Part 4 of 9

Radiological Control Technician Training

Fundamental Academic Training Study Guide Phase I

Coordinated and Conducted

for
Office of Environment, Safety & Health
U.S. Department of Energy
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Radiological Control Technician Study Guide

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Radiological Control Technician Study Guide

Course Developers

William Egbert Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Dave Lent Coleman Research
Michael McNaughton Los Alamos National Laboratory
Bobby Oliver Lockheed Martin Energy Systems
Richard Cooke Argonne National Laboratory
Brian Thomson Sandia National Laboratory
Michael McGough Westinghouse Savannah River Company
Brian Killand Fluor Daniel Hanford Corporation

Course Reviewers

Technical Standards Managers U.S. Department of Energy

Peter O’Connell U.S. Department of Energy
William D. Ulicny ATL International, Inc.

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Table of Contents
Page

Module 1.01 Basic Mathematics and Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.01-1

Module 1.02 Unit Analysis and Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.02-1

Module 1.03 Physical Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.03-1

Module 1.04 Nuclear Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.04-1

Module 1.05 Sources of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.05-1

Module 1.06 Radioactivity and Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.06-1

Module 1.07 Interaction of Radiation with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.07-1

Module 1.08 Biological Effects of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.08-1

Module 1.09 Radiological Protection Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.09-1

Module 1.10 ALARA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10-1

Module 1.11 External Exposure Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11-1

Module 1.12 Internal Exposure Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12-1

Module 1.13 Radiation Detector Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13-1

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Module 1.01 Basic Mathematics and Algebra Study Guide

Course Title: Radiological Control Technician

Module Title: Basic Mathematics and Algebra
Module Number: 1.01

Objectives:

1.01.01 Add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions.

1.01.02 Add, subtract, multiply, and divide decimals.
1.01.03 Convert fractions to decimals and decimals to fractions.
1.01.04 Convert percent to decimal and decimal to percent.
1.01.05 Add, subtract, multiply, and divide signed numbers.
1.01.06 Add, subtract, multiply, and divide numbers with exponents.
1.01.07 Find the square roots of numbers.
1.01.08 Convert between numbers expressed in standard form and in scientific notation.
1.01.09 Add, subtract, multiply, and divide numbers expressed in scientific notation.
1.01.10 Solve equations using the "Order of Mathematical Operations."
1.01.11 Perform algebraic functions.
1.01.12 Solve equations using common and/or natural logarithms.

Introduction

Radiological control operations frequently require the RCT to use arithmetic and algebra to
perform various calculations. These include scientific notation, unit analysis and conversion,
radioactive decay calculations, dose rate/distance calculations, shielding calculations, stay-time
calculations. A good foundation in mathematics and algebra is important to ensure that the data
obtained from calculations is accurate. Accurate data is crucial to the assignment of proper
radiological controls.

References:

1. DOE-HDBK-1014/1-92 (June 1992) "Mathematics: Volume 1 of 2"; DOE

Fundamentals Handbook Series.
2. "Algebra Structure and Method: Book 1"; Brown, Richard G., et al; Houghton Mifflin
Co.; 1990.
3. "Essential Mathematics for College Students"; Steffenson, Arnold R., Johnson, L.
Murphy; Scott, Foresman and Co.; 1988.
4. "College Physics"; sixth ed.; Schaum, Daniel; McGraw-Hill; 1961.

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Module 1.01 Basic Mathematics and Algebra Study Guide

SYMBOLS FOR BASIC OPERATIONS

The four basic mathematical operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Furthermore, it is often necessary to group numbers or operations using parentheses or brackets.
In writing problems in this course the following notation is used to denote the operation to be
performed on the numbers. If a and b represent numbers or variables, the operations will be
denoted as follows:

Table 1. Symbols for Basic Mathematical Operations

Operation Notation
Addition: a+b
Subtraction: a!b
Multiplication: a×b a@b a(b) ab

a
Division: a÷b a/b ba
b

Grouping: ( ) [ ]
Equality: =
Inequality:
Less than: < Less than or equal to: 
Greater than: > Greater than or equal to: 

1.01.01 Add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions.

FRACTIONS

Whole numbers consist of the normal counting numbers and zero, e.g.,

{0, 1, 2, 3, 4...}

A fraction is part of a whole number. It is simply an expression of a division of two whole

numbers. A fraction is written in the format:
a
or a/b
b

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The number above the bar a is called the numerator and the number below the bar b is called the
denominator. A proper fraction is a fraction in which the number in the numerator is less than
the number in the denominator. If the numerator is greater than the denominator then it is an
7 25 15 61
improper fraction. For example, ½ and ¼ are proper fractions, while 5 , 5 , 7 , or 27 are
improper fractions.

Any whole number can be written as a fraction by letting the whole number be the numerator and
1 be the denominator. For example:

5 2 0
5  2  0 
1 1 1

Five can be written as 10/2, 15/3, 20/4, etc. Similarly, the fraction ¼ can be written as 2/8, 3/12,
4/16, etc. These are called equivalent fractions. An equivalent fraction is built up, per se, by
multiplying the numerator and the denominator by the same non-zero number. For example:

3 3@2 6 3 3@5 15
   
4 4@2 8 4 4@5 20

A fraction is reduced by dividing the numerator and the denominator by the same nonzero
number. For example:

12 12 ÷2 6 6 6 ÷3 2
   
18 18 ÷2 9 9 9 ÷3 3

A fraction is reduced to lowest terms when 1 is the only number that divides both numerator and
denominator evenly. This is done by finding the greatest common multiple between the
numerator and denominator. In the previous example, two successive reductions were
performed. For the fraction 12/18, the greatest common multiple would be 6, or (2 × 3), which
results in a reduction down to a denominator of 3.

A whole number written with a fraction is called a mixed number. Examples of mixed numbers
would be 1½, 3¼, 5¾, etc. A mixed number can be simplified to a single improper fraction
using the following steps:

1. Multiply the whole number by the denominator of the fraction.

2. Add the numerator of the fraction to the product in step 1.
3. Place the sum in step 2 as the numerator over the denominator.

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For example:

(5@4)  3 23
53  
4 4 4

Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Fractions With the Same Denominator

To add two fractions that have the same denominator:

1. Add the numerators.

2. Place the sum of step 1 over the common denominator.
3. Reduce fraction in step 2 to lowest terms (if necessary).

For example:

1 3 1 3 4
  
5 5 5 5

Subtraction of two fractions with the same denominator is accomplished in the same
manner as addition. For example,

5 3 5  3 2 2÷2 1
!    
8 8 8 8 8÷2 4

Fractions With Different Denominators

To add two fractions with different denominators requires that the fractions be built up
so that they have the same denominator. This is done by finding the lowest common
denominator. Once a common denominator is obtained, the rules given above for the
same denominator apply.

For example, 1/3 + 2/5. The fraction 1/3 could be built up to 2/6, 3/9, 4/12, 5/15, 6/18,
7/21, etc. The fraction 2/5 could be built up to 4/10, 6/15, 8/20, 10/25, etc. The lowest
common denominator for the two fractions would be 15. The problem would be solved
as follows:

1 2 1@5 2@3 5 6 5  6 11
      
3 5 3@5 5@3 15 15 15 15

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Subtraction of fractions with different denominators is accomplished using the same

steps as for addition. For example:

3 2 3@3 2@4 9 8 98 1

      
4 3 4@3 3@4 12 12 12 12

Multiplying and Dividing Fractions

Multiplication of fractions is much easier than addition and subtraction, especially if

the numbers in the numerators and denominators are small. Fractions with larger
numerators and/or denominators may require additional steps. In either case, the
product of the multiplication will most likely need to be reduced in order to arrive at the
final answer. To multiply fractions:

1. Multiply the numerators.

2. Multiply the denominators.
3. Place product in step 1 over product in step 2.
4. Reduce fraction to lowest terms.

For example:

5 3 5@3 15 15÷3 5
@    
6 4 6@4 24 24÷3 8

A variation on the order of the steps to multiply fractions is to factor the numerators and
denominators first, reduce and cancel, and then multiply. For example:

3 20 3 2@2@5 3/@2/@2/@5 5 5
@  @   
8 9 2@2@2 3@3 2@2/@2/@3/@3 2@3 6

Reciprocals

Two numbers whose product is 1 are called reciprocals, or multiplicative inverses. For
example:

1 1
a. 5 and are reciprocals because 5 · = 1.
5 5

4 5 4 5
b. and are reciprocals because · = 1.
5 4 5 4

c. 1 is its own reciprocal because 1 · 1 = 1.

d. 0 has no reciprocal because 0 times any number is 0 not 1.

