storing the lines in a list Opening a file using an absolute path
filename = 'siddhartha.txt' f_path = "/home/ehmatthes/books/alice.txt"
with open(filename) as with open(f_path) as f_obj:
f_obj: lines = lines = f_obj.readlines()
f_obj.readlines()
for line in lines:
print(line.rstrip()) Opening a file on Windows
Windows will sometimes interpret forward slashes incorrectly. If
you run into this, use backslashes in your file paths.

f_path = "C:\Users\ehmatthes\books\alice.txt"
Your programs can read information in from files, and
with open(f_path) as f_obj: lines =
they can write data to files. Reading from files allows
f_obj.readlines()
you to work with a wide variety of information; writing Passing the 'w' argument to open() tells Python you want to
to files allows users to pick up where they left off the write to the file. Be careful; this will erase the contents of
next time they run your program. You can write text to the file if it already exists. Passing the 'a' argument tells
files, and you can store Python structures such as Python you want to append to the end of an existing file.
lists in data files. Writing to an empty file When you think an error may occur, you can write a
tryexcept block to handle the exception that might be raised.
Exceptions are special objects that help your filename = 'programming.txt' The try block tells Python to try running some code, and the
programs respond to errors in appropriate ways. For with open(filename, 'w') as except block tells Python what to do if the code results in a
example if your program tries to open a file that f: particular kind of error.
doesn’t exist, you can use exceptions to display an f.write("I love programming!")
Handling the ZeroDivisionError exception
informative error message instead of having the
Writing multiple lines to an empty file try: print(5/0) except
program crash. ZeroDivisionError: print("You
filename = 'programming.txt' can't divide by zero!")
with open(filename, 'w') as
f: Handling the FileNotFoundError exception
f.write("I love programming!\n")
To read from a file your program needs to open the file and f_name = 'siddhartha.txt' try: with
f.write("I love creating new games.\n")
then read the contents of the file. You can read the entire open(f_name) as f_obj: lines =
contents of the file at once, or read the file line by line. The f_obj.readlines() except FileNotFoundError:
Appending to a file
with statement makes sure the file is closed properly when msg = "Can't find file {0}.".format(f_name)
the program has finished accessing the file. print(msg)
filename = 'programming.txt'
Reading an entire file at once with open(filename, 'a') as
f:
f.write("I also love working with data.\n")
f.write("I love making apps as well.\n")

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 filename = 'siddhartha.txt'
with open(filename) as
f_obj: contents = When Python runs the open() function, it looks for the file in
f_obj.read() the same directory where the program that's being excuted It can be hard to know what kind of exception to handle
is stored. You can open a file from a subfolder using a when writing code. Try writing your code without a try block,
print(contents) relative path. You can also use an absolute path to open and make it generate an error. The traceback will tell you
any file on your system. what kind of exception your program needs to handle.
Reading line by line
Each line that's read from the file has a newline character at the
end of the line, and the print function adds its own newline
character. The rstrip() method gets rid of the the extra blank lines
this would result in when printing to the terminal. overs Python 3 and Python 2
filename = 'siddhartha.txt'
with open(filename) as
Opening a file from a subfolder
f_obj: for line in
f_obj:
print(line.rstrip())

f_path = "text_files/alice.txt"
with open(f_path) as f_obj:
lines = f_obj.readlines()
for line in lines:
print(line.rstrip())
 Well-written, properly tested code is not very prone to
The try block should only contain code that may cause an internal errors such as syntax or logical errors. But every
error. Any code that depends on the try block running Sometimes you want your program to just continue running time your program depends on something external such as
successfully should be placed in the else block. when it encounters an error, without reporting the error to user input or the existence of a file, there's a possibility of
the user. Using the pass statement in an else block allows an exception being raised.
Using an else block you to do this.
It's up to you how to communicate errors to your users.
print("Enter two numbers. I'll divide them.") Using the pass statement in an else block Sometimes users need to know if a file is missing;
sometimes it's better to handle the error silently. A little
x = input("First number: ") y f_names = ['alice.txt', 'siddhartha.txt', experience will help you know how much to report.
= input("Second number: ") 'moby_dick.txt', 'little_women.txt']
try: result = int(x) / int(y) for f_name in
except ZeroDivisionError: f_names:
print("You can't divide by zero!") # Report the length of each file found.
else: print(result) try: with open(f_name) as f_obj:
lines = f_obj.readlines() except
FileNotFoundError:
# Just move on to the next
file. pass else:
Preventing crashes from user input num_lines = len(lines)
Without the except block in the following example, the program msg = "{0} has {1}
would crash if the user tries to divide by zero. As written, it will lines.".format( f_name,
handle the error gracefully and keep running. num_lines) print(msg)

"""A simple calculator for division only."""

print("Enter two numbers. I'll divide them.")

print("Enter 'q' to quit.")
while True: x =
input("\nFirst number: ") if
x == 'q': break y =
input("Second number: ") if y
== 'q': break
try: result = int(x) /
int(y) except ZeroDivisionError:
print("You can't divide by zero!") The json module allows you to dump simple Python data
else: print(result) structures into a file, and load the data from that file the
next time the program runs. The JSON data format is not
specific to Python, so you can share this kind of data with
people who work in other languages as well.

Knowing how to manage exceptions is important when

working with stored data. You'll usually want to make sure
the data you're trying to load exists before working with it.

