FINAL REPORT

ETHIOPIA: Country Gender Profile

December 2006

WABEKBON Development Consultant PLC

This information presented here was gathered from on-site sources. Therefore, JICA is not
responsible for its accuracy.
 Table of Contents

1. BASIC PROFILE..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Socio – Economic Profile ................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Health Profile................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Education Profile ............................................................................................................. 4
2. GENERAL SITUATION OF WOMEN AND GOVERNMENT POLICY ON GENDER ................. 5
2.1 General Situation............................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Government Policy on Gender........................................................................................ 8
2.2.1 Legislation...................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Codes and subsidiary Laws........................................................................................... 8
2.2.3 Policies and Programs on Women/ Gender ................................................................ 10
2.3 National Machinery Entrusted with Women’s Issues .................................................... 15
2.3.1 Structures of Women's Affairs...................................................................................... 15
2.3.2 Other Relevant Organizations to women’s issues....................................................... 17
2.4 Political Participation ..................................................................................................... 18
2.4.1 Women in the Legislative Body ................................................................................... 18
2.4.2 Women in the Judiciary................................................................................................ 19
2.4.3 Women in the executive branch .................................................................................. 19
3. CURRENT SITUATION OF WOMEN BY SECTOR.................................................................. 20
3.1 Education ................................................................................................................ 20
3.1.1 General Situation ......................................................................................................... 20
3.1.2 Education Budget and Expenditure ............................................................................. 20
3.1.3 Gender in Education .................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Health ...................................................................................................................... 24
3.2.1 General Information ..................................................................................................... 24
3.2.2 Health Infrastructure .................................................................................................... 25
3.2.3 Women’s Current Health Status................................................................................... 26
3.2.4 Budget Allocation and Expenditure.............................................................................. 27
3.3 Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries ......................................................................... 28
3.3.1 General Information ..................................................................................................... 28
3.3.2 Land tenure.................................................................................................................. 29
3.3.3 Agricultural extension................................................................................................... 29
3.4 Economic Activities.................................................................................................. 31
3.4.1 Women and Micro-and Small Enterprises ................................................................... 31
3.4.2 Participation in labor .................................................................................................... 32
3.5 The Role of UN Organizations and NGOs in Improving Women Status ................. 34
3.5.1 United Nations (UN) Organizations ............................................................................. 34
3.5.2 Non-Governmental Organizations ............................................................................... 34
4. WID/GENDER PROJECTS BY DONORS ................................................................................ 36
5. GENDER INFORMATION SOURCES ...................................................................................... 38
5.1 List of Government, International Organizations, NGOs and Consultants ................... 38
5.2 List of Reports and References Related to Gender ...................................................... 43
References .................................................................................................................................... 45
Definitions ...................................................................................................................................... 47
Annexes: Basic Data .................................................................................................................... 49

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Abbreviations
BDS Business development support
CBR Crude Birth Rate
CDR Crude Death Rate
CERTWID Center for Research Training and Information on Women in
Development
CMR Child Mortality Rate
CPR Contraceptive Prevalence Rate
CSOs Civil Service Organizations
EPI Expanded Program for Immunization
ESDP Education Sector Development Program
EWLA Ethiopian Women Lawyers Association
FP Family Planning
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GER Gross Enrolment Ratio
HIV/AIDS Human Immuno Virus/Acquired Immuno Deficiency
Syndrome
HTPs Harmful Traditional Practices
IGS Institute of Gender Studies
IIRR International Institute of Rural Reconstruction
ILO International Labor Organization
IMR Infant Mortality Rate
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
MOARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
MOE Ministry of Education
MOFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
MOH Ministry of Health
MoTI-WAD Ministry of Trade and Industry- Women’s Affairs
Department
MoWA Ministry of Women’s Affairs
NCTPE National Committee for Traditional Practices Eradication
NEWA Network of Ethiopian Women’s Associations
NFE Non-formal Education
NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations
PADETES Participatory Demonstration and Training Extension Agents
PASDEP Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End
Poverty
PCDP Pastoral Community Development Project
PHS Primary Health Services
SACCO Saving and Credit Cooperatives
SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities, People Region
STIs sexually transmitted infections
TBA Traditional Birth Attendants
TFR Total Fertility Rate
TTCs Teacher Training College
TTIs Teacher Training Institute
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training

ii
UNDP United Nation Development Program

USD US Dollar
WABs Women Affairs Bureaus
WEAs Women Entrepreneurs’ Associations
WIDF Women Initiatives Development Fund

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1. BASIC PROFILE

1.1 Socio – Economic Profile

Table 1. Macroeconomic Indicators
Indicators 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05
Real GDP Growth (percent change) -0.3 -3.8 11.3 8.9
Overall inflation at country level -7.2 15.1 9.0 6.8
(percent )
Domestic Revenue (percent of GDP) 16.5 16.4 16.6 16.1
Total Public Expenditure (percent 26.5 29.1 24.1 25.4
GDP)
Official Exchange Rate (Birr/USD) 8.54 8.58 8.62 8.65
GDP at current market (Million Birr) 62,908.9 68,181.4 83,824.8 95,905.5

GDP at constant factor cost (Million 69,958.5 67,916.8 75,682.5 82,365.8

Birr)
Source: Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End Poverty
(PASDEP), Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, 2005.