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The symbol for the reciprocal, or multiplicative inverse, of a non-zero real number a is
1
. Every real number except 0 has a reciprocal. Therefore, for every non-zero real
a
1
number a, there is a unique real number such that:
a
1
a@  1
a

Now, look at the following product:

1 1 1 1
(ab)( · )  (a · )(b · )  1 · 1  1
a b a b

Relationship of multiplication to division

The operation of division is really just inverted multiplication (reciprocals). Notice

from the above examples that the reciprocal of a fraction is merely "switching" the
1
numerator and denominator. The number 5 is really 5-1, and the reciprocal of 5 is 5
.
2 3
Likewise, the reciprocal of is .
3 2

Fractions are a division by definition. Division of fractions is accomplished in two

steps:

1. Invert the second fraction, i.e., change it to its reciprocal, and change the division
to multiplication.

2. Multiply the two fractions using the steps stated above.

For example:

4 2 4 3 12 12÷2 6
÷  @   
7 3 7 2 14 14÷2 7

1 2 3 3
 1÷  1· 
2 3 2 2
3

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Practice Problems

Solve the following problems involving fractions. Answers should be reduced to

lowest terms.

1. 1/3 + 2/3 2. 5/7 - 3/7

3. 5/9 + 2/3 4. 6/7 - 1/2
5. 2 - 1/3 6. 3/8 + 15/16
7. 25/32 - 3/4 8. 15/21 - 4/7
9. 13/20 - 2/5 10. 7/18 + 5/9
11. 2/3 × 1/5 12. 4/7 × 3/4
13. 1/2 × 2 14. 3/5 × 4
15. 4/9 ÷ 2/3 16. 8/13 × 2/3
17. 12/15 × 3/5 18. 20/25 ÷ 4/5
19. 7/8 × 2/5 20. 14/21 ÷ 2/7

1.01.02 Add, subtract, multiply and divide decimals.

DECIMALS

A decimal is another way of expressing a fraction or mixed number. It is simply the numerical
result of divison (and fractions are division). Recall that our number system is based on 10
("deci" in "decimal" means ten) and is a place-value system; that is, each digit {i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9} in a numeral has a particular value determined by its location or place in the
number. For a number in decimal notation, the numerals to the left of the decimal point
comprise the whole number, and the numerals to the right are the decimal fraction, (with the
denominator being a power of ten).

Figure 1. Decimal Place Value System

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For example, the numeral 125.378 (decimal notation) represents the expanded numeral

100  20  5  3
 7
 8
10 100 1000

If this numeral were written as a mixed number, we would write it as:

378
125
1000

Addition and Subtraction of Decimals

In order to add or subtract decimals use the following steps:

1. Arrange the numbers in a column so that the decimal points are aligned.
2. Add or subtract in columns from right to left. Additional zeros may need to be
added to the right of the subtrahend (a number that is to be subtracted from a
minuend).
3. Place the decimal point in the answer in line with the other decimal points.

For example:

21.3 654.200
 4.2  26.888
25.5 627.312

Multiplying Decimals

To multiply decimal numbers, do the following:

1. Multiply the numbers as if there were no decimal points.

2. Count the number of decimal places in each number and add them together.
3. Place the decimal point in the product so that it has the same number of decimal
places as the sum in step 2.

For example:
5.28 0.04
× 3.7 × 0.957
3696 028
1584 020
19.536 036
³³³ 000
0.03828
³³³³³

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Division of Decimals

The steps for division of decimals are as follows:

1. Move the decimal point of the divisor (the number by which a dividend is divided) to
the right until it becomes a whole number.
2. Move the decimal point of the dividend to the right the same number of places moved
in step 1.
3. Divide the numbers as if they were whole numbers.

For example: 7 ÷ 0.25

28
0.25 7.00
´´ ´´
50
2 00
2 00
0

Decimal Forms

As we have learned, decimals are the result of division (or a fraction). When the
remainder of the division is zero, the resulting decimal is called a terminating or finite
decimal. For example, fractions like 2/5, 3/8, and 5/6 will all result in finite decimals.
These fractions and the resulting decimals are known as rational numbers.

On the other hand, fractions like 1/3, 2/7, 5/11, and 7/13 result in a non-terminating or
infinite decimal. For example, 2/7 results in the decimal 0.285714286 . . . , the dots
meaning that the decimal continues without end. These numbers are known as
irrational numbers. Note that even though irrational numbers are non-terminating,
(e.g., 1/3 and 5/11) are repeating or periodic decimals because the same digit or block
of digits repeats unendingly. For example:

1 5
 0.3333 . . .  0.454545 . . .
3 11

A bar is often used to indicate the block of digits that repeat, as shown below:

1 5
 0.3̄  0.4̄5̄
3 11

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Practice Problems

Solve the following problems involving decimals.

1. 0.23 + 3.4 2. 5.75 ! 2.05

3. 6.1 ! 1.6 4. 0.018 + 0.045
5. 468.75 ! 192.5 6. 2.3 × 3.2
7. 0.007 × 2.18 8. 5.2 ÷ 1.4
9. 12.26 ÷ 0.04 10. 4.0 × 0.25

1.01.03 Convert fractions to decimals and decimals to fractions.

FRACTION TO DECIMAL CONVERSION

To convert a fraction to a decimal we simply perform the operation of division that the
fraction represents. For example, the fraction 3/4 represents "3 divided by 4," and would be
converted as follows:

0.75
4 3.00
28
20
20
0

Practice Problems

Convert the following fractions to decimals.

1. 1/2 2. 2/5
3. 5/8 4. 12/25
5. 13/39 6. 7/16

Convert the following decimals to fractions. Reduce answers to lowest terms.

7. 0.125 8. 0.6666
9. 4.25 10. 0.2

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1.01.04 Convert percent to decimal and decimal to percent.

PERCENT

Percentage is a familiar and widely used concept for expressing common and decimal fractions.
Most people know the meaning of terms such as 100 percent and 50 percent. The word percent
actually means "out of a hundred." (Consider that there are 100 "cents" in a dollar, and that a
"century" is 100 years.) A percent is simply a fraction whose denominator is 100. Thus, 50
percent means 50/100, or 0.50, while 25 percent means 25/100, or 0.25.

Percent is abbreviated by the symbol %. So, 75 percent is written 75%.

Converting Decimal to Percent

A decimal fraction is changed to a percent by moving the decimal point two places to
the right and adding a percent sign. For example, 1-8 equals 0.125. Therefore:

1
 0.125
´´  12.5%
8

A percent is changed to a common fraction by omitting the percent sign, placing the
number over 100, and reducing the resulting fraction if possible. For example, 32%
equals 32/100 which reduces to 8/25. When the percent consists of a mixed decimal
number with a percent sign, the resulting fraction will contain a mixed decimal
numerator. This can be changed to a whole number by multiplying the numerator and
the denominator by 10, 100, 1,000, etc. For example:

40.25 40.25 × 100 4025 805

40.25%    
100 100 × 100 10,000 2000

Percentage is most frequently used to indicate a fractional part. Thus 20% of the total
power output for 75% of the employees refer to fractional parts of some total number.
To perform arithmetic operations with a percent, it is normally changed to a common or
decimal fraction. Usually, a decimal fraction is more convenient.

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Converting Percent to Decimal

A percent is changed to a decimal fraction by omitting the percent sign and moving the
decimal point two places to the left. For example:

48%  0.48
³³
Thus, 92% equals 0.92, 8% equals 0.08, and so on.

Practice Problems

Convert the following decimals to percent.

1. 0.5 2. 0.782
3. 1.1 4. 0.06
5. 0.049 6. 0.0055

Convert the following percentages to decimals.

7. 65% 8. 0.25%
9. 300% 10. 0.09%

1.01.05 Add, subtract, multiply and divide signed numbers.

SIGNED NUMBERS

The numbers that are used to quantify the number of objects in a group, the "counting numbers",
are always positive numbers; that is, they are always greater than zero. However, there are many
occasions when negative numbers (numbers less than zero) must be used. These numbers arise
when we try to describe measurement in a direction opposite to the positive numbers. For
example, if we assign a value of +3 to a point which is 3 feet above the ground, what number
should be assigned to a point which is 3 feet below the ground? Perhaps the most familiar
example of the use of negative numbers is the measurement of temperature, where temperatures
below an arbitrary reference level are assigned negative values.

Every number has a sign associated with it. The plus (+) sign indicates a positive number,
whereas the minus (!) sign indicates a negative number. When no sign is given, a plus (+) sign
is implied. The fact that the plus and minus signs are also used for the arithmetic operations of
addition and subtraction should not be a cause for confusion, for we shall see that they have
equivalent meanings.

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Every number has an absolute value, regardless of its sign. The absolute value indicates the
distance from zero, without regard to direction. The number 5 is 5 units from zero, in the
positive direction. The number !5 is also 5 units from zero, but in the negative direction. The
absolute value of each of these numbers is 5. The absolute value of a number is indicated by a
pair of vertical lines enclosing the number:
5
.

Operations with Signed Numbers

The arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of

signed numbers can be more easily visualized if the numbers are placed on a number
line (see Figure 2). The positive numbers are greater than zero, and they lie to the right
of zero on the number line. The negative numbers are less than zero, and lie to the left
of zero on the number line.