Using json.dump() to store data

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"""Store some numbers."""

import json

numbers = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13]

filename = 'numbers.json' with

open(filename, 'w') as f_obj:
json.dump(numbers, f_obj)

Using json.load() to read data

"""Load some previously stored numbers."""

import json

filename = 'numbers.json' with

open(filename) as f_obj:
numbers = json.load(f_obj)

print(numbers)

Making sure the stored data exists

import json

f_name = 'numbers.json'
try: with open(f_name) as f_obj:
numbers = json.load(f_obj) except
FileNotFoundError: msg = "Can’t find
{0}.".format(f_name) print(msg) else:
print(numbers)

Practice with exceptions

Take a program you've already written that prompts for user
input, and add some error-handling code to the program.
More cheat sheets available at

C
When you write a function or a class, you can also Building a testcase with one unit test
write tests for that code. Testing proves that your To build a test case, make a class that inherits from
code works as it's supposed to in the situations it's unittest.TestCase and write methods that begin with test_.
Save this as test_full_names.py
designed to handle, and also when people use your
programs in unexpected ways. Writing tests gives import unittest
you confidence that your code will work correctly as from full_names import get_full_name
more people begin to use your programs. You can class
also add new features to your programs and know NamesTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
that you haven't broken existing behavior. """Tests for names.py."""
def
A unit test verifies that one specific aspect of your test_first_last(self):
"""Test names like Janis Joplin."""
code works as it's supposed to. A test case is a full_name = get_full_name('janis',
collection of unit tests which verify your code's 'joplin')
behavior in a wide variety of situations. self.assertEqual(full_name,
'Janis Joplin')

unittest.main()
Running the test
Python reports on each unit test in the test case. The dot reports a
single passing test. Python informs us that it ran 1 test in less than
0.001 seconds, and the OK lets us know that all unit tests in the
test case passed.
.
---------------------------------------
Ran 1 test in 0.000s

Python's unittest module provides tools for testing your OK

code. To try it out, we’ll create a function that returns a full
name. We’ll use the function in a regular program, and then
build a test case for the function.

A function to test Failing tests are important; they tell you that a change in the
Save this as full_names.py code has affected existing behavior. When a test fails, you
need to modify the code so the existing behavior still works.
def get_full_name(first, last):
"""Return a full name.""" Modifying the function
full_name = "{0} {1}".format(first, last) We’ll modify get_full_name() so it handles middle names, but
return full_name.title() we’ll do it in a way that breaks existing behavior.

def get_full_name(first, middle, last):

Using the function
Save this as names.py """Return a full name."""
full_name = "{0} {1} {2}".format(first,
from full_names import get_full_name middle, last) return full_name.title()

janis = get_full_name('janis', 'joplin')

print(janis) Using the function

bob = get_full_name('bob', 'dylan') from full_names import get_full_name

print(bob)
john = get_full_name('john', 'lee', 'hooker')
print(john)
 Ran 1 test in 0.000s

O
K

overs Python 3 and Python 2

Running the test
When you change your code, it’s important to run your existing
tests. This will tell you whether the changes you made affected
existing behavior.

E
===============================================
= ERROR: test_first_last
(__main__.NamesTestCase)
Test names like Janis Joplin.
-----------------------------------------------
-
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test_full_names.py", line 10,
in test_first_last
'joplin')
TypeError: get_full_name() missing 1 required
positional argument: 'last'

-----------------------------------------------
-
Ran 1 test in 0.001s

FAILED (errors=1)
Fixing the code
When a test fails, the code needs to be modified until the test
passes again. (Don’t make the mistake of rewriting your tests to
fit your new code.) Here we can make the middle name optional.
def get_full_name(first, last, middle=''):
"""Return a full name.""" if middle:
full_name = "{0} {1} {2}".format(first,
middle, last) else: full_name =
"{0} {1}".format(first,
last) return full_name.title() Running the
test
Now the test should pass again, which means our original
functionality is still intact.

.
--------------------------------------- C
You can add as many unit tests to a test case as you need. Testing a class is similar to testing a function, since you’ll When testing a class, you usually have to make an instance
To write a new test, add a new method to your test case mostly be testing your methods. of the class. The setUp() method is run before every test.
class. Any instances you make in setUp() are available in every
A class to test test you write.
Testing middle names Save as accountant.py
We’ve shown that get_full_name() works for first and last Using setUp() to support multiple tests
names. Let’s test that it works for middle names as well. class Accountant(): The instance self.acc can be used in each new test.
"""Manage a bank account.""" import unittest
import unittest def __init__(self, from accountant import Accountant class
from full_names import get_full_name balance=0): TestAccountant(unittest.TestCase):
class self.balance = balance """Tests for the class Accountant."""
NamesTestCase(unittest.TestCase): def deposit(self, def setUp(self):
"""Tests for names.py.""" amount): self.balance self.acc = Accountant()
def += amount def test_initial_balance(self):
test_first_last(self): def withdraw(self, # Default balance should be 0.
"""Test names like Janis Joplin.""" amount): self.balance - self.assertEqual(self.acc.balance, 0)
full_name = get_full_name('janis', = amount # Test non-default balance.
'joplin') acc = Accountant(100)
self.assertEqual(full_name, Building a testcase self.assertEqual(acc.balance, 100)
'Janis Joplin') For the first test, we’ll make sure we can start out with different def
def initial balances. Save this as test_accountant.py. test_deposit(self): #
test_middle(self): Test single deposit.
"""Test names like David Lee Roth.""" import unittest self.acc.deposit(100)
full_name = get_full_name('david', from accountant import Accountant self.assertEqual(self.acc.balance, 100)
'roth', 'lee') class
self.assertEqual(full_name, TestAccountant(unittest.TestCase): # Test multiple deposits.
'David Lee Roth') """Tests for the class Accountant."""
self.acc.deposit(100)
def
self.acc.deposit(100)
unittest.main() test_initial_balance(self): #
self.assertEqual(self.acc.balance, 300)
Default balance should be 0.
Running the tests def
acc = Accountant()
test_withdrawal(self): #
The two dots represent two passing tests. self.assertEqual(acc.balance, 0)
Test single withdrawal.
self.acc.deposit(1000)
.. # Test non-default balance. self.acc.withdraw(100)
--------------------------------------- acc = Accountant(100) self.assertEqual(self.acc.balance, 900)
Ran 2 tests in 0.000s self.assertEqual(acc.balance, 100)
unittest.main()
unittest.main()
OK

Running the test

.
Python provides a number of assert methods you can use --------------------------------------- Running the tests
to test your code. Ran 1 test in 0.000s
Verify that a==b, or a != b
OK