Table 2. Structure of GDP

Indicators Year 2004/05

Real GDP Growth Rate 8.9
Agricultural GDP Growth rate 12
Primary School Completion Rate (percent ) 40
Primary School Enrolment (percent ) 79
Percent of Population with Access to Potable Water (0.5km) 42
Ratio of girls to Boys in Primary School 0.84
Infant Mortality Rate 97 per 1000
Maternal Mortality Rate (per 100,000) 871 per
100,000
Contraceptive Prevalence Rate 23

HIV/AIDS Prevalence rate 4.4

Primary Health Coverage with in 10 km 64
Surface Area (sq.km) 1.1 million
Source: PASDEP - Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, 2005.

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1.2 Health Profile
Table 3. Health Indicators
Indicator 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05
Total population 67,220,000 69,127,021 71,066,000 73,043,510
PHS Coverage
(percent ) 61 61.3 64 72.1
PHS Coverage
(percent )* 70.7 70.2 73.2 82.9
EPI Coverage
(percent )** 51.5 50.4 60.8 70.1
health Service
Utilization NA 0.29 0.36 0.3
CPR (percent ) 17.2 21.5 23 25.2
Antenatal Coverage
(percent ) 34.1 27.4 40.8 42.1
Number of Facilities

Hospitals 115 119 126 131

Health Centers 412 451 519 600
Health Stations 2452 2396 1797 1662
health Posts 1311 1432 2899 4211
Private Clinics 1235 1229 1299 1578
Pharmacies 311 302 275 276
Drug Shops 309 299 375 381
Rural Drug Vendors 1856 1888 1783 NA
Human Resources ( in service)

Physicians 1888 2032 1996 2453

health officers 484 631 683 776
Nurses 12838 14160 15544 18809
Health assistants 8149 6856 6628 6363
Para medicals 3824 4641 5215 6259
health Extension
Workers NA NA NA 2737
Human Resources (graduate)

Specialists 91 103 96 183

General Practitioners 152 182 193 309
health Officers 183 181 249 333
Nurses 1562 1465 2374 4236
Para medicals 656 1054 999 803
Health Extension
Workers NA NA 2737 7090
Source: Ministry of Health, Health and Health Related Indicators, 2005

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Table 4. Vital Statistics 2000-2005

CBR per CDR per IMR per CMR per Under 5

Region 1000 1000 TFR 1000 1000 MR per 1000
Tigray 40.4 13.7 5.8 102 73 148
Afar 33.8 11.6 4.9 99 114.9 145
Amhara 39.5 12.8 5.9 96 80 138
Oromia 41.6 12.9 6.4 98 87.9 142
Somilia 36.1 9.8 5.7 83 94.2 119
Ben-Gumuz 40 14.6 5.4 117 111 173
SNNPR 42.6 13.4 5.9 107 88.2 157
Gamgella 34.8 9.1 4.5 80 126 113
Hareri 35.6 12 4.4 93 82.4 135
Addis Ababa 22.7 7.6 1.9 61 35.4 83
Dire Dawa 37 11.7 3.6 94 78.4 136
National 39.9 12.6 5.9 96.8 84.5 140
Source: Ministry of Health, Health and Health Related Indicators, 2005.

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1.3 Education Profile

Table 5. Education Profile of Male and Female in Ethiopia

2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05
Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) of Primary (1-8) in (%)
Male 67.3 71.7 74.6 77.4 88.0
Female 47.0 51.2 53.8 59.1 71.5
Total 57.4 61.6 64.4 68.4 79.8
Gross Enrolment of Secondary School (9-10) in (%)
Male 16.1 20.4 24.0 28.2 34.6
Female 12.1 13.7 14.3 15.9 19.8
Total 14.1 17.1 19.3 22.1 27.3
Source: Ministry of Education, Educational Statistics Annual Abstract, 2004/05.

Table 6. Enrolment in Higher Education Institutions (Percent of male and Female)

Programs 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05

Diploma both at government and non government institutions

Male 74.1 73.5 69.5 61.2 73.5
Female 25.9 26.5 30.5 32.8 26.5
Total 100 100 100 100 100.0
Undergraduate Degree both in government and Non-government institutions
Male 84.8 84.1 81.9 79.3 76.0
Female 15.1 15.9 18.1 20.7 24.0
Total 100 100 100 100 100.0
Postgraduate second Degree in government institution
Male 92.5 92.7 93 93.2 90.8
Female 7.5 7.3 7 6.8 9.2
Total 100 100 100 100 100.0
Postgraduate PhD in government institutions
Male NA NA 100 100 93.6
Female NA NA 0 0 6.4
Total NA NA 100 100 100.0
Source: Ministry of Education, Educational Statistics Annual Abstract, 2004/05.