FIGURE 2. Number Line

The number line extends an infinite distance in each direction and therefore includes all
numbers. The process of addition can be considered as counting in one direction or the
other from a starting point on the number line. For example, let us add 1 + 2. We
locate +1 on the number line and then count 2 units to the right, since we are adding +2.
The result will be +3. To illustrate further, let us add +2 and !4. We first locate +2 on
the number line and then count 4 units to the left. We end up at !2.

The number line is useful for illustrating the principles of addition, but it clearly would
be inconvenient to use in the case of large numbers. Consequently, the following rules
were developed to govern the addition process:

Adding and Subtracting Signed Numbers.

To add two numbers with the same signs, add their absolute values and attach the
common sign. For example:

(!3) + (!2) = !5

To add two numbers with opposite signs, find the difference of their absolute values,
then attach the sign of the original number which had the greater absolute value. For
example:

(!2) + 3 = 1

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Notice that !3 and +3 are the same distance but in opposite directions from 0 on the
number line. What happens when you add two numbers like 3 and !3?

3 + (!3) = 0

!7 + 7 = 0

If the sum of two signed numbers is 0, the numbers are called additive inverses or
opposites. For example:

7 ! 3 = 4 is the same as: 7 + (!3) = 4

8 ! 2 = 6 is the same as: 8 + (!2) = 6

It can be seen that subtracting a number is equivalent to adding its additive inverse or
opposite.

To subtract a signed number, add its opposite or additive inverse. In other words,
change the subtraction symbol to addition and change the sign of the second signed
number. For example:

5 ! (!8) = 5 + (+8) Z add +8 (Answer = 13)

6 ! 11 = 6 + (!11) Z add !11 (Answer = -5)

!4 ! (!7) = !4 + (+7) Z add +7 (Answer = 3)

Multiplying and Dividing Signed Numbers.

The product of two numbers with like signs is a positive number. The product of two
numbers with unlike signs is a negative number. In symbols:

(+) × (+) = (+) (+) × (!) = (!)

(!) × (!) = (+) (!) × (+) = (!)

For example:
(!4) × (!3) = (+12)
(!4) × (+3) = (!12)

The division of numbers with like signs gives a positive quotient. The division of
numbers with unlike signs gives a negative quotient. In symbols:

(+)/(+) = (+) (+)/(!) = (!)

(!)/(!) = (+) (!)/(+) = (!)

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For example:
(!24)/(!6) = (+4)
(!24)/(+6) = (!4)

Remember that multiplication is really a short form of addition. When we say

+4 × (!3), we are adding the number !3 four times, that is, (!3) + (!3) + (!3) + (!3) =
!12. Also, since division is a short form of subtraction, when we say !24 ÷ (!6), we
subtract the number !6 from the number !24 four times in order to reach 0, i.e.,
!24 ! (!6) ! (!6) ! (!6) ! (!6) = 0. Although we could repeat the process for the
multiplication and division of any signed numbers, usage of the two rules will produce
equivalent results.

Practice Problems

Solve the following problems involving signed numbers.

1. (!28) + (!51) 2. (!2) + (!5)

3. 40 + (!21) 4. (!87) + 50
5. 48 + (!27) 6. 56 ! (!5)
7. 81 ! 4 8. !48 ! (!2)
9. (!4)(5) 10. 6/(!3)
11. 4 (!5) 12. (!6)/(!3)
13. (!6)/3 14. (!8)(!5)
15. (!7)(6)

1.01.06 Add, subtract, multiply, and divide numbers with exponents.

EXPONENTS

An exponent is a small number placed to the right and a little above another number, called the
base, to show how many times the base is to be multiplied by itself. Thus, 34 (read "three to the
fourth power") means 3 used as a factor four times or 3 × 3 × 3 × 3. In this case, 4 is the
exponent, and 3 is the base.

In general, if b is any real number and n is any positive integer, the nth power of b is written bn
(where b is the base and n is the exponent) is read as "b to the nth power." This tells you that b is
used as a factor n times.

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Thus, 52 is called "5 raised to the second power" (or 5 "squared"), and 23 is called "2 raised to the
third power" (or 2 "cubed"). When no exponent is shown for a number or no power is indicated,
the exponent or power is understood to be 1. Thus, 7 is the same as 71. Any number raised to the
power of zero equals one; e.g., 70 = 1. Normally, exponents of zero and one are not left as the
final value, but are changed to the simpler form of the base.

Exponents can be expressed as integers, as in the examples above, or as fractions or decimals

such as 91/2 or 103.2. They may also be positive or negative.

Exponents and powers are particularly useful in mathematics not only because they shorten the
writing of mathematical expressions, but also because they simplify many mathematical
operations. However, there are several special rules which govern mathematical operations
involving numbers with exponents.

Addition and Subtraction

The addition or subtraction of numbers with exponents can be performed only if both
the bases and the exponents of the numbers are the same. When the bases of the
exponents are different, the multiplication indicated by the exponent must be performed
and the numbers then added or subtracted. Thus, 25 and 24 cannot be added directly
because their exponents are different. They can be added only by carrying out the
indicated multiplication first. Thus, 25 equals 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 which equals 32, and 24
equals 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 which equals 16. Therefore, 25 + 24 equals 32 + 16, which equals
48.

When the bases and the exponents are the same, the numbers can be added or
subtracted directly. For example:

35 + 35 = 2(35) = 2(243) = 486

Multiplication

The multiplication of numbers with exponents of the same base is performed by adding
the exponents. The general form is as follows:

(am)(an) = a(m+n)

It is important to remember that the bases of the numbers must be the same before
they can be multiplied by adding their exponents. The base of the product is the same
as the base of the two factors. Thus,

32 × 33 = 35 = 243

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Division

The division of numbers with exponents of the same base is performed by subtracting
the exponent of the divisor (denominator) from the exponent of the dividend
(numerator). The general form is:

m
a
 a (mn)
n
a

Again, it is important to remember that the bases of the numbers must be the same
before they can be divided by subtracting their exponents. The base of the quotient is
the same as the base of the number divided. Thus,

25
 2(5 2)  23  8
2
2

Division of numbers with exponents can be used to show why any number raised to the
power of zero equals one. We know that any fraction in which the numerator equals the
denominator can be reduced to 1; e.g., 2/2 = 1. Similarly:

23
 2(3 3)  20  1
3
2

Exponent Raised to a Power

Raising a number with an exponent to a power is performed by multiplying the

exponent by the power. The general form is:

(am)n = amn

The base of the answer is the same as the base of the number raised to the power. Thus:

(52)3 = 5(2×3) = 56 = 15,625

Product Raised to a Power

Raising a product of several numbers to a power is performed by raising each number to

the power. The general form is as follows:

(ab)n = anbn

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For example:

[(2)(3)(4)]2 = (22)(32)(42) = (4)(9)(16) = 576

This same result can also be obtained like this:

[(2)(3)(4)]2 = 242 = 576

Mixed Product and Exponents Raised to a Power

The same rule can be used to raise a product of several numbers with exponents to a
power. The general form looks like this:

(AaBbCc)n = A(a×n)B(b×n)C(c×n)

For example:

[(2)4(3)3(4)2]2 = (24×2)(33×2)(42×2) = (28)(36)(44) = (256)(729)(256)

Fraction Raised to a Power

Raising a fraction to a power is performed by raising both numerator and denominator

to the power. It should be remembered that with a proper fraction (i.e., numerator is
less than the denominator) the resulting number must be less than one. Also, the
resulting number will be less than the value of the original fraction. Thus, (2/3)3 equals
23/33, which equals 8/27, which is less than one and less than the original fraction, 2/3.

Negative Exponents and Powers

A negative exponent or power has a special meaning. Any number, except 0, with a
negative exponent equals the reciprocal of the same number with the same positive
exponent. For example:

1 1
62  
2 36
6

The same rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and raising to a power
apply to negative exponents that apply to positive exponents. However, in adding,
subtracting, or multiplying the exponents, the rules for signed numbers must also be
observed.

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Fractional Exponents

Fractional exponents are used to represent roots (see next section). The general form of
m
n
a fractional exponent is a , which reads "the nth root of am." For example, a½, means
the square root of a1, or a. In other words, a½ = a .

Calculator Method

To raise a number to a power using a scientific calculator, use the following steps:

1) Enter the number. (Fractions must first be converted to decimal form.)

2) Press the y x key.
3) Enter the power. (Fractions must first be converted to decimal form.)
4) Press the  key. The number displayed will be the number entered in step 1
raised to the power entered in step 3.

Practice Problems

1. (32)(33)
2. 75/73
3. (105)(106)
4. (106)(10-4)
5. 6-4/6-3
6. 6-8/63

1.01.07 Find the square roots of numbers.

SQUARE ROOTS

To square a number means to multiply the number by itself, i.e., raise it to the second power.
(Consider that a square is two-dimensional.) For example, 2 squared is 4, since 2 × 2 = 4. The
square of 3 is 9, 4 squared is 16, and so on.