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Pygame is a framework for making games using
Python. Making games is fun, and it’s a great way to
expand your programming skills and knowledge.
Pygame takes care of many of the lower-level tasks
in building games, which lets you focus on the
aspects of your game that make it interesting.
assertEqual(a, b) ...
assertNotEqual(a, b) ---------------------------------------
Ran 3 tests in 0.001s
In general you shouldn’t modify a test once it’s written.
Verify that x is True, or x is False
When a test fails it usually means new code you’ve written
OK
has broken existing functionality, and you need to modify
assertTrue(x) the new code until all existing tests pass.
assertFalse(x) If your original requirements have changed, it may be
appropriate to modify some tests. This usually happens in
Verify an item is in a list, or not in a list the early stages of a project when desired behavior is still
being sorted out.
assertIn(item, list)
assertNotIn(item, list)
Pygame runs on all systems, but setup is slightly different The following code sets up an empty game window, and
on each OS. The instructions here assume you’re using Useful rect attributes
starts an event loop and a loop that continually refreshes
Python 3, and provide a minimal installation of Pygame. If Once you have a rect object, there are a number of attributes that
the screen. are useful when positioning objects and detecting relative positions
these instructions don’t work for your system, see the more
of objects. (You can find more attributes in the Pygame
detailed notes at http://ehmatthes.github.io/pcc/. An empty game window
documentation.)
Pygame on Linux import sys # Individual x and y values:
import pygame as pg screen_rect.left, screen_rect.right
$ sudo apt-get install python3-dev def screen_rect.top, screen_rect.bottom
mercurial libsdl-image1.2-dev libsdl2- run_game(): screen_rect.centerx, screen_rect.centery
dev libsdl-ttf2.0-dev $ pip install -- # Initialize and set up screen. screen_rect.width, screen_rect.height
user pg.init() screen =
hg+http://bitbucket.org/pygame/pygame pg.display.set_mode((1200, 800)) # Tuples
pg.display.set_caption("Alien Invasion") screen_rect.center
Pygame on OS X screen_rect.size
This assumes you’ve used Homebrew to install Python 3. # Start main loop.
while True: Creating a rect object
$ brew install hg sdl sdl_image sdl_ttf You can create a rect object from scratch. For example a small rect
# Start event loop.
$ pip install --user object that’s filled in can represent a bullet in a game. The Rect()
for event in pg.event.get():
class takes the coordinates of the upper left corner, and the width
hg+http://bitbucket.org/pygame/pygame if event.type == pg.QUIT: and height of the rect. The draw.rect() function takes a screen
sys.exit() object, a color, and a rect. This function fills the given rect with the
Pygame on Windows given color.
Find an installer at # Refresh screen.
https://bitbucket.org/pygame/pygame/downloads/ or bullet_rect = pg.Rect(100, 100, 3, 15)
pg.display.flip()
http://www.lfd.uci.edu/~gohlke/pythonlibs/#pygame that matches color = (100, 100, 100)
your version of Python. Run the installer file if it’s a .exe or .msi file. pg.draw.rect(screen, color, bullet_rect)
If it’s a .whl file, use pip to install Pygame: run_game()

> python –m pip install --user pygame- Setting a custom window size
1.9.2a0-cp35-none-win32.whl The display.set_mode() function accepts a tuple that defines the
screen size. Many objects in a game are images that are moved around
Testing your installation the screen. It’s easiest to use bitmap (.bmp) image files, but
screen_dim = (1200, 800)
To test your installation, open a terminal session and try to import you can also configure your system to work with jpg, png,
screen = pg.display.set_mode(screen_dim)
Pygame. If you don’t get any error messages, your installation was and gif files as well.
successful.
Setting a custom background color Loading an image
$ python Colors are defined as a tuple of red, green, and blue values. Each
>>> import pygame value ranges from 0-255. ship = pg.image.load('images/ship.bmp')
>>>
bg_color = (230, 230, 230)
Getting the rect object from an image
screen.fill(bg_color)
ship_rect = ship.get_rect()

Positioning an image
Many objects in a game can be treated as simple With rects, it’s easy to position an image wherever you want on the
screen, or in relation to another object. The following code positions
rectangles, rather than their actual shape. This simplifies
a ship object at the bottom center of the screen.
code without noticeably affecting game play. Pygame has a
rect object that makes it easy to work with game objects. ship_rect.midbottom = screen_rect.midbottom

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 Getting the screen rect object
We already have a screen object; we can easily access the rect
object associated with the screen.
Covers Python 3 and Python 2
screen_rect = screen.get_rect()

Finding the center of the screen

Rect objects have a center attribute which stores the center point.

screen_center = screen_rect.center
Pygame watches for events such as key presses and
mouse actions. You can detect any event you care about in
the event loop, and respond with any action that’s
appropriate for your game.
Responding to key presses Pygame’s event loop registers an event any time the
Pygame’s main event loop registers a KEYDOWN event any time a
mouse moves, or a mouse button is pressed or released.
key is pressed. When this happens, you can check for specific
keys. Responding to the mouse button
for event in pg.event.get(): if
for event in pg.event.get(): if
event.type == pg.KEYDOWN:
if event.key == pg.K_RIGHT: event.type == pg.MOUSEBUTTONDOWN:
You can detectship_rect.x
when a single object +=collides
1 with any ship.fire_bullet()
member
elif of a group.
event.key ==You can also detect when any member
pg.K_LEFT:
of one group collides with a member
ship_rect.x -= 1 of another group. Finding the mouse position
elif event.key == pg.K_SPACE: The mouse position is returned as a tuple.
Collisions between a single object and a group
ship.fire_bullet() elif
The spritecollideany() function takes an object and a group, and mouse_pos = pg.mouse.get_pos()
event.key == pg.K_q:
returns True if the object overlaps with any member of the group.
sys.exit()
if pg.sprite.spritecollideany(ship, aliens): Clicking a button
Responding to released You might want to know if the cursor is over an object such as a
ships_left -= 1 keys
When the user releases a key, a KEYUP event is triggered. button. The rect.collidepoint() method returns true when a point is
inside a rect object.
Collisions between two groups
if event.type == pg.KEYUP:
The sprite.groupcollide() function takes two groups, and two if button_rect.collidepoint(mouse_pos):
if event.key
booleans. == pg.K_RIGHT:
The function returns a dictionary containing information start_game()
ship.moving_right = False
about the members that have collided. The booleans tell Pygame
whether to delete the members of either group that have collided.
Hiding the mouse
collisions = pg.sprite.groupcollide(
bullets, aliens, True, True) pg.mouse.set_visible(False)

