ELASTIC CONSTANTS BASICS (ROCK PHYSICS)
Well logs are often used to determine the mechanical properties of rocks. These properties are
often called the elastic properties or elastic constants of rocks. The subject matter and practice
of calculating these rock properties is often called "rock physics".
Mechanical properties are used to design hydraulic fracture stimulation programs in oil and
gas wells, and in the design of mines and gas storage caverns. In this situation, the mechanical
properties are derived in the laboratory or from well log analysis, calibrated to the lab results.
In seismic petrophysics, these same mechanical properties are called seismic attributes. They
are derived by inversion of time-domain seismic data, calibrated to results from well log
analysis, which in turn were calibrated to the lab data. The vertical resolution of seismic data is
far less than that of well logs, so some filtering and up-scaling issues have to be addressed to
make the comparisons meaningful.
The main purpose for finding these attributes is to distinguish reservoir quality rock from non-
reservoir. The ultimate goal is to determine porosity, lithology, and fluid type by "reverse-
engineering" the seismic attributes. The process is sometimes called "quantitative seismic
interpretation". In high porosity areas such as the tar sands, and in high contrast areas such
as gas filled carbonates,, modest success has been achieved, usually after several iterative
calibrations to log and lab data. Something can be determined in almost all reservoirs, but how
"quantitative" it is may not be known.
There are many other types of seismic attributes related to the signal frequency, amplitude,
and phase, as well as spatial attributes that infer geological structure and stratigraphy, such as
dip angle, dip azimuth, continuity, thickness, and a hundred other factors. While logs may be
used to calibrate or interpret some of these attributes, they are not discussed further here.
The best known elastic constants are the bulk modulus of compressibility, shear modulus,
Young's Modulus (elastic modulus), and Poisson's Ratio. The dynamic elastic constants can
be derived with appropriate equations, using sonic log compressional and shear travel time
along with density log data.
Dynamic elastic constants can also be determined in the laboratory using high frequency
acoustic pulses on core samples. Static elastic constants are derived in the laboratory from tri-
axial stress-strain measurements (non-destructive) or the chevron notch test (destructive).
Elastic constants are needed by five distinct disciplines in the petroleum industry:
1. geophysicists interested in using logs to improve synthetic seismograms, seismic
models, and interpretation of seismic attributes, seismic inversion, and processed seismic
sections.
2. production or completion engineers who want to determine if sanding or fines migration
might be possible, requiring special completion operations, such as gravel packs
3. hydraulic fracture design engineers, who need to know rock strength and pressure
environments to optimize fracture treatments
4. geologists and engineers interested in in-situ stress regimes in naturally fractured
reservoirs
5. drilling engineers who wish to prevent accidentally fracturing a reservoir with too high a
mud weight, or who wish to predict overpressured formations to reduce the risk of a blowout.
The elastic constants of rocks are defined by
the Wood-Biot-Gassmann Equations. The
equations can be transformed to derive rock
properties from log data. If crossed dipole
sonic data is available, anisotropic stress can
be noticed by differences in the X and Y axis
displays of both the compressional and shear
travel times. When this occurs, all the elastic
constants can be computed for both the
minimum and maximum stress directions.
This requires the original log to be correctly
oriented with directional information, and may
require extra processing in the service
company computer center.
Elasticity is a property of matter, which
causes it to resist deformation in volume or
shape. Hooke's Law, describing the behavior
of elastic materials, states that within elastic
limits, the resulting strain is proportional to the applied stress. Stress is the external force
applied per unit area (pressure), and strain is the fractional distortion which results because of
the acting force.
The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress to strain:
0: M = Pressure / Change in Length = {F/A} / (dL/L)
This is identical to the definition of Young's Modulus. Both
names are used in the literature so terminology can be a bit
confusing.
Different types of deformation can result, depending upon
the mode of the acting force. The three elastic moduli are:
Young's Modulus Y (also abbreviated E in various literature),
1: Y = (F/A) / (dL/L)
Bulk Modulus Kc,
2: Kc = (F/A) / (dV/V)
Shear Modulus N, (also abbreviated as u (mu))
3: N = (F/A) / (dX/L) = (F/A) / tanX
Where F/A is the force per unit area and dL/L, dV/V, and (dX/L) = tanX are the fractional strains
of length, volume, and shape, respectively.
Poisson's Ratio PR (also
abbreviated v (nu)), is defined as the
ratio of strain in a perpendicular
direction to the strain in the direction of
extensional force,
4: PR = (dX/X) / (dY/Y)
Where X and Y are the original
dimensions, and dX and dY are the
changes in x and y directions
respectively, as the deforming stress
acts in y direction.
