What 21st Century Learning?

A review and a synthesis

Punya Mishra
[email protected]
Kristen Kereluik
[email protected]
Michigan State University
Paper submitted to the 2011, SITE Conference
Please do not quote or cite without permission
What exactly is 21st Century Learning? It seems
somewhat awkward asking this question given that we
are already a decade into the 21st Century. That said,
the phrase “21st Century Learning” has become an
integral part of educational discourse. There is a feeling
that there is a distinct disjuncture between the centuries
that have past the one that we are emerging into, and
that the educational demands of this new century require
new ways of thinking, teaching and learning. Recently
there have been a spate of books and reports that
criticize the current goals and practices of schooling
(Keengwe, Onchwari & Wachira, 2008; Kozma, 2003;
Zhao, 2009). These authors and groups suggest that

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schooling needs to be fundamentally reconfigured to
emphasize higher order cognitive processes such as
critical thinking, creative problem solving, curiosity, and
adaptability. In parallel to this there are individuals and
groups who offer a range of suggestions for what are
broadly labeled “21st Century Skills.” These
recommendations emerge from educators such as
Howard Gardner, popular writers such as Daniel Pink,
organizations such the Partnership for 21st Century
Learning or the European Union.
As the phrase 21st Century Skills is thrown about it is
unclear as to exactly what this phrase actually means. In
some sense, the whole idea of 21st Century skills
becomes an empty signifier, a term that we all think we
understand and yet are hard-pressed to clearly define.
Do these frames or definitions have anything in common
or are they quite different from each other? How are
these 21st Century frames different from the overarching
goals of education as had been espoused in the past?
Critics of this new 21st Century orientated discourse
argue that this emphasis on the new century is just
another form of chronocentrism, a mistaken belief that “a
certain state of humanity is superior to all previous
and/or future times” (Wikipedia, 2010). According to this

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perspective, our educational goals are not all that
different from the goals of previous generations.
In this paper we offer a critical review of the literature on
21st Century Skills by conducting a
comparative analysis of the differing frameworks that
have been offered. We then code the individual
elements of each of these frameworks to determine
similarities and differences and through that develop a
set of overarching categories that attempt to integrate
these different perspectives and through this process
offer a coherent integrative framework that would help
anchor our understanding of this term.

Introducing the frameworks

We identified 10 different reports /books that seek to
identify the kinds of knowledge required to succeed in
the 21st Century. The list is given below, and as is clear
it includes reports from educational organizations such
as the American Association of Colleges and
Universities, the Center for Public Education, the
International Society for Technology in Education and
The Partnership for 21st Century Skills; international
bodies such as the European Union; business interests
such as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and

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Development & the Metiri Group; individual scholars
such as Howard Gardner, and Yong Zhao, popular
writers such as Daniel Pink. Below we offer short
summaries of each of these approaches.
American Association of Colleges and Universities.
(2007). College learning for the new global century.
Washington, DC: AACU. [Referred to in the rest of the
paper as AACU]
The American Association of College and Universities
framework for college learning in the 21st century outlines
essential aims, learning outcomes, and guiding
principals for college education in the 21st century.
According to the AACU college education is now more
important to individual success and American’s future as
a global leader than ever before. The framework is born
out of the assumption that the world is being reshaped
by technology and globalization and seeks to answer the
question of what matters in college? The framework
identifies learning outcomes for college education
necessary for 21st century success and includes,
knowledge of human cultures, physical, and natural
world, intellectual and practical skills, personal and
social responsibility, integrative learning.

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Gardner, H. (2008). 5 minds for the future. Boston, MA:
Harvard Business Press. [Referred to in the rest of the
paper as Gardner] Gardner’s new minds rest on the
assertion that the new millennium was a time, and
continues to be a time of immeasurable changes so
prominent in the lives of individuals and society at large
that the effects will be felt long into the future. The
changes of the new millennium were ushered in
following advancements in science and technology and
subsequent globalization. According to Gardner these
changes necessitate new education processes, as our
educational system is not designed to respond to the
needs of the new digital and global age. Education
needs to adapt to stretch and shape the minds of
learners in five ways that will lead into the future.
Gardner’s disciplined mind is the master of at least one
domain and through mastery achieves autonomy. The
synthesizing mind takes information from disparate
sources and domains, evaluates the information and
reorganizes it in new ways, a skills necessary for
success in the new age because of the vast amount of
easily accessible information. The creating mind puts
forth new ideas and asks and seeks answers to
important un-asked questions, and in doing so stays