score += len(collisions) * alien_point_value

 Pygame has a Group class which makes working with a
group of similar objects easier. A group is like a list, with
Drawing an image to the screen some extra functionality that’s helpful when building games.
Once an image is loaded and positioned, you can draw it to the
screen with the blit() method. The blit() method acts on the screen Making and filling a group Removing an item from a group
object, and takes the image object and image rect as arguments. An object that will be placed in a group must inherit from Sprite. It’s important to delete elements that will never appear again in the
game, so you don’t waste memory and resources.
# Draw ship to screen.
screen.blit(ship, ship_rect) from pygame.sprite import Sprite, Group
def
bullets.remove(bullet)
The blitme() method Bullet(Sprite):
Game objects such as ships are often written as classes. Then a ... def
blitme() method is usually defined, which draws the object to the draw_bullet(self):
screen. ...
Making
defa update(self):
scatter plot
def blitme(self):
The scatter()
...function takes a list of x values and a list of y values,
"""Draw ship at current location.""" and a variety of optional arguments. The s=10 argument controls
self.screen.blit(self.image, self.rect) the size of each point.
bullets = Group()
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
new_bullet = Bullet()
bullets.add(new_bullet)
x_values = list(range(1000)) squares
= [x**2 for x in x_values]
Looping through the items in a group
The sprites() method returns all the
plt.scatter(x_values, memberss=10)
squares, of a group.
plt.show()
for bullet in bullets.sprites():
bullet.draw_bullet() You can use text for a variety of purposes in a game. For
example you can share information with players, and you
Calling update() on a group can display a score. Displaying a message
Calling update() on a group automatically calls update() on each The following code defines a message, then a color for the text and the
member of the group. background color for the message. A font is defined using the default
system font, with a font size of 48. The font.render() function is used to
bullets.update() create an image of the message, and we get the rect object associated
with the image. We then center the image on the screen and display it.
msg = "Play again?" msg_color = (100, 100, 100)
bg_color = (230, 230, 230)

f = pg.font.SysFont(None, 48)
msg_image = f.render(msg, True, msg_color,
The Pygame documentation is really helpful when building bg_color)
your own games. The home page for the Pygame project is msg_image_rect = msg_image.get_rect() at http://pygame.org/, and the home page for the
msg_image_rect.center = screen_rect.center documentation is at http://pygame.org/docs/. screen.blit(msg_image, msg_image_rect)
The most useful part of the documentation are the pages
about specific parts of Pygame, such as the Rect() class and the sprite module. You can find a list of these elements at the
top of the help pages.

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 Plots can be customized in a wide variety of ways. Just
about any element of a plot can be customized. Emphasizing points
You can plot as much data as you want on one plot. Here we replot
Adding titles and labels, and scaling axes the first and last points larger to emphasize them.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

x_values = list(range(1000)) squares x_values = list(range(1000)) squares =

= [x**2 for x in x_values] [x**2 for x in x_values]
plt.scatter(x_values, squares, s=10) plt.scatter(x_values, squares, c=squares,
cmap=plt.cm.Blues, edgecolor='none',
Data visualization involves exploring data through plt.title("Square Numbers", fontsize=24) s=10)
visual representations. The matplotlib package helps plt.xlabel("Value", fontsize=18) plt.scatter(x_values[0], squares[0], c='green',
you make visually appealing representations of the plt.ylabel("Square of Value", fontsize=18) edgecolor='none', s=100)
plt.tick_params(axis='both', which='major', plt.scatter(x_values[-1], squares[-1], c='red',
data you’re working with. matplotlib is extremely
labelsize=14) plt.axis([0, 1100, 0, edgecolor='none', s=100)
flexible; these examples will help you get started with 1100000])
a few simple visualizations. plt.title("Square Numbers", fontsize=24) --snip-
plt.show() -

Using a colormap
matplotlib runs on all systems, but setup is slightly different A colormap varies the point colors from one shade to another, Removing axes
depending on your OS. If the minimal instructions here based on a certain value for each point. The value used to You can customize or remove axes entirely. Here’s how to access
determine the color of each point is passed to the c argument, and each axis, and hide it.
don’t work for you, see the more detailed instructions at the cmap argument specifies which colormap to use.
http://ehmatthes.github.io/pcc/. You should also consider The edgecolor='none' argument removes the black outline plt.axes().get_xaxis().set_visible(False)
installing the Anaconda distrubution of Python from from each point. plt.axes().get_yaxis().set_visible(False)
https://continuum.io/downloads/, which includes matplotlib.
plt.scatter(x_values, squares, c=squares, Setting a custom figure size
matplotlib on Linux cmap=plt.cm.Blues, edgecolor='none', You can make your plot as big or small as you want. Before plotting
s=10) your data, add the following code. The dpi argument is optional; if
$ sudo apt-get install python3-matplotlib you don’t know your system’s resolution you can omit the argument
and adjust the figsize argument accordingly.
matplotlib on OS X plt.figure(dpi=128, figsize=(10, 6))
Start a terminal session and enter import matplotlib to see if
it’s already installed on your system. If not, try this command: Saving a plot
The matplotlib viewer has an interactive save button, but you can
$ pip install --user matplotlib also save your visualizations programmatically. To do so, replace
plt.show() with plt.savefig(). The bbox_inches='tight'
matplotlib on Windows argument trims extra whitespace from the plot.
You first need to install Visual Studio, which you can do from plt.savefig('squares.png', bbox_inches='tight')
https://dev.windows.com/. The Community edition is free. Then go
to https://pypi.python.org/pypi/matplotlib/ or
http://www.lfd.uic.edu/~gohlke/pythonlibs/#matplotlib and download
an appropriate installer file.
The matplotlib gallery and documentation are at
http://matplotlib.org/. Be sure to visit the examples, gallery,
and pyplot links.
Making a line graph
Covers Python 3 and Python 2
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

x_values = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
squares = [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
plt.plot(x_values, squares)
plt.show()