Just as subtraction "undoes" addition and division "undoes" multiplication, squaring a number
can be "undone" by finding the square root. The general definition is as follows:

If a2 = b, then a is a square root of b.

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Be careful not to confuse the terms square and square root. For example, if 52 = 25, this
indicates that 25 is the square of 5, and 5 is the square root of 25. To be explicit, we say that it
is a perfect square because 5 times itself is 25.

All perfect squares other than 0 have two square roots, one positive and one negative. For
example, because 72 = 49 and (!7)2 = 49, both 7 and !7 are square roots of 49. The symbol %&,
referred to as the radical, is used to write the principal, or positive, square root of a positive
number.

49  7 is read "The positive square root of 49 equals 7."

A negative square root is designated by the symbol !%&.

! 49  !7 is read "The negative square root of 49 equals !7."

It is often convenient to use plus-or-minus notation:

± 49 means the positive or negative square root of 49.

Therefore, the rule is that every positive real number a has two square roots: a and ! a .
It follows from the definition of square root that ( a)2  a , and that a 2  a . Because the
square of every real number is either positive or zero, negative numbers do not have square roots
in the set of real numbers.

Notice that 4@ 25  100  10, and 4 @ 25  2 @ 5  10 . Therefore, 4@ 25  4 @ 25.

Therefore, in general, we can say:

For any nonnegative real numbers a and b: a@ b  a @ b

a a
It also follows that 
b b

Calculator Method

To calculate the square root of any number using a scientific calculator, follow these
steps:

1) Enter the number. (Fractions must first be converted to decimal form.)

2) Press the x key. The number displayed will be the square root of the number
entered in step 1. An alternate method is to press the y x key and then type 0.5.
This raises the number in step 1 to the power of 0.5, or ½.

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Other roots

For informational purposes only, we mention the fact that other roots may be found for
a number. One of these is the cube root. To cube a number means to multiply the
number by itself three times, i.e., raise it to the third power. (Consider that a cube is
three-dimensional.) For example, 2 cubed is 8, since 2 × 2 × 2 = 8. The cube root (or
third root) of a number, then, is the number that, when raised to the third power
3
(cubed), equals the first number. The notation for a cube root is a .

Note that any root may be taken from a number to "undo" an exponent, such as the
fourth or fifth root. The general definition for a root is:

If an = b, then a is the nth root of b.

n
The notation for the nth root is a . These roots follow the same general rules as the
square root.

Practice Exercises

Find the indicated square roots.

1. 16 2. ! 81
3. 144 4. 152
5. ( 6)2 6. ! 400
7. 1
8. 9 @ 49
64

9. 81
10. ! 625
36

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1.01.08 Convert between numbers expressed in standard form and in scientific

notation.

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

The difficulty in writing very large or very small numbers in the usual manner is that a large
number of zeros are required to write these numbers. This difficulty is overcome by using
scientific notation, in which integral powers of ten are used instead of a large number of zeros to
indicate the position of the decimal point. In addition to simplifying the writing of very large or
very small numbers, scientific notation clearly identifies the number of significant digits in a
number and simplifies arithmetic calculations involving multiplication, division, or raising to a
power. For these reasons, it is good practice to write numbers in scientific notation when these
operations are involved.

The following demonstrates how the number 1 million can be represented by various factors of
10:

0.00001 × 1011
0.0001 × 1010
0.001 × 109
0.01 × 108
0.1 × 107
1,000,000 = 1 × 106
10 × 105
100 × 104
1000 × 103
10,000 × 102
100,000 × 101
1,000,000 × 100
10,000,000 × 10-1
100,000,000 × 10-2

Converting From Standard Form To Scientific Notation

There are two steps involved in writing a number in scientific notation.

1) Move the decimal point just to the right of the first significant digit. The first
significant digit is the first non-zero digit counting from the left.

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2) Indicate multiplication of the resulting number by a power of ten that makes its
value equal to the original value. The power of ten is found by counting the
number of places the decimal point was moved from its original position. If
counted to the left, the power is positive; if counted to the right, it is negative. For
example:

Suppose you want to express a number such as 700 in scientific notation.

³³  7 × 10
2
700

Suppose you want to express 0.0014 in scientific notation.

3
´´´  1.4 × 10
0.0014

Converting from Scientific Notation to Standard Form

To transform from scientific notation to standard form, follow the opposite procedure.

1.96 × 105 = 196000

2.27 × 10-2 = 0.0227

There are two parts of a number written in scientific notation, the significant digits and
the power of ten. Thus, in the number 3.21 × 106, 3, 2, and 1 are the significant digits and
106 is the power of ten.

The ability to clearly see the number of significant digits can be helpful in performing
arithmetic calculations. For example, the number of significant digits which should be
reported in the product of two numbers can be readily determined if the two numbers are
first written in scientific notation.

When numbers are expressed in scientific notation, calculations can be more easily
visualized. This is because they involve only numbers between 1 and 10 and positive and
negative integral powers of ten which can be treated separately in the calculations using
the rules for numbers with exponents.

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1.01.09 Add, subtract, multiply, and divide numbers expressed in scientific notation.

Addition and Subtraction Using Scientific Notation

Addition and subtraction cannot normally be performed directly using scientific notation
because they require adding or subtracting digits of equal place value. Thus, when
numbers expressed in scientific notation are to be added or subtracted, they must first be
converted to forms having equal place value. This is commonly done by expressing them
as numbers which are multiplied by the same integral power of ten. The sum or
difference of these significant digits, multiplied by their common power of ten, is the sum
or difference of the original numbers. For example:

(3.54 × 105) + (2.51 × 104)

3.54 × 105 is first changed to 35.4 × 104

35.4 × 104
 2.51 × 104
37.91 × 104  3.79 × 105

Multiplication and Division Using Scientific Notation

Multiplication or division of numbers using scientific notation is performed by

multiplying or dividing the significant digits and the powers of ten separately. The
significant digits are multiplied or divided in the same manner as other mixed decimals.
The powers of ten are multiplied or divided by adding or subtracting their exponents
using the rules for multiplication and division of numbers with exponents. For example:

(2.7 × 102)(3.1 × 10-3) = (2.7)(3.1) × (102)(10-3) = 8.37 × 10-1

which should be rounded off to 8.4 × 10-1.

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One of the most useful applications of scientific notation is in arithmetic calculations

which involve a series of multiplications and divisions. The use of scientific notation
permits accurate location of the decimal point in the final answer. For example:

Perform the following calculation using scientific notation:

(219)(0.00204)
(21.2)(0.0312)

1) Write each term in scientific notation:

(2.19 × 102)(2.04 × 103)

(2.12 × 101)(3.12 × 102)

2) Multiply and divide the significant digits:

(2.19)(2.04) 4.46
  0.675
(2.12)(3.12) 6.61

3) Multiply and divide the powers of ten by adding and subtracting exponents:

(102)(103) 101
  1011  100
1 2 1
(10 )(10 ) 10

4) Combine the results:

0.675 × 100 = 0.675 = 6.75 × 10-1

"E" Notation

An alternate method for annotating scientific notation is often used by pocket calculators,
computers, and some references. The method uses an E in place of the "× 10," and the
number written after the E is the exponent of 10. The standard and alternate methods for
scientific notation are equivalent and can be converted from one form to another without
a change in value. The examples below use both methods in equivalent expressions:

3.79 ×105 = 3.79E5

4.02 ×10-6 = 4.02E-6

5.89 ×100 = 5.89E0

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Using "E" Notation with a Calculator

Numbers in scientific notation are entered into a scientific calculator as follows:

1) Enter the significant digits.

2) Press the E or EXP key. (Actual key label may vary.)
3) Enter the power of 10. If the power is negative press the / key in conjunction
with entering the power.

Practice Problems

1. (2 × 102)(3 × 102)
2. (6 × 108)/(3 × 103)
3. (9 × 104)(!1 × 102)
4. (3 × 107)(9 × 102)
5. (7E2)(6E4)
6. (5E!3)/(5E!2)

1.01.10 Solve equations using the "Order of Mathematical Operations."

ORDER OF MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS

In solving any equation it is necessary to perform the operations in the equation in accordance
with a certain hierarchy or order of operations. Equations are solved by simplifying operations
of higher order first, according to group, left to right. The order for solving equations is as
follows:

1) Simplify expressions within grouping symbols, beginning with the innermost set
if more than one set is used.

2) Simplify all powers.

3) Perform all multiplications and divisions in order from left to right.

4) Perform all additions and subtractions in order from left to right.