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2. GENERAL SITUATION OF WOMEN AND GOVERNMENT
POLICY ON GENDER

• Women constitute 49.8 percent of the total population of 73.1 million.

• Women's access to agricultural sector credit stood at 12 percent of
total.
• Fertility rate and maternal mortality are very high with the high
prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS, where due to variety of factors women are
more affected than men (4 percent female and 1 percent male).
• In 2004/05 the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at primary school (Grade
1-8) was 88 percent for boys and 72 percent for girls.

2.1 General Situation

With a total of 1.14 million square kilometres and a population of 73.1 million in
2004, Ethiopia stands as the ninth largest in size and the third most populous in
Africa. Women constitute 49.8 percent of the total population. About 16 percent
and 84 percent of the total population lives in the urban and rural areas
respectively.

Women in Ethiopia occupy low status in the society. In spite of their contributions
to the well being of their family and community affairs, women experience lower
socio-economic status in general and hence is marginalized from making
decisions at all levels. Women are facing multiple forms of deprivation. Gender-
based discrimination, lack of protection of basic human rights, violence, lack of
access to productive resources, education and training, basic health services,
and employment are widespread (National Committee for Traditional Practices
Eradication (NCTPE), 2003).

Ethiopian women suffer from work stereotype and gender distribution of labor,
more are occupy in economically invisible work. Women experience lower socio-
economic status in general and hence is marginalized from making decisions at
all levels. Nonetheless, women are poor in terms of access to resources,
services and employment. Regardless of women’s immense contribution, they
often lack productive assets particularly land, and are underserved with
agricultural extension, credit, labor, oxen and farm implements.
Women’s representation in the permanent employment of both regional and
federal civil services is also lower than men; in comparison to the large number
of unemployed women. The increase in the number of women employees over
the years is insignificant. Women’s employment in the formal sector both in
industries and the Civil Service is lower than men (NCTPE, 2003).
Credit services are linked to agricultural inputs, fertilizer, improved seeds and
pesticides, that are associated with land endowment and other resources
required for agricultural production, marginalizing poor farmers mainly women as
they are mainly known as resource poor. Women's access to agricultural sector

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credit stood at 12 percent of total (Ministry of Women Affairs (MoWA), 2005).
Women-owned business, by and large do not show growth in capital or change
in type of business. Income generating activities for women focus on small-scale
trade in urban, gardening, poultry production and some animal husbandry in
rural areas. Due to the lack of resources for the initial credit and savings
contributions, poor women do not benefit from the activities (ILO, 2005).

Girls’ enrolment in education at all levels is much lower than boys. Male’s
literacy rate is 49.9 percent while that of female is 26.6 percent (MoH, Health
and Health Related Indicators, 2004/2005). The illiteracy rate among young
women (15-24) is higher than among men. Out of the adults enrolled in Adult
and Non-formal education program run by government and non-governmental
organizations in Tigray and Oromia Regions women are constitute 30.9 percent
only. The GER of female at Primary and Secondary levels in the academic year
2004-2005 were 67.6 and 17.9 percent respectively, while Male’s GER in the
same levels were 80.4 and 28.3 percent respectively. The proportion of female
students admitted to institution of higher education in the academic year 2004-
2005 was only 24.4 percent. In the same academic year, only 24 percent of
females were enrolled in higher institutions for undergraduate degree program
(MoE, 2005).

Female education is hampered mainly by sexual division of labor, which confines

girls to household activities; by early marriage, by the unfavourable societal
attitude towards the education of girls; and by the restriction on their physical
movements in relation to the distance of the school from their homes. Parents
particularly the resource poor would rather invest in their sons, because boys are
perceived as bread winners and support for old parents, while girls are preferably
employed at the household (NCTPE, 2003).

The female child mortality rate is 4 percent higher than for boys. Higher mortality
rates are also observed particularly in the child-bearing (15-49 years) ages.
Maternal Mortality Rate of the country is estimated to be 871 per 10,000 live
births (MoH, 2005). Gender inequality and discrimination harm girls’ and
women’s health directly or indirectly through out their life cycle. Fertility rate and
maternal mortality are very high with the high prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS,
where due to variety of factors women are more affected than men (4 percent
female and 1 percent male). Unequal power relation between men and women
often limits women’s control over sexual activity and their ability to protect
themselves from unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases
including HIV/AIDS.

Poverty reinforced by cultural attitudes and practices cause high rate of girl
dropouts or non-enrolment, early marriage mainly for economic reasons or
forced to engage in commercial sex work. Lack of education and Harmful
Traditional Practices (HTPs) including early marriage, abduction, and large
family size, are factors affecting women's economic situation, and poverty is a
serious impediment to progress in all sectors (WAO/PMO, 2005).