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You can make as many plots as you want on one figure. You can include as many individual graphs in one figure as
When you make multiple plots, you can emphasize Datetime formatting arguments
you want. This is useful, for example, when comparing
The strftime() function generates a formatted string from a
relationships in the data. For example you can fill the space related datasets.
datetime object, and the strptime() function genereates a
between two sets of data. datetime object from a string. The following codes let you work with Sharing an x-axis
Plotting two sets of data dates exactly as you need to. The following code plots a set of squares and a set of cubes on
two separate graphs that share a common x-axis.
Here we use plt.scatter() twice to plot square numbers and %A Weekday name, such as Monday
The plt.subplots() function returns a figure object and a tuple
cubes on the same figure. %B Month name, such as January of axes. Each set of axes corresponds to a separate plot in the
%m Month, as a number (01 to 12) figure. The first two arguments control the number of rows and
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt %d Day of the month, as a number (01 to 31) columns generated in the figure.
%Y Four-digit year, such as 2016
x_values = list(range(11)) squares import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
%y Two-digit year, such as 16
= [x**2 for x in x_values] cubes =
%H Hour, in 24-hour format (00 to 23) x_vals = list(range(11)) squares
[x**3 for x in x_values]
%I Hour, in 12-hour format (01 to 12) = [x**2 for x in x_vals] cubes =
plt.scatter(x_values, squares, c='blue', %p AM or PM [x**3 for x in x_vals]
edgecolor='none', s=20) plt.scatter(x_values, %M Minutes (00 to 59)
cubes, c='red', edgecolor='none', s=20) %S Seconds (00 to 61) fig, axarr = plt.subplots(2, 1, sharex=True)
Converting a string to a datetime object
plt.axis([0, 11, 0, 1100]) axarr[0].scatter(x_vals, squares)
plt.show() new_years = dt.strptime('1/1/2017', '%m/%d/%Y') axarr[0].set_title('Squares')

Converting a datetime object to a string axarr[1].scatter(x_vals, cubes, c='red')

Filling the space between data sets axarr[1].set_title('Cubes')
ny_string = dt.strftime(new_years, '%B %d, %Y')
The fill_between() method fills the space between two data
sets. It takes a series of x-values and two series of y-values. It also print(ny_string)
plt.show()
takes a facecolor to use for the fill, and an optional alpha
argument that controls the color’s transparency.
Plotting high temperatures Sharing a y-axis
The following code creates a list of dates and a corresponding list To share a y-axis, we use the sharey=True argument.
plt.fill_between(x_values, cubes, squares, of high temperatures. It then plots the high temperatures, with the
date labels displayed in a specific format.
facecolor='blue', alpha=0.25)
 from datetime import datetime as dt import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt from x_vals = list(range(11)) squares

Many interesting data sets have a date or time as the matplotlib import dates as mdates = [x**2 for x in x_vals] cubes =
xvalue. Python’s datetime module helps you work with this dates = [ dt(2016, 6, 21), [x**3 for x in x_vals]
kind of data. dt(2016, 6, 22), dt(2016, 6,
23), dt(2016, 6, 24), fig, axarr = plt.subplots(1, 2, sharey=True)
Generating the current date
]
The datetime.now() function returns a datetime object
highs = [57, 68, 64, 59] axarr[0].scatter(x_vals, squares)
representing the current date and time.
axarr[0].set_title('Squares')
from datetime import datetime as dt fig = plt.figure(dpi=128, figsize=(10,6))
plt.plot(dates, highs, c='red') axarr[1].scatter(x_vals, cubes, c='red')
today = dt.now() plt.title("Daily High Temps", fontsize=24) axarr[1].set_title('Cubes')
date_string = dt.strftime(today, '%m/%d/%Y') plt.ylabel("Temp (F)", fontsize=16)
print(date_string) plt.show()
x_axis = plt.axes().get_xaxis()
Generating a specific date x_axis.set_major_formatter(
You can also generate a datetime object for any date and time you mdates.DateFormatter('%B %d %Y')
want. The positional order of arguments is year, month, and day. )
The hour, minute, second, and microsecond arguments are
fig.autofmt_xdate()
optional.

from datetime import datetime as dt plt.show()

new_years = dt(2017, 1, 1)
fall_equinox = dt(year=2016, month=9, day=22)

Making a scatter plot You can add as much data as you want when making a
Data visualization involves exploring data through
The data for a scatter plot needs to be a list containing tuples of visualization.
visual representations. Pygal helps you make visually
the form (x, y). The stroke=False argument tells Pygal to make Plotting squares and cubes
appealing representations of the data you’re working
an XY chart with no line connecting the points.
with. Pygal is particularly well suited for visualizations
that will be presented online, because it supports
interactive elements.

More cheat sheets available at

 import pygal import pygal

squares = [ x_values = list(range(11)) squares

Pygal can be installed using pip. (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), = [x**2 for x in x_values] cubes =
(4, 16), (5, 25), [x**3 for x in x_values]
Pygal on Linux and OS X ]
chart = pygal.XY(stroke=False) chart = pygal.Line()
$ pip install --user pygal chart.force_uri_protocol = 'http' chart.force_uri_protocol = 'http' chart.title
chart.add('x^2', squares) = "Squares and Cubes" chart.x_labels =
Pygal on Windows chart.render_to_file('squares.svg') x_values

> python –m pip install --user pygal chart.add('Squares', squares)

Using a list comprehension for a scatter plot chart.add('Cubes', cubes)
A list comprehension can be used to effficiently make a dataset for chart.render_to_file('squares_cubes.svg')
a scatter plot.

squares = [(x, x**2) for x in range(1000)] Filling the area under a data series
Pygal allows you to fill the area under or over each series of data.
To make a plot with Pygal, you specify the kind of plot and The default is to fill from the x-axis up, but you can fill from any
Making a bar graph
then add the data. horizontal line using the zero argument.
A bar graph requires a list of values for the bar sizes. To label the
Making a line graph bars, pass a list of the same length to x_labels.
chart = pygal.Line(fill=True, zero=0)
To view the output, open the file squares.svg in a browser. import pygal
import pygal
outcomes = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
frequencies = [18, 16, 18, 17, 18, 13]
x_values = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
squares = [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
chart = pygal.Bar()
chart.force_uri_protocol = 'http'
chart = pygal.Line()
chart.x_labels = outcomes chart.add('D6',
chart.force_uri_protocol = 'http'
frequencies)
chart.add('x^2', squares) chart.render_to_file('rolling_dice.svg')
chart.render_to_file('squares.svg')
Making a bar graph from a dictionary
Adding labels and a title Since each bar needs a label and a value, a dictionary is a great
way to store the data for a bar graph. The keys are used as the The documentation for Pygal is available at
labels along the x-axis, and the values are used to determine the
http://www.pygal.org/.
height of each bar.