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For example: (3 + 1)2 × 3 ! 14 ÷ 2

1) Simplify parentheses:
(3  1)2 × 3 ! 14 ÷ 2
ÆÈÇ
2) Simplify powers:
(4)2 × 3 ! 14 ÷ 2
ÆÈÇ
3) Perform multiplication and 16 × 3 ! 14 ÷ 2
division left to right: ÆÈÇ ÆÈÇ
4) Perform subtraction: 48 ! 7  41 (final answer)

Practice Problems

1. 5 + (!3) @ (!2) ! 6 2. 18 ! [52 ÷ (7 + 6)]

3. 19 ! 7 + 12 @ 2 ÷ 8 4. 23 ! 20 ÷ 4 + 4 @ 3
5. 10 + 6(0.5)3 6. 33 + 10 ÷ 5
7. (8 + 4 @ 3)2 8. 7(42 ! 10) ÷ (12 @ ¾)
9. 7(6 ! 22) 10. (57 ! 25)½

1.01.11 Perform algebraic functions.

ALGEBRA

Algebra is the branch of mathematics which deals with the manipulation of words and letters,
generically called symbols, which represent numbers. Two factors contribute to the widespread
use of algebra in scientific calculations. First, by using words and letters to represent the values
of physical quantities, physical relationships can be expressed in clear, concise, and completely
generalized form. Second, by using words and letters in place of numbers, combinations of
physical relationships may be simplified to yield results applicable to any set of numbers.

For example, the area of a rectangle equals the product of the length of the rectangle multiplied
by its width. In generalized terms, this statement can be written as:

Area = Length × Width

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This expression is a simple rule which tells the relationship between the area and the length and
width of a rectangle. It does not mean that words are multiplied together but rather that numbers
are inserted for the length and the width to obtain the area. For example, if the length is 4 feet
and the width is 2 feet, the area is 2 feet × 4 feet or 8 square feet. This expression can be further
simplified by using symbols or letters instead of words. For example, if area is designated by the
letter A, length designated by the letter l, and width designated by the letter w, the following
expression results:

A = l × w or A = lw

In algebraic expressions, when two or more letters representing numbers are written next to each
other without a symbol between them, multiplication is indicated.

Variables vs. Numbers

When words or letters are used to represent numbers, they are called variables. Thus,
when letters like x, y, z, f, or k are used to represent the values of physical quantities, they
are called variables because their value varies with the actual numbers they may be
chosen to represent. In the area calculation above, A, l, and w are variables used to
represent the numerical values of area, length and width, respectively.

Properties of Variables

Recall that every number has a sign and an exponent associated with it. Recall also that
any number can be written as a fraction by putting that number as the numerator and 1 as
the denominator, e.g., 5 = 51-. These properties also apply to any symbols that we might
use to represent numbers. Additionally, a symbol by itself stands for one of whatever the
variable represents. That is to say, the symbol a by itself means "one of the variable
represented by the letter a", or 1a. Combining this with the other "invisible" properties
mentioned, the symbol a is understood to represent "positive one of the variable
represented by the letter a to the power of one, over 1," which would be expressed as:
1a 1
 a
1

An expression that is either a numeral, a variable or the product of a numeral and one or
more variables is called a monomial. A combination or sum of monomials is called a
polynomial. Examples of each are:

Monomials: 12 z br -4x3

Polynomials: 3x + 9 6a2 ! 15

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Equations

An equation is a statement that indicates how two quantities or expressions are equal.
The two quantities are written with an equal sign (=) between them. For example,

1+1=2 10 = 6 ! (!4)
5 × 3 = 15 18 ÷ 2 = 9

are all equations because in each case the quantity on the left side is equal to the quantity
on the right side.

In algebra we use variables to represent numbers in equations. In this lesson we will

manipulate and solve equations involving more than one variable, but we will find the
solution, i.e., the final answer, to equations having only one variable.

Algebraic Manipulation

The basic principle, or axiom, used in solving any equation is: whatever operation is
performed on one side of an equation
be it addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, raising to an exponent, taking a root
must also be performed on the other
side if the equation is to remain true. This principle MUST be adhered to in solving all
types of equations.

This axiom can be thought of by visualizing the balancing of a scale. If the scale is
initially balanced, it will remain balanced if the same weight is added to both sides, if the
same weight is removed from both sides, if the weights on both sides are increased by the
same factor, or if the weights on both sides are decreased by the same factor.

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Here are the general forms for algebraic manipulation of equations. For the real numbers
a, b, c and n:

Table 2. Rules for Algebraic Operations

Addition: If a = b, then a+c=b+c

Subtraction: If a = b, then a!c=b!c

Multiplication: If a = b, then a@c=b@c

Division: If a = b, then a÷c=b÷c

Involution: If a = b, then an = bn
"Raising to an exponent"
n n
Evolution: If a = b, then a  b
"Taking a root"

Manipulating and Solving Linear Equations

The addition or subtraction of the same quantity from both sides of an equation may be
accomplished by transposing a quantity from one side of the equation to the other.
Transposing is a shortened way of applying the addition or subtraction axioms. Any term
may be transposed or transferred from one side of an equation to the other if its sign is
changed. Thus, in the equation below the +4 can be transposed to the other side of the
equation by changing its sign:

5x + 4 = 14
(5x + 4) - 4 = (14) - 4
5x = 14 - 4
5x = 10

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Transposing also works with multiplication and division. Remembering that any number
can be expressed as a fraction we can rewrite the last line of the equation above. We can
then move the 5 in the numerator of the left side to the denominator of the right side:
5x 10

1 1
x 10

1 5
10
x 
5
x  2

Some linear equations may contain multiple terms (monomials) involving the same
variable. In order to simplify the equation like terms must be combined. Don't forget
those "invisible properties of variables." Here's an example:

3x ! 5 = x + 3 Z To solve for x:

3x ! 5 ! x = x + 3 ! x Z Subtract x from both sides.

2x ! 5 = 3 Z Combine like terms and cancel.
2x ! 5 + 5 = 3 + 5 Z Add 5 to both sides.
2x = 8 Z !5 and +5 cancel.
2x 8
 Z Divide both sides by 2.
2 2
x=4 Z 2 over 2 cancels. Reduce.

Quadratic Equations

In manipulating an equation involving multiple variables, the "variable of interest" (or the
variable to be solved for) must be moved to one side of the equal sign and all other
variables must be moved to the other side. In order to accomplish this, operations must
be performed on both sides of the equation that will result in a variable, or group of
variables, to be canceled out from one side. This cancellation can only occur if the
"opposite function" is performed on a function that already exists on that side of the
equation. This means that a variable that is being multiplied can be canceled by dividing
by the same variable. Addition can be canceled with subtraction, multiplication with
division, etc.

For example:

a+b=c Z To solve for a:

a+bb=cb Z Subtract b from both sides
a=cb Z +b and !b cancel

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Another example: ab = c Z To solve for a:

ab c
 Z Divide both sides by b
b b
c
a  Z b over b cancels
b

Do not forget that the order of operations must be observed when manipulating equations.
Otherwise a completely different solution may result. The key is to do the opposite
function in reverse order. Here is an example which shows how this is done.

a  b Z To solve for a:
 d
c
(a  b) Z Multiply both sides by c.
c @  d @ c
c
a  b  dc Z c over c cancels.
a  b  b  dc  b Z Subtract b from both sides.
a  dc  b Z b ! b cancels

Once the order of the arithmetic functions has been established, manipulation of the
formula can begin. In the example above, if the values for a, b, and c were known, the
first step would be to add b to a. The second step would be to divide by c. Therefore, in
order to solve it, we do the opposite functions in reverse order. So, we first multiply by c.
Then, we would subtract b. It is a good idea to rewrite the equation each time so that the
operations can be reevaluated before the next step.

One final example: ab 2  cd 2 Z To solve for d:

ab 2 cd 2 Z Divide both sides by c.


c c
ab 2 Z c over c cancels.
 d2
c
Z Take the square root of both sides.
ab 2
 d2
c
ab 2 Z Square root of square cancels.
 d
c
The above example involves the equation known as the inverse
square law and will be seen again in Lesson 1.11.

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Substitution

Linear equations are solved by combining like terms and reducing to find the solution.
Quadratic equations are solved by substituting given values into the equation for all but
one of the variables, thus making it a linear equation. The best approach is to first solve
for the variable of interest by algebraic manipulation. Then find the solution by
substituting the given values into the equation for the respective variables. The single,
unkown variable, or the variable of interest, will be left on one side, being set equal to the
solution. For example:

Given the equation: 2x ! y2 = 3a - b; where x = 5, y = (-4) and a = 3;

solve for b:

2x ! y2 = 3a - b Z To solve for b:
2x ! y2 + b = 3a - b + b Z Add b to both sides, and cancel.
2x ! y2 + b = 3a Z ! b + b cancels.
b = 3a ! 2x + y2 Z Transpose 2x ! y2 to right side.
b = 3(3) ! 2(5) + (!4)2 Z Substitute known values.
b = 9 ! 10 + 16 Z Perform operations.
b = 15 Z Simplify.

Practice Problems

Solve for the unknown variable:

1. x + 3 = 10 2. 5+z=8
y r
3.  2 4.  6
4 2
5. 5(j + 5) = 45 6. 5d = 25
7. 9n2 = 81 8. a + 6 ! 6a = !14

Solve for a:

b c
9. a2b = c2d 10. 
a d

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Substitute the values given and simplify the expression.