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ahead of computers and robots who rely on rule-
governed logic. The respectful mind welcomes and
encourages differences among individuals, a skill
necessary as the world is now linked and has no place
for intolerance or disrespect. Gardner’s final new mind is
the ethical mind, which works beyond self-interest and
contemplates one’s work in conjunction with the needs
of society at large.
International Society for Technology in Education
(2007). The national educational technology standards
and performance indicators for students. Eugene, OR:
ISTE. [Referred to in the rest of the paper as ISTE]
The International Society for Technology in Education
student educational technology standards are a
roadmap to effective teaching and professional growth in
an increasingly technology driven world.
According to ISTE technological literacy is crucial to
success in a modern, globalized world, which places a
premium on highly skilled labor. ISTE standards include
higher-order thinking skills and skills for digital
citizenship crucial to be effective lifelong learners and
productive members of globalized society. Education
must adapt and provide students with the skills
necessary for digital age professionalism, skills built on a

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base of solid technology literacy. Technology literacy
includes knowledge of technology systems as well as
the ability to apply knowledge in authentic ways for
authentic purposes. ISTE standards include broad
categories such as, the ability to demonstrate creativity
and innovation, communicate and collaborate, conduct
research and use information, think critically, solve
problems, and make decisions, and use technology
effectively and productively.
Jerald, C.D. (2009). Defining a 21st century education.
Retrieved October 29, 2010, from
http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/atf/cf/%7B00a4f
2e8-f5da-4421-aa25-
3919c06b542b%7D/21ST%20CENTURY[1].JERALD.P
DF [Referred to in the rest of the paper as CEP]
The Center for Public Education’s attempt to define a
21st century education is rises from the notion that
technology is changing the world through automation
and globalization. The CPE asserts that technological
automation has already replaced doing tasks and is now
beginning to replace thinking tasks in which information
can be broken down and digitally translated and
outsourced. As such, non-routine skills such as expert

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thinking and complex communication are essential for
success in the 21st century.
The CPE identifies three realms of necessary knowledge
and skills, foundational knowledge in subject matter,
literacy or ability to apply academic knowledge to real
world problems, and the competence to call on
knowledge and literacies as needed in both personal
and professional realms.
Metiri Group. (2003). enGauge 21st century skills for 21st
century learners. Retrieved October 29, 2010 from
http://www.metiri.com/21/Metiri-NCREL21stSkills.pdf
[Referred to in the rest of the paper as MG]
The Metiri group’s enGauge 21st century skills framework
is built on the premise that students need new skills to
survive and thrive in a rapidly changing digital world. The
Metiri group asserts that their framework is built on
research, and calls from governments and industry to
define the skills necessary for success in the 21st
century. The enGauge framework consists of 4 main
realms of necessary knowledge, all conceptualized
within a frame of high academic standards. Digital age
literaices, include the ability to use digital technology to
organize and evaluate the vast amount of information

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available in the digital age. Inventive thinking and high-
level cognitive skills is essential for success in the 21st
century, as technology has simplified routine tasks
placing greater importance on complex cognitive skills.
Effective communication is necessary as technology has
enabled widespread communication and collaboration
and high productivity determines success in the
workforce.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development. (2005). The definition and selection of key
competencies: Executive summary. Paris, France:
OECD. [Referred to in the rest of the paper as OECD]
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development key competencies arise out of a need to
define and assess key competencies necessary for
success in a newly challenging and complex society.
Globalization and modernization have created a diverse
and interconnected world, key competencies allow
individuals to make sense and meet the demands of
such a world. The OECD framework includes three main
realms in which individuals must possess knowledge
and skills, using tools interactively, interacting in
heterogeneous groups, and acting autonomously and
rests on reflective thought and action. According to the