If you’re viewing svg output in a browser, Pygal needs to

render the output file in a specific way. The
force_uri_protocol attribute for chart objects needs to
be set to 'http'.
--snip-- import pygal
chart = pygal.Line()
chart.force_uri_protocol = 'http' results = {
chart.title = "Squares" 1:18, 2:16, 3:18, Covers Python 3 and Python 2
chart.x_labels = x_values 4:17, 5:18, 6:13,
chart.x_title = "Value" }
chart.y_title = "Square of Value" chart = pygal.Bar()
chart.add('x^2', squares) chart.force_uri_protocol = 'http'
chart.render_to_file('squares.svg') chart.x_labels = results.keys() chart.add('D6',
results.values())
chart.render_to_file('rolling_dice.svg')

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Pygal can generate world maps, and you can add any data
you want to these maps. Data is indicated by coloring, by
labels, and by tooltips that show data when users hover
over each country on the map.
Installing the world map module
The world map module is not included by default in Pygal 2.0. It
can be installed with pip:

$ pip install --user pygal_maps_world

Making a world map

The following code makes a simple world map showing the
countries of North America.

from pygal.maps.world import World

wm = World()
wm.force_uri_protocol = 'http'
wm.title = 'North America'
wm.add('North America', ['ca', 'mx', 'us'])

wm.render_to_file('north_america.svg')

Showing all the country codes

In order to make maps, you need to know Pygal’s country codes.
The following example will print an alphabetical list of each country
and its code.

from pygal.maps.world import COUNTRIES

for code in
sorted(COUNTRIES.keys()):
print(code, COUNTRIES[code])

Plotting numerical data on a world map

To plot numerical data on a map, pass a dictionary to add()
instead of a list.

from pygal.maps.world import World

populations = {
'ca': 34126000,
'us': 309349000,
'mx': 113423000,
}
wm = World()
wm.force_uri_protocol = 'http' wm.title
= 'Population of North America'
wm.add('North America', populations)

wm.render_to_file('na_populations.svg')
 Configuration settings
Some settings are controlled by a Config object.
Pygal lets you customize many elements of a plot. There
are some excellent default themes, and many options for my_config = pygal.Config()
styling individual plot elements. my_config.show_y_guides = False
Using built-in styles my_config.width = 1000
To use built-in styles, import the style and make an instance of my_config.dots_size = 5
the style class. Then pass the style object with the style
argument when you make the chart object. chart = pygal.Line(config=my_config) --snip-
-
import pygal
from pygal.style import LightGreenStyle

x_values = list(range(11)) Styling series

squares = [x**2 for x in You can give each series on a chart different style settings.
x_values] cubes = [x**3 for x in
x_values] chart.add('Squares', squares, dots_size=2)
chart.add('Cubes', cubes, dots_size=3)
chart_style = LightGreenStyle()
chart = Styling individual data points
pygal.Line(style=chart_style) You can style individual data points as well. To do so, write a
chart.force_uri_protocol = 'http' dictionary for each data point you want to customize. A 'value'
chart.title = "Squares and Cubes" key is required, and other properies are optional.
chart.x_labels = x_values
import pygal
chart.add('Squares', squares)
chart.add('Cubes', cubes) repos = [
chart.render_to_file('squares_cubes.svg') {
'value': 20506,
Parametric built-in styles 'color': '#3333CC',
Some built-in styles accept a custom color, then generate a 'xlink': 'http://djangoproject.com/',
theme based on that color.
},
from pygal.style import LightenStyle 20054,
12607,
--snip-- chart_style = 11827,
LightenStyle('#336688') chart = ]
pygal.Line(style=chart_style) -- chart = pygal.Bar()
snip-- chart.force_uri_protocol = 'http'
chart.x_labels = [
Customizing individual style properties 'django', 'requests', 'scikit-learn',
Style objects have a number of properties you can set 'tornado',
individually. ]
chart_style = LightenStyle('#336688') chart.y_title = 'Stars'
chart_style.plot_background = '#CCCCCC' chart.add('Python Repos', repos)
chart_style.major_label_font_size = 20 chart.render_to_file('python_repos.svg')
chart_style.label_font_size = 16 --
snip--

Custom style class

You can start with a bare style class, and then set only the
properties you care about.
 chart_style = Style()
chart_style.colors = [
'#CCCCCC', '#AAAAAA', '#888888']
chart_style.plot_background = '#EEEEEE' More cheat
sheets available
chart = pygal.Line(style=chart_style) --
at
snip--

The data in a Django project is structured as a set of Users interact with a project through web pages, and a
models. project’s home page can start out as a simple page with no
data. A page usually needs a URL, a view, and a template.
Defining a model
To define the models for your app, modify the file models.py that Mapping a project’s URLs
was created in your app’s folder. The __str__() method tells The project’s main urls.py file tells Django where to find the urls.py
Django how to represent data objects based on this model. files associated with each app in the project.

from django.db import from django.conf.urls import include, url from

Django is a web framework which helps you build models class django.contrib import admin
interactive websites using Python. With Django you Topic(models.Model):
define the kind of data your site needs to work with, """A topic the user is learning about.""" urlpatterns = [
and you define the ways your users can work with text = models.CharField(max_length=200) url(r'^admin/',
that data. date_added = models.DateTimeField( include(admin.site.urls)), url(r'',
auto_now_add=True) include('learning_logs.urls',
def
namespace='learning_logs')), ]
__str__(self):
It’s usualy best to install Django to a virtual environment,
return self.text Mapping an app’s URLs
An app’s urls.py file tells Django which view to use for each URL in
where your project can be isolated from your other Python
Activating a model the app. You’ll need to make this file yourself, and save it in the
projects. Most commands assume you’re working in an app’s folder.
To use a model the app must be added to the tuple
active virtual environment. INSTALLED_APPS, which is stored in the project’s settings.py file.
from django.conf.urls import url
Create a virtual environment
INSTALLED_APPS = (
--snip-- from . import views
$ python –m venv ll_env
'django.contrib.staticfiles',
urlpatterns = [
Activate the environment (Linux and OS X)
# My apps url(r'^$', views.index, name='index'),
'learning_logs', ]
$ source ll_env/bin/activate
)
Writing a simple view
Activate the environment (Windows) Migrating the database A view takes information from a request and sends data to the
The database needs to be modified to store the kind of data that browser, often through a template. View functions are stored in an
> ll_env\Scripts\activate the model represents. app’s views.py file. This simple view function doesn’t pull in any
data, but it uses the template index.html to render the home page.
Install Django to the active environment
 (ll_env)$ pip install Django $ python manage.py makemigrations learning_logs from django.shortcuts import render
$ python manage.py migrate def
index(request):
Creating a superuser """The home page for Learning Log."""
A superuser is a user account that has access to all aspects of the return render(request,
project. 'learning_logs/index.html')