11. 3x + 14y ! xy where x = 5, y = 2

4s  1
12. where s = !3, t = 10
6t  s
16a  5b
13. where a = !1, b = 5
1 ! 4a
j
14. 3i   0 where k = 2, j = !12, solve for i
1  k
15. 7(2m ! ¾n) + l = 10 where m = ½, n = 8, solve for l

1.01.12 Solve equations using common and/or natural logarithms.

LOGARITHMS

In many cases, arithmetic operations can be performed much more quickly if the numbers
involved are numbers with exponents to the same base. For example, the multiplication or
division of numbers with exponents to the same base can be performed by merely adding or
subtracting the exponents. Raising to a power or taking a root can be performed by merely
multiplying or dividing the exponents by the power or root. It is this feature of numbers with
exponents which led to the development of logarithms. If all numbers could be readily written as
numbers with exponents to the same base, multiplication, division, raising to powers and taking
roots could be performed much more quickly.

Any number can be expressed as a power of any other number. For example, 64 equals 26, 43, or
82. 64 also equals 72.137 or 101.806. The use of logarithms involves expressing numbers as powers
of a common number, such as 10, so that arithmetic operations with these numbers can be
performed more quickly.

Simply put, a logarithm is an exponent. More explicitly, the logarithm of a number n is the
exponent x of a given base b that is required to produce that number. The symbol log is used to
denote taking a logarithm. The base is usually indicated by a small number written to the right
and slightly below the symbol log (e.g., logb). The general relationship and form are as follows:

If n = bx; where b > 0 and b … 1, then: logb n = x

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For example:

1000 = 103 Y log101000 = 3

This says that the base ten logarithm of 1000 is 3, which means that the base number, 10, must be
raised to the power of 3 to equal 1000.

Here are some additional examples:

23 = 8 Y log2 8 = 3
43/2 = 8 Y log4 8 = 3/2

Before the development of the scientific calculator, the use of logarithms saved considerable
computation time. For example, the evaluation of the following expression by hand would take a
very long time.

(865)3(0.0247)½(93,800)
(0.00186)(4.53)2

However, using logarithms the above expression could be evaluated in a matter of minutes.
Thus, logarithms, or logs, became one of the most useful tools in mathematics. In addition to
simplifying arithmetic calculations and shortening computation time, logs are also important in
engineering applications. The relationship between a number and its logarithm is used frequently
to assist in measuring physical quantities when they vary over a wide range. For example,
logarithmic scales are used to measure the neutron flux in nuclear reactors. Logarithms are also
used for scales on charts and meters.

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Properties of Logarithms

Since logarithms are exponents, the basic rules of exponents can be used to develop
several useful properties of logarithms. Suppose that a, x, and y are numbers, and a is a
suitable base for a logarithm (a > 0, a … 1). The product rule for exponents says:

ax @ ay = a(x + y)

Let us say that: u = ax and v = ay

If we write each of these in logarithmic form we would have:

x = loga u and y = loga v

Then: u @ v = ax @ ay = a(x + y)

If we write this in logarithmic form it would be:

loga (u( v) = x + y

If we substitute the values for x and y from above we have:

loga (u( v) = loga u + loga v

This results in one of the rules for logarithms, the product rule. Using similar methods,
we could also prove the other two rules that have been developed for logarithms.

Table 3. Rules for Logarithms

Product Rule: loga uv = loga u + loga v

(The log of a product is the sum of the logs.)

u
Quotient Rule: loga = loga u - loga v
v

(The log of a quotient is the difference of the logs.)

Power Rule: loga un = n loga u

(The log of a number to a power is the power times the log of
the number.)

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Base Ten Logarithms

Logs with the base of 10 are the most commonly used logarithms because of their
relationship to the place values in the decimal system. Because of their wide use, base
ten logarithms are often referred to as common logarithms. Observe the patterns in the
number line and table below. Notice the relationship between the power of ten and the
logarithm.
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
=













































































<
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 4 10 5

Table 4. Log to Power of 10 Relationship

Decimal Power Log
5
0.00001 10 5
4
0.0001 10 4
3
0.001 10 3
0.01 102 2
1
0.1 10 1
0
1 10 0
1
10 10 1
2
100 10 2
3
1000 10 3
4
10,000 10 4
5
100,000 10 5

Any number can be expressed as a power of ten. Thus, 10 equals 101, 1,000 equals 103,
64 equals 101.806 and 527.3 equals 102.7221. Once a number has been expressed as a power
of ten, the base ten logarithm of the number is knownit is the exponent of 10. Thus log10
10 equals 1, log10 1000 equals 3, log10 64 equals 1.806 and log10 527.3 equals 2.722.
Since base ten logarithms are so commonly used, the subscript 10 is often omitted after
the symbol log. Thus, log 27.3 means the logarithm of 27.3 to the base 10.

A common logarithm is most often a mixed number consisting of a whole number part
and a decimal fraction part. The whole number part is called the characteristic of the
logarithm. The decimal fraction part is called the mantissa. For example, in the
logarithm of 527.3, which equals 2.7221, the characteristic is 2 and the mantissa is
0.7221. The mantissas of most logarithms are rounded off to a specified number of
significant digits, typically four.

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Table 5. Four-place Logarithms

Proportional Parts
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.0 0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374 4 8 12 17 21 25 29 33 37
1.1 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 0645 0682 0719 0755 4 8 11 15 19 23 26 30 34
1.2 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0969 1004 1038 1072 1106 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 28 31
1.3 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 1303 1335 1367 1399 1430 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
1.4 1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27

1.5 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014 3 6 8 11 14 17 20 22 25
1.6 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 2175 2201 2227 2253 2279 3 5 8 11 13 16 18 21 24
1.7 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 2430 2455 2480 2504 2529 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22
1.8 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21
1.9 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20

2.0 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
2.1 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
2.2 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3579 3598 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
2.3 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
2.4 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945 3962 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16

2.5 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 4133 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 15
2.6 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298 2 3 5 7 8 10 11 13 15
2.7 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
2.8 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
2.9 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13

3.0 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
3.1 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 5038 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 12
3.2 5051 5065 5079 5092 5105 5119 5132 5145 5159 5172 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
3.3 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
3.4 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5428 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11

3.5 5441 5453 5465 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5539 5551 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
3.6 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
3.7 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 5786 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.8 5798 5809 5821 5832 5843 5855 5866 5877 5888 5899 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.9 5911 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10

4.0 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
4.1 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.2 6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 6325 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.3 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.4 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4.5 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.6 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8
4.7 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
4.8 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
4.9 6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8

5.0 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
5.1 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
5.2 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
5.3 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
5.4 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Table 5. Four-place Logarithms

Proportional Parts
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.5 7404 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451 7459 7466 7474 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
5.6 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551 1 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
5.7 7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 7619 7627 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
5.8 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
5.9 7709 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7

6.0 7782 7789 7796 7803 7810 7818 7825 7832 7839 7846 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
6.1 7853 7860 7868 7875 7882 7889 7896 7903 7910 7917 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
6.2 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7966 7973 7980 7987 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
6.3 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 8035 8041 8048 8055 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.4 8062 8069 8075 8082 8089 8096 8102 8109 8116 8122 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6

6.5 8129 8136 8142 8149 8156 8162 8169 8176 8182 8189 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.6 8195 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.7 8261 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.8 8325 8331 8338 8344 8351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
6.9 8388 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8426 8432 8439 8445 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6

7.0 8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 8500 8506 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
7.1 8513 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 8555 8561 8567 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.2 8573 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8615 8621 8627 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.3 8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.4 8692 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 8745 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5

7.5 8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
7.6 8808 8814 8820 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854 8859 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
7.7 8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 8910 8915 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
7.8 8921 8927 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 8971 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
7.9 8976 8982 8987 8993 8998 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5

8.0 9031 9036 9042 9047 9053 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.1 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9112 9117 9122 9128 9133 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.2 9138 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.3 9191 9196 9201 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.4 9243 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 9289 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5

8.5 9294 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.6 9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.7 9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
8.8 9445 9450 9455 9460 9465 9469 9474 9479 9484 9489 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
8.9 9494 9499 9504 9509 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

9.0 9542 9547 9552 9557 9562 9566 9571 9576 9581 9586 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.1 9590 9595 9600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 9633 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.2 9638 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9675 9680 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.3 9685 9689 9694 9699 9703 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.4 9731 9736 9741 9745 9750 9754 9759 9763 9768 9773 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

9.5 9777 9782 9786 9791 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814 9818 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.6 9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 9850 9854 9859 9863 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.7 9868 9872 9877 9881 9886 9890 9894 9899 9903 9908 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.8 9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.9 9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9991 9996 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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Log-Table Method

To find the common logarithm of a number using four-place log tables, use the
following steps:

1) Write the number in scientific notation with up to four significant digits.

2) Using the product rule for logarithms, write the log of the product as the
sum of the logs of the factors.