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OECD using tools, such as language and technology,
interactively is necessary to stay current with
technology, effectively utilize tools, and collaborate
effectively.
Interacting in heterogeneous groups is necessary for
effective collaboration and management of interpersonal
relationships. Acting autonomously is not functioning in
isolation, rather it includes awareness of one’s
environment, realization of one’s goals, and acting
responsibly.
Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2007). Framework
for 21st century learning. Retrieved October 29, 2010,
from
http://www.p21.org/documents/P21_Framework_Definiti
ons.pdf [Referred to in the rest of the paper as P21]
It is the stated mission of the Partnership for 21st Century
Skills to position 21st century readiness at the center of
K-12 education in the United States. The framework
developed by P21 is constructed from a solid foundation
of content knowledge, and supported by specific skill,
expertise, and literacies necessary for success in
personal and professional domains. Within the
foundation of core content knowledge exist the essential
skills for success in a highly digital and globalized world,

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skills such as critical thinking, problem solving,
communication and collaboration. The P21 framework is
born out of the assumption that individuals now live in a
technology rich environment, which brings with it an
abundance of information, rapid advancements in
technology, and unprecedented ability to communication
and collaborate with individuals around the world. To be
successful in the new digital and
globalized world of the 21st century individuals must
possess and utilize a wide range of learning and
innovation skills related to information, media and
technology. P21 asserts that learning and innovation
skills are currently recognized as skills that separate
students who are prepared for life and work in the 21st
century, and those who are not, a separation that stands
to become more apparent as the demands for success
continue to increase. In addition to the P21 framework of
necessary knowledge and skills, P21 also advocates for
21st century support systems for educators and students,
including 21st century curriculum and instruction, 21st
century professional development, and 21st century
learning environments.
Pink, D.H. (2005). A whole new mind: Moving from the
information age to the conceptual age. New York:

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Riverhead Books. [Referred to in the rest of the paper as
Pink]
According to Pink the future belongs to right-brainers, or
those individuals who posses the conceptual skills to be
successful in an increasingly conceptual age. Pink’s
senses arise from the assertion that a definitive shift is
taking place in the advanced world, one from a logical
technical age to conceptual age, which places a
premium on knowledge. Pink’s senses include design to
change the world in significant ways, story or narrative
imagining focused on understanding, symphony and
synthesis, empathy, play, and the pursuit of meaning.
Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the
Council of the European Union on key competences for
lifelong learning, L394/10 C.F.R. (2006, December 12).
Retrieved October 29, 2010, from
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/publ/pdf/ll-
learning/keycomp_en.pdf [Referred to in the rest of the
paper as EU]
The Recommendation of the European Parliament and
of the Council of the European Union on key
competences for lifelong learning are a combination of
knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for personal
fulfillment, successful integration into society, and

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productive employment. The eight key competencies
allow for flexibility and increased adaptation of
individuals and the workforce to the ever changing and
increasingly complex world. Communication in the
mother tongue, communication in foreign languages,
mathematical and scientific competence, digital
competence, learning to learn, social and civic
competence, sense of initiative and entrepreneurship,
and cultural awareness and expression are essential for
success in the digital and globalized world and while
they represent different realms of competence are all
interdependent.
Zhao, Y. (2009). Catching up or leading the way.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD. [Referred to in the rest of the
paper as Zhao] Zhao asserts that America, and the
American education system, need to adapt to a newly
globalized and ever changing digital world to remain a
leader in the 21st century. In a review over several
framework which purport knowledge and skills
necessary for success in the 21st century, Zhao attempts
to identify the needs of the learners in the 21st century.
Zhao presents five assumptions that need to be a driving
force behind educational reform. The first assumption is
that educators must cultivate skills and knowledge within

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students that cannot be reduced and reproduced by
machines or outsourced overseas.
The second assumption asserts that creativity and
adaptability are essential for living in a new globalized
and digital age. The third assumption is that the ability to
effectively communicate and collaborate is essential for
living in a global society. The fourth assumption is that
complex cognitive skills are more important than
memorization. The fifth and final assumption is that
emotional intelligence is an essential component to
effective communication and collaboration.