$ python manage.py createsuperuser

Registering a model
You can register your models with Django’s admin site, which
makes it easier to work with the data in your project. To do this,
modify the app’s admin.py file. View the admin site at
http://localhost:8000/admin/.

from django.contrib import admin

from learning_logs.models import Topic

admin.site.register(Topic)

To start a project we’ll create a new project, create a

database, and start a development server.

Create a new project

$ django-admin.py startproject learning_log .

The documentation for Django is available at
Create a database http://docs.djangoproject.com/. The Django documentation
is thorough and user-friendly, so check it out!
$ python manage.py migrate

View the project

After issuing this command, you can view the project at Covers Python 3 and Python 2
http://localhost:8000/.

$ python manage.py runserver

Create a new app

A Django project is made up of one or more apps.

$ python manage.py startapp learning_logs

 Writing a simple template
A template sets up the structure for a page. It’s a mix of html and
template code, which is like Python but not as powerful. Make a
folder called templates inside the project folder. Inside the
templates folder make another folder with the same name as the
app. This is where the template files should be saved.

Many elements of a web page are repeated on every page

in the site, or every page in a section of the site. By writing <p>Learning Log</p>
one parent template for the site, and one for each section,
you can easily modify the look and feel of your entire site. <p>Learning
Most pages in Log helps
a project youto keep
need track
present of your
data that’s specific to
learning, for
the current user. any topic you're learning
The parent template
about.</p>
URL parameters
The parent template defines the elements common to a set of
pages, and defines blocks that will be filled by individual pages. A URL often needs to accept a parameter telling it which data to
access from the database. The second URL pattern shown here
<p> looks
A newformodel
the ID can
of a use
specific
an topic and model.
existing stores it The
in theForeignKey
parameter
<a href="{% url 'learning_logs:index' %}"> topic_id.
attribute establishes a connection between instances of the
Learning Log urlpatterns
two = [ Make sure to migrate the database
related models.
</a> url(r'^$',
after adding views.index,
a new model to your app.
</p> name='index'),
Defining a model with a foreign key
url(r'^topics/(?P<topic_id>\d+)/$',
{% block content %}{% endblock content %} views.topic, name='topic'), ]
class Entry(models.Model):
The child template """Learning log entries for a topic."""
The child template uses the {% extends %} template tag to pull in topic = models.ForeignKey(Topic) text =
the structure of the parent template. It then defines the content for models.TextField() date_added =
any blocks defined in the parent template. models.DateTimeField(
auto_now_add=True)
{% extends 'learning_logs/base.html' %} def __str__(self):
return self.text[:50] + "..."
{% block content %}
<p>
Learning Log helps you keep track
of your learning, for any topic you're
learning about.
</p>
{% endblock content %}
 Using data in a template
The data in the view function’s context dictionary is available within
the template. This data is accessed using template variables, which
are indicated by doubled curly braces.
The vertical line after a template variable indicates a filter. In this
case a filter called date formats date objects, and the filter
linebreaks renders paragraphs properly on a web page.

{% extends 'learning_logs/base.html' %}

{% block content %}

<p>Topic: {{ topic }}</p>

Using data in a view

The view uses a parameter from the URL to pull the correct data
from the database. In this example the view is sending a context
dictionary to the template, containing data that should be displayed
on the page.

If you make a change to your project and the change

doesn’t seem to have any effect, try restarting the server:
$ python manage.py runserver

def topic(request, topic_id):

"""Show a topic and all its entries."""
You can explore the data in your project from the command topic = Topics.objects.get(id=topic_id)
line. This is helpful for developing queries and testing code entries = topic.entry_set.order_by(
snippets. '-date_added')
Start a shell session context = {
'topic': topic,
$ python manage.py shell 'entries': entries,
}
Access data from the project
return render(request,
>>> from learning_logs.models import Topic 'learning_logs/topic.html', context)
>>> Topic.objects.all() <p>Entries:</p>
[<Topic: Chess>, <Topic: Rock Climbing>] <ul>
>>> topic = Topic.objects.get(id=1) {% for entry in entries %}
>>> topic.text <li>
'Chess' <p>
Python code is usually indented by four spaces. In {{ entry.date_added|date:'M d, Y
templates you’ll often see two spaces used for indentation, H:i' }}
because elements tend to be nested more deeply in </p>
templates. <p>
{{ entry.text|linebreaks }}
 </p>
</li>
{% empty %}
<li>There are no entries yet.</li>
{% endfor %}
</ul>