Young's Modulus vs Poison's Ratio:
Brittleness increases toward top left,
density increases toward top right,
porosity plus organic content and
depth decrease toward bottom left. PR
values less than 0.17 indicate gas or
organic content or both. (image
courtesy Canadian Discovery Ltd)
All of these moduli can be derived
directly from well logs and indirectly from seismic attributes:
5: N = KS5 * DENS / (DTS ^ 2)
6: R = DTS / DTC
7: PR = (0.5 * R^2 - 1) / (R^2 - 1)
8: Kb = KS5 * DENS * (1 / (DTC^2) - 4/3 * (1 / (DTS^2)))
9: Y = 2 * N * (1 + PR)
Lame's Constant Lambda, (also abbreviated λ) is a measure of a rocks brittleness, which is a
function of both Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio:
10: Lambda = Y * PR / ((1 + PR) * (1 - 2 * PR))
OR 10A: Lambda = DENS * (Vp^2 - 2 * Vs ^ 2)
Some people prefer different abbreviations: Mu or u for shear modulus, Nu or v for Poisson's
Ratio, and E for Young's Modulus. The abbreviations used above are used consistently trough
these training materials.
In the seismic industry, it is common to think in terms of velocity and acoustic impedance in
addition to the more classical mechanical properties described above.
The compressional to shear velocity ratio is a good lithology indicator:
11. R = Vp / Vs = DTS / DTC
Acoustic impedance:
12: Zp = DENS / DTC
13: Zs = DENS / DTS
Where:
DTC = compressional sonic travel time
DTS = shear sonic travel time
DENS = bulk density
KS5 = 1000 for metric units
ELASTIC PROPERTIES TRANSFORMS
VELOCITY OF SOUND
Velocity of sound, density, and elastic properties of rocks are intimately connected by a series
of transforms. Knowledge of any two of these properties means all the others can be
calculated.
The velocity of longitudinal (compressional) waves in solids can be predicted from the
following two equations.
1: Vp = 68.4 * (((K + 4/3 * N) / DENS) ^ 1/2)
OR: 1A: Vp = 68.4 * (((Y * (1 - N) / (DENS * (1 - 2 * N) * (1 - N)) ^ 1/2)
Where:
K = bulk modulus of elasticity (psi)
DENS = density (lb/cuft)
N = shear modulus or modulus or rigidity (psi)
Vp = compressional velocity (ft/sec)
Y = Young's modulus (psi)
The transverse (shear) wave velocity is defined by the following two equations:
2: Vs = 68.4 * ((N / DENS) ^ 1/2)
OR 2A: Vs = 68.4 * (((Y / DENS) / 2 * (1 + PR)) ^ 1/2)
Where:
DENS = density (lb/cuft)
N = shear modulus or modulus or rigidity (psi)
PR = Poisson's ratio (unitless)
Vs = shear wave velocity (ft/sec)
To translate these formulae into metric, convert density into gm/cc, velocity to Km/sec and the
various moduli to megabars, and change the constant terms to 1.0. To convert moduli in
megabars to psi, multiply by 6.89 * 10^-6. To convert megabars to Kilopascals, multiply by
10^4.
The elastic constants K, N, Y and PR are often known, and many values are listed in
handbooks. Identities exist which show that knowledge of any two constants infers knowledge
of the other two. This in turn, infers knowledge of velocity. These identities follow.
BULK MODULUS
Bulk modulus (K) can be calculated from any of the following six equations depending on
which parameters are known about a rock:
3: K = L + 2 * N / 3
4: K = Y * N / (3 * (3 * N - Y))
5: K = L * (1 + PR) / (3 * PR)
6: K = S * (2 * (1 + PR)) / (3 * (1 - 2 * PR))
7: K = Y / (3 * (1 - 2 * PR))
8: K = DENS * (Vp ^ 2 - 4 / 3 * Vs ^ 2)
YOUNG'S MODULUS
Young's modulus (Y) is related to the other properties by:
9: Y = N * (3 * L + 2 * N) / (L + N)
10: Y = 9 * K * (K - L) / (3 * K - L)
11: Y = 9 * K * L / (3 * K + L)
12: Y = L * (1 + PR) * (1 - 2 * PR) / PR
13: Y = 2 * N * (1 + PR)
14: Y = 3 * K * (1 - 2 * PR)
15: Y = ((9 * DENS * R3 ^ 2 * R2 ^ 2) / (3* R2 ^ 2 + 1))
Where:
16: R2 = (K / (DENS * (Vs ^ 2))) ^ (1 / 2)
17: R3 = (K / (DENS * (Vp ^ 2))) ^ (1 / 2)
LAME'S CONSTANT
Lame's constant (L) is found from:
18: L = K - 2 * N / 3
19: L = N * (Y - 2 * N) / (3 * N - Y)
20: L = 3 * K * (3 * K - Y) / (N * K - Y)
21: L = N * (2 * PR / (1 - 2 * PR))
22: L = 3 * K * (PR / (1 - PR))
23: L = Y * PR / ((1 + PR) * (1 - 2 * PR))
24: L = DENS * (Vp^2 - 2 * Vs ^ 2)
POISSON'S RATIO
Poisson's ratio (PR) is related by:
25: PR = L / 2 * (L + N)
26: PR = L / (3 * K - L)
27: PR = (3 * K - 2 * N) / (2 * (3 * K + N))
28: PR = (Y / (2 * N)) - 1
29: PR = (3 * K - Y) / (6 * K)
30: PR = ((R1^2 - 2) / (R1^2 - 1) / 2)
31: PR = ((3 * (R2^2) - 2) / (3 * (R2^2) + 1) / (3 * (R3^2) + 1) / 2)
Where:
32: R1 = Vp / Vs
R2 and R3 are as defined before.