Looking across the different frameworks

These 10 reports and books offer different perspectives
on what is meant by 21st Century learning, from
developing technology skills to a global perspective. In
order to see the broader themes that cut across these
different frameworks, we broke apart these frameworks
in to individual elements.
These individual pieces were then reviewed and re-
categorized with an eye for emergent themes. Our
review led to our identifying 3 broad categories with
three sub-categories within them. The three broad
categories are: Foundational Knowledge; Meta

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Knowledge; & Humanistic Knowledge. We describe
each of these over-arching categories and the
subcategories in greater detail below.

1. Foundational knowledge
This category is the answer to the “what” question i.e.
“What do students need to know?” The frameworks we
reviewed saw this in terms of three key sub-categories.
1.1 Core Content Knowledge
1.2 Information Literacy
1.3 Cross-disciplinary knowledge/ synthetic knowledge
1.1 Core content Knowledge
Core content knowledge and high academic
achievement in traditional domains are among the most
frequently cited essential skills for success in the 21st
century. Excellence in traditional academic domains
such as English, mathematics, science, history,
economics, geography, and government are considered
to be the foundations upon which other 21st century skills
are to be developed. Past high academic achievement
and knowledge of subject matter, disciplined way of
thinking, reasoning, and understanding the world are
reported as essential for success in a highly complex
new digital age. Disciplined ways of thinking is

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characterized by highly complex and deeply ingrained
mental processes specific to traditional domains, such
as applying mathematical ways of thinking to solve
everyday problems or applying scientific ways of thinking
to understanding the natural world (Gardner, 2008).
High Academic Standards MG Mathematical and
Scientific Competence EU
Core Subjects P21
Financial and Business Literacy P21
Quantitative Literacy AACU
Environmental Literacy P21
Health Literacy P21
Civic Literacy P21
Disciplined Mind Gardner
Advanced Knowledge in Traditional Subjects CPE

1.2. Information Literacy

Information literacy, like core content knowledge is
among the most cited skills necessary for
success in the 21st century. Often called digital literacy,
information literacy most often involves the skills
necessary to effectively seek out, organize and process
information from a variety of media. Information literacy
was deliberately chosen to include all types of media,

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while media is increasingly becoming digital, print media
is still quite prevalent and understanding of such is
necessary for academic and economic success.
Information literacy also includes a component of
responsible use of technology and media, an important
moral and ethical consideration beyond understanding
basic ICT systems and media forms.
Technology Concepts and Operations ISTE
Digital Competence EU
Digital Age Literacy MG
Using Tools Interactively OECD
Information Literacy AACU
Information Literacy/Media Literacy P21
Research and Information Fluency ISTE
Digital Citizenship ISTE

1.3. Cross-disciplinary knowledge / Synthesis

Synthesis most often involves the ability to synthesize
information across fields or domains and is
demonstrated through the application of knowledge to
new contexts in the pursuit of specific end goals.
Synthesis is possible through several means including
narratives which speak directly to the human need to
connect with others and for meaning. Synthesis is

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asserted to be crucial to success in the 21st century as it
also involves the ability to understand, organize and
connect the vast amounts of information now available
with the advent of digital media.
Synthesizing Mind Gardner
Symphony Pink
Synthesis Across Studies AACU
Meaning Pink
Story Pink

2. Meta knowledge
This category is about knowledge of how to work with
the foundational knowledge, the process as it were.
These could also be seen in terms of three sub-
categories.
2.1 Problem solving / Critical Thinking
2.2 Communication / Collaboration
2.3 Creativity / Innovation
2.1. Problem solving & Critical Thinking
Problem solving and critical thinking most often involve
the cognitive skills necessary for success in economic
and social domains. Critical thinking frequently involves
the ability to interpret information and make informed
decisions based on such information. Problem solving is

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often conceptualized as the use of critical thinking skills
towards the effective resolution of a specific problem or
towards a specific end goal.
Critical Thinking EU
Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, Decision Making
ISTE
Critical Thinking P21
Cognitive Skills Zhao
Inquiry and Analysis AACU
Risk Assessment EU
Decision Taking EU
Problem Solving EU
Ability to Think Critically and Solve Problems CPE

2.2. Communication / Collaboration

Communication and collaboration are cited as essential
to success in the 21st century as working with diverse
groups becomes of the upmost important in our
increasingly globalized culture and economy.
Communication most frequently involves the ability to
clearly articulate oneself through all mediums of
communication, oral, written, and non-verbal media.
Communication also involves the skills necessary to be
an active and respectful listener to diver audiences.