3) Determine the mantissa as follows:

a) Find the row in the table corresponding to the first two digits of
the number, then move over to the column corresponding to the
third digit of the number.
b) Find the number under the proportional parts section
corresponding to the fourth digit of the number, and add it to the
last digit of the decimal obtained in step 3.a.

4) Determine the characteristic by using the power of 10 written in step 1 and

write the logs in the form of a sum.

NOTE: If the power of 10 is negative, the log may be left in this form.

5) Using the product rule, write the sum of the logs as the log of a product.

NOTE: If the power of 10 is negative, the mantissa will be changed

because of the subtracton of a whole number.

Example: log 45,830

1) Write the number in scientific notation. log (4.583 × 104)

2) Use the product rule to write the product as the sum log 4.583 + log 104
of the logs.
log 4.583 + 4
3) a) Find the 4.5 row of the log table. Move over to the 8
column to find the mantissa. 0.6609

b) Find the 3 column under the proportional parts + 0.0003

section of the log table. Add this to the last digit of 0.6612
the mantissa in step 3.a.

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4) Write the mantissa and characteristic as a sum. 0.6612 + 4

5) Add the characteristic to the mantissa. 4.6612

Example: log 0.004583

1) First, we write the number in scientific notation. log (4.583 × 10-3)

2) Next, we use the product rule to write the product as log 4.583 + log 10-3
the sum of the logs.
log 4.583 + (!3)

3) The mantissa will be the same as in the previous

example because the significant digits are the same. 0.6612

4) Now, we write the mantissa and characteristic as a 0.6612 + (!3)

sum. Since the characteristic is negative we could
leave the logarithm in this form. 0.6612 ! 3

5) Add the characteristic to the mantissa. Note that the !2.3388

mantissa has changed. Also note that this is not the
same as !3.6612.

As you may have observed, the mantissa of the base ten logarithm of a number depends
only on the succession of significant digits in the number. The position of the decimal
point in the number does not affect the mantissa. Of course, the characteristics are
different for each of these numbers.

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Table 6. Mantissa for Successive Significant Digits

Number Scientific Log Log
Notation Long form Short form
0.000524 5.24 × 10-4 0.7193  4 3.2807
0.00524 5.24 × 10 -3
0.7193  3 2.2807
0.0524 5.24 × 10 -2
0.7193  2 1.2807
0.524 5.24 × 10-1 0.7193  1 0.2807
5.24 5.24 × 100 0.7193 + 0 0.7193
1
52.4 5.24 × 10 0.7193 + 1 1.7193
2
524 5.24 × 10 0.7193 + 2 2.7193
3
5240 5.24 × 10 0.7193 + 3 3.7193
4
52,400 5.24 × 10 0.7193 + 4 4.7193

Note that any time the logarithm of a number is rounded off it would be considered an
approximate answer since each digit is necessary to exactly duplicate the number when
the base is raised to that exponent. Since each significant digit of the logarithm affects
the actual value of the number, a standard of four significant digits should be maintained
to ensure appropriate accuracy in the answers.

Calculator Method

Since hand-held scientific calculators are readily available today, it is impractical

to use log tables. To find the logarithm of a number with a calculator:

1. Enter the number.

2. Press the log key. The number displayed is the logarithm of the number
entered in step 1.

Natural Logarithms

A logarithm can be written to any base. For most practical computations, base ten
logarithms are used because of their relationship to the place values in the decimal
system. However, in many scientific and engineering problems, it is convenient to use
another base, symbolized by the letter e. e is an irrational number whose value is
2.71828 . . . The actual value of e is the limiting value of (1 + 1/n)n as n gets larger and
larger.

Although it is an irrational number, it can still be used as the base for logarithms in the
same way as 10 is used for base ten logarithms. e is the basis for many laws of nature,
such as the laws of growth and decay of physical quantities, including the decay of
radioactive substances and the growth and decay of neutron population in a nuclear
reactor. Because of the relationship of e to natural phenomena, logarithms to the base e
are called natural logarithms.

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The natural logarithm of a number is the exponent to which e must be raised in order to
get that number. The symbol ln is used to denote a natural logarithm which is the same
as saying loge. The relationship is expressed as follows:

If ex = n then ln n = x

For example:

ln 2 = 0.693147 . . . which means that e0.693147... = 2.

ln 10 = 2.302585 . . . which means that e2.302585... = 10.
ln e = 1 which means that e1 = e

Natural logarithms are not often used for computations. However, they appear frequently
in decay and shielding calculations problems because of the relationship of e to natural
phenomena. As a result, it is important to know how to determine the natural logarithms
of numbers.

Tables of natural logarithms are available in several standard handbooks. However, there
are several important differences between natural logarithms and base ten logarithms
which must be understood to use natural logarithms. A natural logarithm is not separated
into a characteristic and a mantissa. This is because the whole number part of a natural
logarithm does not relate to the position of the decimal point. Therefore, tables of natural
logarithms give the entire logarithm, not just the decimal fraction part. Moreover, if a
natural logarithm is negative, the entire logarithm is negative and is shown as such in a
table of natural logarithms. Further, there is no part of the natural logarithm of a number
which is not affected by the position of the decimal point. For all these reasons, tables of
natural logarithms cannot be made concise.

To find the natural log of a number using a hand-held calculator:

1. Enter the number.

2. Press the ln key. The number displayed is the natural logarithm of the number
entered in step 1.

Antilogarithms

An antilogarithm, usually shortened to "antilog," is the opposite of a logarithm and is

much easier to do. The antilog of a given number is the value obtained by raising the
base to that number. Finding antilogs is an important part in the overall use of logarithms
in computations. If numbers are converted to logarithms to perform calculations, the
answer must be converted back from logarithms once the calculations have been
performed. The symbol log-1 is used in calculations to indicate the antilog is going to be
taken. The base of 10 is assumed unless otherwise noted. The general form is:

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log-1 x = n which means 10x = n

For example:

log-1 3 which means 103 = 1000

To find the antilog of a number using log tables: log-1 2.7832

1) Write the number in log long form. log-1 (0.7832 + 2)

2) Find the mantissa in the table. Take the 6.0

value at the head of the row and attach to it 7
the value at the head of the column. 6.07

3) Write this value in scientific notation, 6.07 × 102

putting the characteristic of the original
number as the power of ten.

4) Write this number in standard form. 607

On a scientific calculator the antilog of a number is obtained by raising the base (10) to
that number.

1) Enter the number.

2) Press the log1 or 10x key. The number displayed is the antilog of the number
of entered in step 1. In other words, 10 raised to that power.

The symbol ln-1 is used to denote the inverse natural log, i.e. the antilog of base e.

ln-1 x = n which means ex = n

For example:

ln-1 0.693 . . . which means e0.693... = 2

On a scientific calculator the inverse natural log of a number is obtained as follows:

1) Enter the number.

2) Press the ln1 or e x key. The number displayed is the inverse natural log of
the number of entered in step 1. In other words, e raised to that power.

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Table 7. Summary of Common and Natural Log Definitions

Expression Meaning Example Key-in
10 is the base of the common logarithm.
log n Asks: "10 raised to what power will equal n? log 100 = 2 log

log-1 n Asks: "10 raised to the n power equals what? log-1 2 = 100 10x

e is the base of the natural logarithm.

ln n Asks: "e raised to what power will equal n? ln 2 = 0.693... ln

ln-1 n Asks: "e raised to the n power equals what? ln-1 0.693... = 2 ex

Solving for Variables as Exponents

One of the useful applications for logarithms is to solve algebraic equations with
unknown exponents. In the following example, for instance, if the exponent is not
known, it would be difficult to determine the correct value of x in order to make the
statement (or equation) true.

2356 = 3x

With the use of logarithms, however, this type of problem can be easily solved. The steps
for solving an equation of this type are:

1) Make sure the base raised to the unknown exponent is solated on one side of the
equation (this may involve some manipulation of the formula in more complicated
equations).

2) Take the log of both sides of the equation:

log 2356 = log 3x

3) The right side of the equation can be rewritten using the power rule:

log 2356 = x (log 3)

4) Divide both sides by log 3 which moves it to the right side of the equation:

log 2356 x (log 3)


log 3 log 3

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5) Cancel terms and rewrite the equation:

log 2356
 x
log 3

6) Perform the operations and solve:

3.372
 x
0.477
7.068  x

This answer can now be checked by substituting it back into the original equation to see if
it makes the statement true:

2356 = 37.068

Some problems may involve the base of the natural logarithm e raised to an unknown
power. This exponent can be determined by isolating e on one side of the equation and
then taking the natural log of both sides. This is done because the natural log of e is 1.
For example:

125  1000 e n
125
 en
1000
125
ln  ln e n
1000
ln 0.125  (ln e)(n)
ln 0.125  (1)(n)
2.0794  n

Practice Problems

Perform the following operations:

1. log 6.40 2. log 0.5

3. log-1 16 4. log-1 3.7846
5. ln 86 6. ln 0.5
7. ln-1 0.695 8. ln-1 1

Use logarithms to solve for the unknown variable:

9. 5 = 4x 10. 23 = 6t
11. 9 = 22(3)y 12. 50 = 2000(½)n

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SUMMARY

A good foundation in mathematics is essential for the RCT. Calculations of various types are
performed routinely in radiological control operations. The skills learned in this lesson will be
applied in many of the lessons that follow as well as in the workplace.