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Women, apart from what they are inflicting on themselves in an effort of
complying with culture/tradition, are suffering from gender-based violence under
the guise of tradition and culture but condoned by society. Sexual abuse, rape,
marriage by abduction, early marriage, widow inheritance, and bride price, sexual
harassment and intimidation at work, educational institutions and working places
are common forms of violence faced by women in Ethiopia, which consequently,
violate women’s human rights.

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2.2 Government Policy on Gender

The major government policies on gender are constituted in the following:

• The 1995 FDRE Constitution,
• The revised Federal Family Code enacted on 4 July 2000 (Proc.
213/2000),
• Labor and Public Service proclamations (Labor Law: Proclamation
377/2003: Art. 87);
• Land Use Administration Laws (Art. 5 and 10 of Proc. 89/97) ;
• Laws on Violence against Women enforced since July 2004.

Ethiopia has received the Convention on Elimination of Discrimination Against

Women (CEDAW) and signed on 8 July, 1980 and ratified on 10 December 1981
(State and Parties of the Convention, UNICEF, UNIFEM). There are other
international conventions as well, which deal with specific problems of women.
Ethiopia has also ratified the International Convention on Civil and Political
Rights, the Convention for the Suppression of Traffic in Person and the
Exploitation of Prostitution of others (Hadra Tesfay, March 1999).

2.2.1 Legislation

2.2.1.1 The Federal and Regional Constitutions

The Federal Constitution of 1995 has unshelved the age old discriminatory laws
and practices. The constitution in its Article 35 (3) took a historic measure on
gender equality in a country where history vexed with traditions and religious
matters made women to suffer due to their sex. Further this provision has
recognized women’s right to affirmative action and provides special attention to
enable competition and participation in all spheres of life as well as exercise their
democratic and human rights on equal grounds with men.

Regional constitutions which by and large resemble and operate within the
general framework of the Federal constitution have also addressed the question
of gender equality meticulously.

2.2.2 Codes and subsidiary Laws

2.2.2.1 Family Laws
The revised Federal Family Code enacted on 4 July 2000 (Proc. 213/2000) is a
significant legal document. The Revised Family Code deals with equality
between sexes in their interaction concerning marriage related issues. As
provided by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) constitution,
Regional States have their family laws. Thus far, Tigray, Amhara, Oromiya, and
Southern Nations, Nationalities, People (SNNP) regions have issued their own
Family Laws; most of these laws are similar with the federal family code. Both
the federal and regional family codes have made marriage 18 years for both
sexes.

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2.2.2.2 Labour and Employment Laws

In accordance to Labor and Public Service proclamations, women are not to be

discriminated against as regards employment and payment on the grounds of
sex; special protection is accorded to pregnant women (Labor Law: Proclamation
377/2003: Art. 87); No sex-based discrimination and female candidates are
given preferential treatment to fill vacancies (Public Servants Proclamation
262/2002: Art. 13); Widow’s and widowers have been given equal status in
pensions (Proc. 190/99) by amending Article 4 of the Public servant law of the
1962 that discriminated women concerning pension.

2.2.2.3 Federal Land Use Administration Laws

Land Use Administration Laws are all enacted in conformity to the constitutional
laws (Art. 5 and 10 of Proc. 89/97 of the Federal Land Administration Law)
ensured equal rights of women in respect to the use, administration and control
of land with respect to transferring and bequeathing holding rights.

In accordance to Proclamation of Rural Land No.42/75 which is still enforceable,

land is the property of the People of Ethiopia, where the government
representing the people is assuming ownership of land, and entitled an individual
farmer a usufruct right only. Nonetheless, the incumbent government has
promulgated a Federal Rural Land Administration Proclamation No. 89/97, has
entitled farmers to use and transfer rural land but not sale it.

Further, to the 1995 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Constitution under

Article 35 that has entitled women to have the right to acquire, administer,
control, use and transfer of property, this proclamation has explicitly stated that,
women have equal rights with men with respect to use, transfer, administer and
control of land as well as men farmers

The Federal Rural Land Administration Proclamation No.89/97 has provisions for
gender sensitive regarding women’s equal access to land. It states that the land
administration law of a Region shall confirm the equal rights of women regarding
the use, administration and control of land as well as in respect of transferring
and bequeathing holding rights [(Art. 6(10)]. It also provides for women’s
participation in decisions on land allocations. There are new regional initiatives
that address some of the problems of rural women in terms of access to land.
Land administration laws have been promulgated in Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR,
and Tigray paying attention to women’s equal rights to land (Mehari Redae,
2003).

In Tigray, the proclamation states that a male with the age of twenty-two and a
female with the age of sixteen are entitled to get rural land at least for purposes
of residence (Art.17). In Amhara, entitlement to land applies to both sexes with

9
the age of 18 years (Art.5). In Oromia, an inhabitant of the Oromia region of both
sex whose age is 18 or above, and whose livelihood depends on agriculture is
entitled to rural land [(Art. 5(1)]. By so doing the legislations have given women
equal rights with men wit respect to use, administration and control of land.