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Communication in the 21st century is often cited as
including the ability to effectively use digital media to
communication and collaborate with others.
Collaboration includes similar dimensions as
communication, working respectfully and effectively but
also includes important individual contributions as well
such as flexibility, willingness to participate, and
recognition of group and individual efforts and success.
Communication in Mother Tongue EU
Communication and Collaboration ISTE
Communication P21
Communication AACU
Effective Communication MG
Interacting in Heterogeneous Groups OECD
Teamwork and Problem Solving AACU
Collaboration P21

2.3. Creativity & Innovation

Creativity too is among the most often cited skills as
necessary for success in the 21st century. It is often
reasoned that the highly complex problems facing
society in the 21st century necessitate new and creative
solutions. Creativity and innovation involved applying a

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wide range of knowledge and skills in the generation of
novel and worthwhile products (tangible or intangible).
Creativity and innovation often include critical
components as well. Creativity and innovation
include the ability to evaluate the effectiveness of ideas
and products, elaborate on existing ideas products, and
refine ideas and products in pursuit of specific end
goals.
Inventive Thinking MG
Creativity EU
Creativity and Innovation ISTE
Creativity Zhao
Creativity P21
Critical and Creative Thinking AACU
Initiative/Entrepreneurship EU
Creating Mind Gardner
Play Pink
Design Pink

3. Humanistic Knowledge
This is a humanistic theme that emerged through our
analysis of the various frameworks. This form of
knowledge offers a vision of the learner’s self and its
location in a broader social and global context.

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3.1 Life / Job skills;
3.2 Cultural competence;
3.3 Ethical / Emotional Awareness

3.1. Life/Job skills

Job and life skills are those that serve to create lifelong
learners, capable of success beyond the confines of the
classroom. Job and life skills are most often cited as
including those skills
required of effective lifelong learning center around three
realms, those that serve to effectively manage and
organize one’s efforts, those that serve to coordinate
and organize relevant and important information, and
those that serve in the development of end products
(tangible and intangible) in the pursuit of the resolution
of specific solutions to relevant problems.
Skills that Cannot be Outsourced Zhao
Learning to Learn EU
High Productivity and Quality MG
Foundations and Skills for Lifelong Learning AACU
Life and Career Skills P21
Acting Autonomously OECD

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3.2. Cultural Competence
Cultural competence, like ethical awareness, is thought
to be essential for social and economic success in the
21st century because of the increased cultural diversity
from globalization. It is suggested that the skill of cultural
competence equip and individual to be productive
contributors in a globalized society. Cultural competence
most often involves appreciation of the creative
expression of ideas and emotions by all types of
individuals. Cultural competence also often includes
aspects of person, interpersonal, and intercultural
competence evidenced through effective communication
and collaboration.
Intercultural Knowledge AACU
Skills for a Global World Zhao
Communication in Foreign Language EU
Civic Knowledge and Engagement AACU
Knowledge of Culture and Physical World AACU
Social Civic Competence EU
Global Awareness P21
Cultural Awareness and Expression EU

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3.3. Ethical / Emotional Awareness
Ethical awareness includes the knowledge and skills
necessary for success in a culturally diverse society.
Ethical awareness includes the ability to imagine oneself
in someone else’s position and feel with that individual. It
also includes the ability to intuit the feelings of others, a
skill that is thought to be crucial for success in the 21st
century because success in social and economic realms
necessitates a deep understanding of human emotions
and successful human interactions.
Ethical Reasoning AACU
Empathy Pink
Ethical Mind Gardner
Respectful Mind Gardner
Constructive Management of Feelings EU
Initiative EU Emotional Intelligence Zhao

Conclusion
Our review of 10 of the most significant frameworks of
21st Century Learning have led us to a new
categorization – of three overarching categories with
three sub-categories under each. There are three key
contributions we can point to, as a result of this review of
existing frameworks for 21st Century learning.