{% endblock content %}

More cheat sheets available at

Defining the URLs

Users will need to be able to log in, log out, and register. Make a
new urls.py file in the users app folder. The login view is a default
view provided by Django.
 from django.conf.urls import url Showing the current login status
from django.contrib.auth.views import login You can modify the base.html template to show whether the user is
currently logged in, and to provide a link to the login and logout
from . import views pages. Django makes a user object available to every template,
Most web applications need to let users create and this template takes advantage of this object.
accounts. This lets users create and work with their The user.is_authenticated tag allows you to serve specific
urlpatterns = [ content to users depending on whether they have logged in or not.
own data. Some of this data may be private, and url(r'^login/$', login, The {{ user.username }} property allows you to greet users who
some may be public. Django’s forms allow users to {'template_name': 'users/login.html'}, have logged in. Users who haven’t logged in see links to register or
enter and modify their data. name='login'), log in.
url(r'^logout/$', views.logout_view, <p>
name='logout'),
<a href="{% url 'learning_logs:index' %}">
User accounts are handled by a dedicated app called url(r'^register/$', views.register,
Learning Log
name='register'),
users. Users need to be able to register, log in, and log </a>
]
out. Django automates much of this work for you. {% if user.is_authenticated %}
The login template Hello, {{ user.username }}.
Making a users app
The login view is provided by default, but you need to provide your
After making the app, be sure to add 'users' to INSTALLED_APPS own login template. The template shown here displays a simple
<a href="{% url 'users:logout' %}">
in the project’s settings.py file. login form, and provides basic error messages. Make a templates log out </a>
folder in the users folder, and then make a users folder in the {% else %}
$ python manage.py startapp users
templates folder. Save this file as login.html. <a href="{% url 'users:register' %}">
The tag {% csrf_token %} helps prevent a common type of register
Including URLS for the users app
attack with forms. The {{ form.as_p }} element displays the </a> -
Add a line to the project’s urls.py file so the users app’s URLs are
default login form in paragraph format. The <input> element <a href="{% url 'users:login'
included in the project.
named next redirects the user to the home page after a successful %}"> log in </a>
urlpatterns = [ login. {% endif %}
url(r'^admin/', </p>
include(admin.site.urls)),
url(r'^users/', include('users.urls', {% block content %}{% endblock content %}
namespace='users')), url(r'',
include('learning_logs.urls',
namespace='learning_logs')), ] The logout view
The logout_view() function uses Django’s logout() function and
then redirects the user back to the home page. Since there is no
logout page, there is no logout template. Make sure to write this
code in the views.py file that’s stored in the users app folder.
from django.http import HttpResponseRedirect
from django.core.urlresolvers import reverse
from django.contrib.auth import logout
def logout_view(request):
"""Log the user out."""
logout(request)
return HttpResponseRedirect(
reverse('learning_logs:index'))
 {% extends "learning_logs/base.html" %}
There are a number of ways to create forms and work with
them. You can use Django’s defaults, or completely {% block content %}
customize your forms. For a simple way to let users enter {% if form.errors %} Covers Python 3 and Python 2
data based on your models, use a ModelForm. This creates <p>
a form that allows users to enter data that will populate the Your username and password didn't match.
fields on a model. Please try again.
The register view on the back of this sheet shows a simple </p>
approach to form processing. If the view doesn’t receive {% endif %}
data from a form, it responds with a blank form. If it
receives POST data from a form, it validates the data and <form method="post"
then saves it to the database. action="{% url 'users:login' %}">
{% csrf token %}
{{ form.as_p }}
<button name="submit">log in</button>

<input type="hidden" name="next"

value="{% url 'learning_logs:index' %}"/>
</form>

{% endblock content %}
 Users will have data that belongs to them. Any model that should If you provide some initial data, Django generates a form
The register view The registerdirectly
template Restricting access to logged-in users
be connected to a user needs a field connecting instances with the user’s existing data. Users can then modify and
The register view needs to display a blank registration form when The
of register
the model template displays
to a specific user. the registration form in paragraph Some pages are only relevant to registered users. The views for
the page is first requested, and then process completed registration formats. save their data.
these pages can be protected by the @login_required decorator.
forms. A successful registration logs the user in and redirects to the Making a topic belong to a user Any view with
Creating this decorator
a form will automatically
with initial data redirect non-logged
home page. {% extends 'learning_logs/base.html' %} in users to an appropriate page. Here’s an example views.py file.
Only the highest-level data in a hierarchy needs to be directly The instance parameter allows you to specify initial data for a form.
connected to a user. To do this import the User model, and add it
from django.contrib.auth import login from {%a foreign
block key
content %} model. from django.contrib.auth.decorators import /
as on the data
django.contrib.auth import authenticate from login_required
form = EntryForm(instance=entry)
After modifying the model you’ll need to migrate the database.
django.contrib.auth.forms import \ --snip--
You’ll need to
<form choose a user ID to connect each existing instance
method='post'
UserCreationForm Modifying data before saving
to. action="{% url 'users:register' %}">
def @login_required def allows you to make changes before
The argument commit=False
register(request): from django.db import models topic(request,
writing topic_id):
data to the database.
"""Register a new user.""" if {% csrf_token %} """Show a topic and all its entries."""
from django.contrib.auth.models import User
request.method != 'POST': # {{ form.as_p }} new_topic = form.save(commit=False)
class
Show blank registration form. Topic(models.Model): Setting the redirect=URL
new_topic.owner request.user
form = UserCreationForm() else: <button name='submit'>register</button>
"""A topic the user is learning The @login_required decorator sends unauthorized users to the
new_topic.save()
# Process completed form. <input type='hidden'
about.""" text = name='next' login page. Add the following line to your project’s settings.py file
form = UserCreationForm( value="{% url 'learning_logs:index' %}"/> so Django will know how to find your login page.
models.CharField(max_length=200)
data=request.POST) date_added = models.DateTimeField( LOGIN_URL = '/users/login/'
if </form>
auto_now_add=True) owner =
form.is_valid(): models.ForeignKey(User) Preventing inadvertent access
new_user = form.save() def%}
{% endblock content Some pages serve data based on a parameter in the URL. You
# Log in, redirect to home page. __str__(self): can check that the current user owns the requested data, and
pw = request.POST['password1'] return a 404 error if they don’t. Here’s an example view.
return self.text
authenticated_user = authenticate(
username=new_user.username, from django.http import Http404
Querying data for the current user
password=pw In a view, the request object has a user attribute. You can use this
) attribute to query for the user’s data. The filter() function then
--snip-- def topic(request,
login(request, authenticated_user) pulls the data that belongs to the current user. topic_id):
return HttpResponseRedirect( """Show a topic and all its entries."""
reverse('learning_logs:index')) topics = Topic.objects.filter( topic = Topics.objects.get(id=topic_id)
owner=request.user) if topic.owner != request.user:
context = {'form': form} raise Http404
return render(request, --snip--
'users/register.html', context)

The django-bootstrap3 app allows you to use the Bootstrap

library to make your project look visually appealing. The app Heroku lets you push your project to a live server, making it provides tags that you can use in your templates to style
individual elements on a page. Learn more at http://django- available to anyone with an internet connection. Heroku bootstrap3.readthedocs.io/.
offers a free service level, which lets you learn the
deployment process without any commitment. You’ll need
to install a set of heroku tools, and use git to track the state
of your project. See http://devcenter.heroku.com/, and click
on the Python link.

More cheat sheets available at