Two of the regional states (Amhara and Tigray), have further issued
Implementing Regulation and Directives and have already undertaken land
redistribution and re-allocation activities accordingly (Mehari Redae, 2003), while
the rest two (SNNPR and Oromia) have not yet issued implementing regulations
and directives, the other two regions (Oromia and SNNP have not issued
implementing regulations and directives yet women’s right to land is not realized
on the ground (WAO/PMO, 2005)

2.2.2.4 Laws on Violence against Women

The 1957 Penal Code has been revised to incorporate provisions for violence
against women and improve the existing ones, and is enforced since July 2004.
Issue like female genital mutilation is penalized. Other Harmful Traditional
Practices (HTP) are penalized; Domestic Violence is introduced in the HTP (has
attracted attention); Abortion is still illegal but the grounds for a legally
sanctioned abortion is outlined; Rape, sexual abuses, abduction have merited
tougher and graver penalties. Trafficking for prostitution purposes and forced
labor is punishable.

2.2.3 Policies and Programs on Women/ Gender

(i) FDRE Constitution

The Constitution stresses on the importance of gender inequality as a basic
requirement for the full realization of all other rights and human freedoms. It has
also devoted a separate provision dealing with the rights of women and aiming at
addressing the widely prevalent gender biased attitudes and practices. Related
sub-articles of Article 35 with the issue under discussion are;

ƒ 35/1 – equal enjoyment of all constitutional rights and protections

ƒ 35/2 – equal rights in marriage
ƒ 35/3 – entitlement to affirmative action/measures
ƒ 35/4 – protection from harmful traditional practices
ƒ 35/5 – right to maternity leave with full pay
ƒ 35/6 – right to consultation in projects affecting their lives
ƒ 35/7 – property rights (to acquire, administer, control, use and transfer)
ƒ 35/8--right to equality in employment (promotion, pay, pension
entitlements)
ƒ 35/9 –right of access to family planning education, information and
capacity.

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(ii) National Women’s Policy
The National Ethiopian Women’s Policy that was enacted in 1993 has mapped
out the problems of Ethiopian women in all field of development and identified
the patriarchal system as the root cause that exposed women to political,
economic and social discrimination which is reinforced by traditional practices
that give credence to cultural/religious norms and values over women’s human
rights.
The policy has indicated the status of women in relation to their roles of
sustaining the household that consequently hampers their access to social
services, public affairs, access to and control over property; the plight of women
accrued to harmful traditional practices has been identified as an area that needs
a concerted effort by all stakeholders.

To fight back all discrimination against women and ascertain equality of men and
women the policy has established institutional machineries in all government
structures up to the grass root level.

(iii) National Plan of Action for Gender- Equality (NAP-GE)

The National Plan of Action for Gender Equality is prepared in congruence to the
Plan of Action for Sustainable Development and Eradication of Poverty
(PASDEP) development direction hence amenable to be incorporated in the
implementation process of PASDEP.

The plight of women assessed and major gaps are identified as follows: their
vulnerability to poverty, lack of access to and control over critical resources and
ownership of property including lack of decision-making rights; their extended
labor time and workload; their vulnerability to traditional harmful practices; low
status of women and being considered as subservient to men’s needs and
interest regardless of the consequences on the health or psychological
conditions; low girls Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) rate and high chances of
becoming pray to HIV/AIDS pandemic; absence of appropriate and viable
institutional mechanisms has been recognized as serious constraints to the
implementation of policies and has hampered efforts towards gender equality.

To curve these and empower women the following are identified as strategies of
achieving gender equality: (i) Promotion of women’s participation in development
economic policies, (ii) improving the lives of women and reducing their work load
are areas given priority, while developing and implementing a guideline on
environmental management and women in pastoral areas; (iii)Increasing girl’s
access to education (iv) Strengthening non formal education program for
women;(v) eradication of traditional practices harmful to women’s health; (vi)
Improving health care services; (vii) Implementing gender-sensitive HIV/AIDS
prevention(viii) Carry out massive and systematic training and awareness
campaigns on national laws, policies as well as international on gender equality
(MoWA, 2005).

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(iv) Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End Poverty
(PASDEP 2005/2006-09/10)

Under chapter IV of the Strategy document entitled under-cutting issues, gender

is given a due attention and dealt with as follows: “Unleashing the potential of
Ethiopia’s 35 million women is central to the PASDEP strategy”. PASDEP
involves librating women from low productivity tasks, and increasing their
participation in the workforce and social and political process of the country. The
measures to achieve this include the major push to increase girl’s and women’s
education, to improve access to water supply and sanitation, to focus on
services related to mothers and women’s health, and to adopt agricultural
programs and technical and vocational training to the needs of women. In
addition safeguarding rights such as access to land, credit, and other productive
resources are central to the strategy (MOFED, 2005).

Targets aimed at alleviating poverty like increasing contraceptive prevalence rate,

and delivery attended by skilled attendants, decreasing teenage pregnancy and
unsafe abortion, integrating the National Women Policy as well as the NAP –GE
are supportive to the promotion of gender equality by relieving women of their
burden and promoting empowerment.