DENSITY
By rearranging all of the above, density can be found in a large variety of circumstances.
33: DENS = (L + 2 * N) / (Vp ^ 2)
34: DENS = (3 * K - 2) / (Vp ^ 2)
35: DENS = (K + 4 * N / 3) / (Vp ^ 2)
36: DENS = N * (4 * N - Y) / (3 * N - Y) / (Vp ^ 2)
37: DENS = 3 * K * (3 * K + Y) / (9 * K - Y) / (Vp ^ 2)
38: DENS = L * ((1 - PR) / PR) / (Vp ^ 2)
39: DENS = N * (2 - 2 * PR) / (1 - 2 * PR) / (Vp ^ 2)
40: DENS = 3 * K * (1 - PR) / (1 + PR) / (Vp ^ 2)
41: DENS = Y * (1 - PR) / ((1 + PR) * ( 1 - 2 * PR)) / (Vp ^ 2)
42: DENS = 3 * ( K - L) / 2 / (Vs ^ 2)
43: DENS = 3 * K * Y / (9 * K - Y) / (Vs ^ 2)
44: DENS = L * ((1 - 2 * PR) / (2 * PR) / Vs ^ 2)
45: DENS = 3 * K * (1 - 2 * PR) / (2 + 2 * PR) / (Vs ^ 2)
46: DENS = Y / (2 + 2 * PR) / (Vs ^ 2)
Such relationships are used to reconstruct density logs in bad hole conditions by using sonic
log data and assumed values for Poisson's ratio. PR is often a function of shale volume and
lithology, which can be determined in zones where hole condition is good.
Where:
K = bulk modulus (megabars)
DENS = density (gm/cc)
L = Lame's constant (unitless)
PR = Poisson's ratio (unitless)
N = shear modulus (megabars)
Vs = shear wave velocity (km/sec)
Vp = compressional wave velocity (km/sec)
Y = Young's modulus
EFFECTS OF PRESSURE
Considerable data is available on elastic constants versus pressure. Three methods are
available for tabulation of results and are covered in the Handbook of Physical Constants.
The first and simplest relates compressibility (which is the inverse of the bulk modulus K) and
pressure:
47: Ce = 1 / K = (6.89*10^-8) * a + (47.5*10^-16) * b * Pf
Where:
a = constant (psi^-1)
K = bulk modulus (psi)
b = constant (psi^-2)
Ce = compressibility (psi^-1)
Pf = formation pressure (psi)
The constants a and b, for particular solids can be found in the Handbook of Physical
Constants.
For example assume the following measured values on a limestone sample:
DENS = 2.712 gm/cc = 170.0 lb/cuft
Y = 0.789 mb = 11.42*10^6 psi
N = 0.229 mb = 4.35*10^6 psi
PR = 0.32
K = Y / 3 * (1 - 2 * P) = 11.42*10^6 / 3 (1 - 2 * 0.32) = 10.6 * 10^6 psi
Vp = 68.4 ((10.6*10^6 + (4 / 3) * 4.35*10^6) / 170)) ^ 1 / 2 = 21,200 ft/sec
DTC = (10^6) / 21200 = 47.4 usec/ft
VOIGHT and REUSS METHODS
The other two methods are termed the Voight and Reuss schemes for obtaining the elastic
constants of aggregates. They lead to the following relationships:
1. VOIGHT
48: a = (C11 + C22 + C33) * 4.83*10^6
49: b = (C23 + C31 + C12) * 4.83*10^6
50: c = (C44 + C55 + C66) * 4.83*10^6
51: K = (a + 2 * b) / 3
52: N = (a - b + 3 * c) / 5
2. REUSS
53: a = (S11 + S22 + S33) * 2.29 * 10^-8
54: b = (S23 + S31 + S12) * 2.29 * 10^-8
55: c = (S44 + S55 + S66) * 2.29 * 10^-8
56: K = 1 / (3 * a + 6 * b)
57: N = 5 / (4 * a - 4 * b + 3 * c)
Where:
a,b,c = intermediate terms (psi^-1)
K = bulk modulus (psi)
Cij = compressibility constants for the Voight method (psi^-1)
N = shear modulus (psi)
Sij = shear constants for the Reuss method (psi^-1)
The Cij and Sij values are obtained from the tables in The Handbook of Physical Constants.
Other coefficients for the aggregate may be obtained from K and N, by use of the relationships
between the various elastic constants given earlier. Examples of these two methods are also
shown in the Handbook of Physical Constants.
For many rocks, elastic constants are known, whereas velocity is unknown. This is especially
true when the effects of pressure and temperature are being considered. It is also clear that
given a reasonable set of elastic constants and either a velocity or density log, the other log
can be constructed with confidence. This is particularly useful in seismography. Note that the
sonic velocity log as a rule, measures the travel time associated with the longitudinal or
compressional wave. Therefore, the appropriate equations should be used for log
interpretation work.