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First, this review of the existing frameworks shows both
the diversity in these approaches
(compare for instance Daniel Pink’s categories to those
offered by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills) as
well as interesting commonalities. This can be seen by
the fact that each of the categories we came up with had
multiple entries from different frameworks.
Second, it is clear that not all of the knowledge and skills
are unique and novel to this century. Cognitive skills
such as critical thinking, problem solving, job and life
skills, and synthesis have a long empirical history closely
connected with academic achievement. These skills
rather than being novel to the 21st century and necessary
for success in the 21st century, are skills that are
required for successful learning and achievement in any
time, including but not limited to the 21st century.
Additionally, interpersonal skills such as communication,
collaboration, and ethical awareness/emotional
regulation have been integral to successful interpersonal
relationships for centuries. One must be able to
effectively regulate ones needs and goals with that of
the larger society to successfully navigate our social
world.

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These skills are also important, and have been
historically, in classrooms where there is an intricate
balance between the student and the class.
Third, despite the fact that many of these skills are not
unique to 21st Century learning there are some two key
skills that are uniquely pressing to the 21st century.
These are the sub-categories related to information
literacy and cultural competence and awareness. While
it is true that multiple forms of media existed prior to the
dawn of the 21st century, the social, economic, and
informational impact of the Internet and digital media is
unprecedented. Skills and knowledge necessary for
success in the digital world are unlike those in print
media. New skills and knowledge are needed at all
levels of interaction with digital media. Gathering
information simply the process of selecting relevant and
credible information requires a unique set of skills. Once
gathered, reading and comprehending information online
requires different skills than reading print, it is not simply
the case that good print readers are good
digital readers. The Internet and digital media represent
a new realm of interaction of which successful
navigation is essential for success in the 21st century and
once gathered and comprehended, new skills and

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knowledge are necessary to collaborate digitally and
contribute to the collective knowledge base. Cultural
competence like information literacy takes on a new
importance in the age of globalization. While working
collaborative has seemingly always been essential for
success, it often included individuals similar to oneself.
With increased globalization and digital media
individuals from diverse cultures are exposed to one
another on an unprecedented level and successful
collaboration is essential. Successful collaboration often
necessitates cultural competence, or the ability to work
productively and respectfully with diverse individuals.
We see this work being a significant contribution to the
discussion on 21st Century skills. Our emergent
categorization scheme gives us a “big picture” as it were
of what we mean when we say 21st Century Learning.
Through this we can hopefully prevent this term
(outdated by a decade though it may be) from just
becoming an empty signifier and actually become part of
our shared understanding. Clearly the demarcation
between the three categories (and the subcategories) is
not clear cut – there are overlaps between them but our
emergent framework does provide an clearer vision of

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the field – one that had been dominated by multiple,
seemingly conflicting perspectives.

References
American Association of Colleges and Universities.
(2007). College learning for the new global century.
Washington, DC: AACU.
Gardner, H. (2008). 5 minds for the future. Boston, MA:
Harvard Business Press.
International Society for Technology in Education
(2007). The national educational technology standards
and performance indicators for students. Eugene, OR:
ISTE.
Jerald, C.D. (2009). Defining a 21st century education.
Retrieved October 29, 2010, from
http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/atf/cf/%7B00a4f
2e8-f5da-4421-aa25-
3919c06b542b%7D/21ST%20CENTURY[1].JERALD.
PDF
Keengwe, J., Onchwari, G., & Wachira, P. (2008). The
Use of Computer Tools to Support
Meaningful Learning. AACE Journal, 16(1), 77-92.

PENDIDIKAN DI ABAD XXI / MCL / BATU-MALANG / 2016 Page 28

Kozma, R. B. (Ed.). (2003). Technology, innovation, and
educational change: A global perspective. Eugene, OR:
International Society for Technology in Education.
Metiri Group. (2003). enGauge 21st century skills for 21st
century learners. Retrieved October 29, 2010 from
http://www.metiri.com/21/Metiri-NCREL21stSkills.pdf
Organization for Economic Cooperation and
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