In this regard, areas of focus are girls’ and women education; employment of
female health extension workers; strengthening programs like agriculture
extension, small scale credit, petty trading and environment protection in a way
they suit for women; mainstreaming gender in all sectors; improving water
provision services; focusing on women’s health care services; ensuring the land
rights of women creating awareness on violence committed against women and
growing the share of women candidates for the upcoming election.

(v) Health policy

The existing policy was issued in 1993, and gave priority for the health of women
and children. The policy strategy depicts that family health services shall be
promoted by assuring adequate maternal health care and referral facilities for
high- risk pregnancies.
The HIV/AIDS policy of 1998 recognizes the increased vulnerability of women
and youth to the infection as well as gender inequality as a contributing factor to
its spread. The policy acknowledges the need for women to have access to
information and recognizes women's empowerment and decision making as
essential components for the prevention of the pandemic. The policy
recommends that women and youth be the main parties in planning strategies of
prevention, and commercial sex workers be given priority in awareness creation
and education.

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(vi) Education Policy

The Ethiopian Education and Training policy was issued in 1994 1. Following the
Education policy, three Education Sector Development Program (ESDP) were
developed for translating the policy statement into action. The programs goals
relating to gender equity include: Increasing primary enrolment ratio, increase
girls’ share of enrolment in primary schools; Improve the quality of educational
facilities; and improving teachers training; Reform the curricula to make it
relevant and gender sensitive; Reduce the drop out rate and repetition rate of
girls by half, and increase the number of schools especially in rural areas.

ESDP III that runs from 2005/06-2009/10 is a programme to implement the

Education and Training Policy; with targets for improved access, quality,
efficiency, and equity. It indicates that admission, completion, and transition
rates of girls will be increased to reach those of boys. A number of steps are
outlined to achieve equality including the placement of contextually relevant
measures to prevent social and cultural barriers to girls’ education; creating girls-
friendly environment; providing curricula, textbooks, and teaching materials that
are free of gender bias; ensuring presence of female role models as teachers,
head teachers, and managers encouraging girls to join non-traditional fields in
Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) programmes; and
continuing affirmative action in Teacher Training Institute (TTIs), Teacher
Training College (TTCs), and other higher educational institutions (MOWA,
2005).

(vii) Food Security Strategy

The food security strategy envisages provision of seed, fertilizer, and agricultural
tool to poor farmers and extending credit services to destitute women to help
them develop sustainable livelihood through cooperatives and other private
sector initiatives; improving nutrition for children under five years of age,
pregnant and lactating mothers is within the development objectives of the
strategy.

(viii) Micro and Small Enterprise (MSE)

Given the significant lack of capacity in the public sector and large scale private
enterprise to absorb new entrants into the labor force, the role to be played by
the Micro and Small Scale Enterprises is critical for a country like Ethiopia.
Accordingly, Ethiopia has adopted a Micro and Small Enterprise development
strategy in 1997. The strategy makes a particular reference to the importance of
addressing gender-based inequalities in access to credit, business services and
training technology and information. However, there is little evidence of concrete
policy measures or programs to address the particular barriers faced by women-

1
Please note that all years are in Gregorian Calendar

13
owned MSEs, and virtually no provision has been made to facilitate growth-
oriented women entrepreneurs (ILO, 2005).

(ix) Water Sector Development Strategy

The Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy of 1999 and the Ethiopian
Water Sector Strategy of 2001 have the objectives of “making clean drinking
water available” and “water sanitation purpose” for both urban and rural
community and incorporate gender mainstreaming as one of its components.
The purpose is to relieve women from the burden of collecting water from
distance. It enhances active participation of women by involving them in
community based water management projects through increased capacity
building.

14
2.3 National Machinery Entrusted with Women’s Issues

• The main national machinery entrusted with women’s issues is the

Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MoWA) that was established in October
2005.
• The MoWA has structure at regional, Woreda, and sectors
department levels.
• The Women’s Affairs at the federal level is a member of the council
of ministers.

2.3.1 Structures of Women's Affairs

The Ministry of Women Affairs (MOWA) has been established at the Federal
level. Similarly, Women’s Affairs Bureaus (WAB) were established at regional
level in all the regions in Ethiopia. At Zonal and district levels, the women’s
affairs offices were also established.

Currently, the Ministry of Women’s Affairs is a member of the council of ministers.

With the exception of Addis Ababa City Administration Women’s Affairs, all the
rest regional Women’s Affairs are members of the executive body of the
respective regions.

The Women’s Affairs Standing Committee, of the Council of Peoples

Representatives is the other institutional machinery established to oversee the
inclusion of women’s interest and needs in policies and laws enacted by the
parliament. Each parliamentarian Standing Committee has a women member so
that women’s issues will be tabled in the deliberation of the committees. There
seems a deliberate move of assigning a woman deputy chair person to most
standing committees as well. A women parliamentarian Caucus is under
formation.