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ANSWERS TO PRACTICE PROBLEMS:

Fractions

1. 1/3 + 2/3 = 3/3 = 1

2. 5/7 ! 3/7 = 2/7
3. 5/9 + 2/3 = 5/9 + 6/9 = 11/9 = 129
4. 6/7 ! 1/2 = 12/14  7/14 = 5/14
5. 2 ! 1/3 = 6/3  1/3 = 5/3 = 123
6. 3/8 + 15/16 = 6/16 + 15/16 = 21/16 = 1 5/16
7. 25/32 ! 3/4 = 25/32  24/32 = 1/32
8. 15/21 ! 4/7 = 5/7  4/7 = 1/7
9. 13/20 ! 2/5 = 13/20  8/20 = 5/20 = 1/4
10. 7/18 + 5/9 = 7/18 + 10/18 = 17/18
11. 2/3 × 1/5 = 2/15
12. 4/7 × 3/4 = 3/7
13. 1/2 × 2 = 1
14. 3/5 × 4 = 12/5 = 2 2/5
15. 4/9 ÷ 2/3 = 4/9 × 3/2 = 2/3
16. 8/13 × 2/3 = 16/39
17. 12/15 × 3/5 = 36/75
18. 20/25 ÷ 4/5 = 20/25 × 5/4 = 4/5 × 5/4 = 1
19. 7/8 × 2/5 = 7/4 × 1/5 = 7/20
20. 14/21 ÷ 2/7 = 14/21 × 7/2 = 2/3 × 7/2 = 7/3 = 2 1/3

Decimals

1. 0.23 + 3.4 = 3.63

2. 5.75 ! 2.05 = 3.7
3. 6.1 ! 1.6 = 4.5
4. 0.018 + 0.045 = 0.063
5. 468.75 ! 192.5 = 276.25
6. 2.3 × 3.2 = 7.36
7. 0.007 × 2.18 = 0.01526
8. 5.2 ÷ 1.4 = 3.7143
9. 12.26 ÷ 0.04 = 306.5
10. 4.0 × 0.25 = 1

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Module 1.01 Basic Mathematics and Algebra Study Guide

Fraction/Decimal Conversion

1. 1/2 = 0.5
2. 2/5 = 0.4
3. 5/8 = 0.625
4. 12/25 = 0.48
5. 13/39 = 0.3̄
6. 7/16 = 0.4375

7. 0.125 = 125/1000 = 1/8

8. 0.6666 = 2/3
9. 4.25 = 4 25/100 = 4¼
10. 0.2 = 2/10 =1/5

Percent

1. 0.5 = 50%
2. 0.782 = 78.2%
3. 1.1 = 110%
4. 0.06 = 6%
5. 0.049 = 4.9%
6. 0.0055 = 0.55%

7. 65% = 0.65
8. 0.25% = 0.0025
9. 300% = 3
10. 0.09% = 0.0009

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Module 1.01 Basic Mathematics and Algebra Study Guide

Signed Numbers.

1. (!28) + (!51) = 79

2. (!2) + (!5) = 7
3. 40 + (!21) = 19
4. !87 + 50 = 37
5. 48 + (!27) = 21
6. 56 ! (!5) = 61
7. 81 ! 4 = 77
8. !48 ! (!2) = 46
9. !4(5) = 20
10. 6/(!3) = 2
11. 4 (!5) = 20
12. (!6)/(!3) = 2
13. (!6)/3 = 2
14. (!8)(!5) = 40
15. (!7)(6) = 42

Exponents

1. (32)(33) = 35
2. 75/73 = 72
3. (105)(106) = 1011
4. (106)(10-4) = 102
5. 6-4/6-3 = 6-1
6. 6-8/63 = 6-11

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Module 1.01 Basic Mathematics and Algebra Study Guide

Square Roots

1. 16  4
2. ! 81  !9
3. 144  12
4. 152  15
5. ( 6)2  6
6. ! 400  !20
7. 1
 1
64 8

8. 9 @ 49  32 @ 72  32 @ 72  3 @ 7  21
92
9. 81
 81
  9
 3
36 36 62 6 2

10. ! 625  ! 252  !25

Scientific Notation

1. (2 × 102)(3 × 102) = 6 × 104

2. (6 × 108)/(3 × 103) = 2 × 1011
3. (9 × 104)(!1 × 102) = 9 × 102
4. (3 × 107)(9 × 102) = 2.7 × 104
5. (7E2)(6E4) = 4.2E7
6. (5E!3)/(5E!2) = 1E 1

Order of Operations

1. 5 + (!3) @ (!2) ! 6 = 5 + 6  6 = 5
2. 18 ! [52 ÷ (7 + 6)] = 18  (52 ÷ 13) = 18  4 = 14
3. 19 ! 7 + 12 @ 2 ÷ 8 = 12 + 24 ÷ 8 = 12 + 3 + 15
4. 23 ! 20 ÷ 4 + 4 @ 3 = 8  5 + 12 = 3 + 12 = 15
5. 10 + 6(0.5)3 = 10 + 6(0.125) = 10 + 0.75 = 10.75
6. 33 + 10 ÷ 5 = 27 + 2 = 29
7. (8 + 4 @ 3)2 = (8 + 12)2 = 202 = 400
8. 7(42 ! 10) ÷ (12 @ ¾) = 7(16  10) ÷ 9 = 7(6) ÷ 9 = 42 ÷ 9 = 4.667
9. 7(6 ! 22) = 7(6  4) = 7(2) = 14
10. (57 ! 25)½ = (57  32)½ = 25½ = 5

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Module 1.01 Basic Mathematics and Algebra Study Guide

Algebra

1. x  3  10 2. 5  z  8
x  3  3  10  3 5  z  5  8  5
x  7 z  3

3. y 4.
 2
4
r
4 @
y
 2 @ 4  6
4 2
y  8 r
2 @  6 @ 2
2
r  12

5. 5(j  5)  45 6. 5d  25
5(j  5) 45 5d 25
 
5 5 5 5
j  5  9 d  5
j  5  5  9  5
j  4

7. 9n 2  81 8. a  6  6a  14
9n 2 81 6  5a  14
 6  5a  6  14 
9 9
5a  20
n2  9 5a 20

n2  9 5 5
n  3 a  4

9. a 2b  c 2d 10.
a 2b c 2d b c
 
b b a d
c 2d a @
b

c
@ a
a2 
b a d
ca
c 2d b 
a2  d
b ca
d @ b  @ d
c 2d d
a 
b db  ca
db ca

c c
db
 a
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Module 1.01 Basic Mathematics and Algebra Study Guide

11. 3x  14y  xy where x  5, y  2

3(5)  14(2)  5(2)
15  28  10
43  10
33

12. 4s  1
where s  3, t  10
6t  s
4(3)  1
6(10)  (3)
12  1
60  (3)
11
57

13. 16a  5b
where a  1, b  5
1  4a
16(1)  5(5)
1  4(1)
16  25
1  4
9
5
14
5

14. j
3i   0 where k  2, j  12, solve for i
1  k
12
3i   0
1  2
3i  4  0
3i  4
4
i 
3
i  11
3

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Module 1.01 Basic Mathematics and Algebra Study Guide

15. 7(2m  ¾n)  l  10 where m  ½ n  8, solve for l

7[2(½)  ¾(8)]  l  10
7(1  6)  l  10
7(5)  l  10
35  l  10
l  45

Logarithms

1. log 6.40 = 0.8062

2. log 0.5 = 0.301
3. log-1 16 = 1 × 1016
4. log-1 3.7846 = 6089.76
5. ln 86 = 4.45
6. ln 0.5 = 0.693
7. ln-1 0.695 = 2.004
8. ln-1 1 = e = 2.7182 . . .

9. 5  4x
log 5  log [4x]
log 5  (log 4)(x)
log 5
 x
log 4
0.69897
 x
0.60206
1.161  x

10. 23  6t
log 23  log [6t]
log 23  (log 6)(t)
log 23
 t
log 6
1.36173
 t
0.77815
1.74995  x

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Module 1.01 Basic Mathematics and Algebra Study Guide

11. 9  22(3y)
9
 3y
22
log 9  log [3y]
22
log 9
 (log 3)(y)
22
9
log
 y
22
log 3
!0.38818
 y
0.47712
!0.8136  y

12. 50  2000 ( 1 )n
2
50 n
 ( 1)
2000 2

0.025  (0.5)n
log 0.025  log [0.5 n]
log 0.025  (log 0.5)n
log 0.025
 n
log 0.5
!1.60206
 n
!0.30103
5.3219  n

1.01-56