2.3.1.1 The Ministry of Women’s Affairs

The Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MoWA) was established in October 2005 and
got its force by proclamation No. 471/2005. The ministry is entrusted with the
responsibility of initiating recommendations on the protection of the rights and
interest of women at national level and follow-up their implementation; ensuring
the gender sensitivity of policies, legislations development programs of the
federal government; ensuring the creation of that opportunities for women to take
part in development process; identifying discriminatory practices that affect
women and submitting recommendation to its effect; submitting
recommendations on the application of affirmative measures; ensuring that
adequate attention is given to place women to decision-making positions in
various government organs and undertaking studies to promote the well-being
of mothers and children and implanting the same in cooperation with other
organs are the main ones (Proc. No. 471/2005).

15
The Women’s Affairs Ministry has an administrative structure with four technical
departments: Gender Mainstreaming; Women’s Policy and strategy execution
follow-up; Mother and Children; and Capacity Building and Participation, that
constitute eleven teams, while there are eight sectors embodied in the structure
to facilitate the smooth running of the ministry. The human power has increased
accordingly and the ministry has a total 54 technical and 81 support staff
although some positions are not yet occupied. Likewise the human power of the
regional Women’s Affairs has increased as well.

2.3.1.2 Women's Affairs Departments (WAD) in Federal Offices

The women's affairs departments are entities in ministries, commissions,
agencies or authorities, whose main function is the mainstreaming of gender in
the formulation and implementation of development plans in their respective
institutions. The general objectives of the WADs were derived from the national
policy on women, and the specific objectives formulated by harmonizing the
objectives of a specific institution, with those of the national policy.

2.3. 1.3 Women’s Affairs at Regional levels

The women’s affairs structure is established at regional, zonal, Wereda, and
Kebele levels, all linked only informally, and each having a line of command with
their respective Administrative bodies, (council at regional, Woreda, and Kebele
levels). Regional Women Affairs Bureaus (WABs) report to the President. The
functions of WABs are also mainstreaming gender in development plans and
implementation in their respective regions. Woreda and Kebele offices have the
same objectives as the above structures.

Issues like placement of the structures, at a position where they cannot be part
of decision making, and continuously being placed at lower levels; Financial and
human resources limitations; Lack of clarity of the mandates of the women's
affairs structures; Absence of strong networking and collaboration with sector
bureaus, NGOs, Civil Service Organizations (CSOs), and community are the
major constraints that dwindles the roles to be played by Women’s Affairs.

16
2.3.2 Other Relevant Organizations to women’s issues

2.3.2.1 Institute of Gender Study

Institute of Gender Studies (IGS) has succeeded Center for Research Training
and Information on Women in Development (CERTWID). Like its predecessor,
the IGS is established by Addis Ababa University and is engaged in training
qualified professionals in gender issues at graduate level, further the institute is
conducting research, collects and document material on gender issues and
made them available to users. It also encourages university staff and students
of all levels to write their graduation papers on gender related issues.

2.3.2.2 Women’s Associations

There are also civil society such as Ethiopian Women Entrepreneurs Association,
and National Association for the Handicapped Women addressing the specific
needs of women. The National Committee for the Eradication of Harmful
Traditional Practices, besides researching on harmful traditional practices has
been playing major roles in changing the attitude, knowledge and practice of the
various target audience. It has a strong networking with inter Africa traditional
committee and donor organizations through which it has evolved into a strong
advocacy and lobbying forum recently.

At grassroots level women have also formed associations to get access to credit,
training, and get self-employment or create various activities that are productive
and beneficiary. They also look for sources of fund and have projects that
improve their lives and satisfy their basic needs (WAO/PMO, 1999).

2.3.2.3 Professional Women’s Associations

Women of a given profession have Professional women associations that are

functional in Ethiopia including Women Health Association, Women Lawyers
Association, Women Educationalist Association, Association of Disabled Women,
women Media Association Ethiopian Midwives Association, Network of Ethiopian
Women’s Associations (NEWA) are working both on ensuring the interest of their
members and alleviate the age old problems women are made to suffer.

The National Committee for the Eradication of Harmful Traditional Practices,

besides researching on harmful traditional practices has been playing major
roles in changing the attitude, knowledge and practice of the various target
audience. It has a strong networking with inter Africa traditional committee and
donor organizations through which it has evolved into a strong advocacy and
lobbying forum recently.

17
2.3.2.4 Women Initiatives Development Fund (WIDF)

The Women Development Initiative Fund is currently accountable top Women’s

Affairs Ministry. It was established to support women particularly rural women to
engage in income generating activities. Its mission is empowering women
economically through engaging them in micro economic activity. The project is
established through the joint funding of Ethiopian and the Italian government.
The Organization has commenced its activity in 2001 and anticipated to run for
five years. It is adopting the Bangladesh Grameen Bank system to reach it clients.
It has branch offices in all regions. Furthermore, the organization is engaged in
awareness creation activities to its target groups accordingly issues like
HIV/AIDS, gender and development nutrition, environment and family planning
are among issue on which members of an income generating groups are
discussing with the facilitation of the Organization.

2.4 Political Participation

• In May 2005 election, out of the 547 of the federal parliament seats,
women have contested for 275 or 50 percent seats and 45 percent
of the contesters have won parliament seats.
• Currently, 22 percent of the federal legislative body is represented
by women.
• In all the twelve parliamentary standing committees, women are
counting 24 percent of the total members of the committees.
• Of the total of 65 high level (ministerial, sub-ministerial and
commission) executive positions women are holding only 14
percent. While the number of women ministers is only 2.

2.4.1 Women in the Legislative Body

Women are the majority voter. Nonetheless their initiation to run for public office
is very much low in the first and second elections. This situation has changed
tremendously in the third national election conducted in May 2005. Numerically,
women’s representation in both federal and regional legislative bodies has shown
a tremendous improvement.

According to the information released by the National Election Board, Out of the
547 of the federal parliament seats, women have contested for 275 or 50
percent seats and 45 percent of the contesters have won parliament seats.
Currently, 22 percent of the federal legislative body is represented by women.
This number is a tripled of women parliamentarians that won the second election.

In all the twelve parliamentary standing committees women are counting 24

percent of the total members of the committees, while 17 and 42 percent of the
chair and deputy chair person are women respectively.

Like wise, out of the 1957 seats of regional and City council (Addis Ababa in this
case) women have contested for 825 or 42 percent of the regional seats and won

18
509 (62 percent) seats. Consequently, out of the 1957 of regional and city
councils seats women are holding 26 percent. The wereda Level council
members election has not take place yet (IIRR, 2006).

2.4.2 Women in the Judiciary

The presence of in the Judiciary is limited. Nonetheless, increasing the number

of women Judges is of paramount importance to women that are seeking justice
at the court of law. Women are more comfortable with their likes and easily open-
up and trust women judge than men. Though the number of women judge is not
adequate, it is on the increase. In 2000/01 women were representing 8.7 percent
the judges of federal and regional levels, while it was 9.9 percent and 14.5
percent in 20001/02 and 2002/03 respectively. About 28.4 percent of the federal
judges were women while they are representing 32.2 percent of the judges of the
Federal First Instant Courts (IIRR, 2006).

2.4.3 Women in the executive branch

Of the total of 65 high level (ministerial, sub-ministerial and commission)

executive positions, women are holding only nine positions. While the number of
women ministers is only 2, the rest are holding sub-ministerial positions.

Likewise, out of the total number of 1251 decision-making positions, women are
holding 22 percent, while their representation in the various leadership and
decision-making position (Department, Division, and section) of the Political,
Economic and Social sectors is 14, 13 and 16 percent respectively. 11 percent of
the leadership position of the law enforcing body (Police and Prosecutor) is filled
by women (IIRR, 2006).

19
3. CURRENT SITUATION OF WOMEN BY SECTOR

3.1 Education

• Women's educational attainment and skills acquisition was significantly lower

than men's at all levels.
• The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in 2004/05 for primary education was
72 percent for girls and 88 percent for boys.
• The GER in 2004/05 for First cycle secondary education was 20 percent for
girls and 35 percent for boys; while that of second cycle secondary education
enrolment for girls was 27 percent.
• About 24 percent of the total of 191,165 students enrolled in higher education
institutions in all programs in 2004/05 was women.

3.1.1 General Situation

The government of Ethiopia with an anticipation of correcting the social injustice

prevalent in the education sector, has issued the Educational and Training Policy
in 1994. The goal of the policy is to restructure and expand the education system,
make it more relevant to the present and future needs of the society and attain
universal primary education by the year 2015. One of the main areas of focus is
the expansion of equitable access to primary education and vocational training in
order to meet the demand for the country’s economic and social development.
More importantly, the policy gives due consideration to female education and has
set goals to that effect (Hadera Tesfay, 1999).

In spite of the government’s concerted effort which recently is reinforced by

private, NGOs, Communities and faith-based organization, there still exists a gap
in demand and supply, there are school age children out of school, gender,
urban- rural and regional disparities and low school facilities (particularly those
that are gender friendly) and a decrease in girls enrollment at higher level
learning institutions are what currently characterize the education sector. Under
such circumstances, rural areas and girls are specially disadvantaged as regards
enrolment, attendance, performance, dropping out and repetition.

3.1.2 Education Budget and Expenditure

The total expenditure of the sector which was Birr 2.17 billion in 2000/01 and
increased to Birr 4.64 billion in 2004/05, which is a remarkable increase within
five years. The total share of the education and training expenditure out of the
total government expenditure for the year 2004/05 was 17 percent while the
target set for the year 2004/05 was 19 percent (MOE, Education Statistics
2004/05).

20
3.1.3 Gender in Education
Women's educational attainment and skills acquisition was significantly lower than
men's at all levels.

3.1.3.1 Adult and Non-formal education

Out of the total number enrolled in Adult and Non-Formal education program run by
government and non-governmental organizations in Tigray and Oromia regions
women’s enrolment is 30.8 percent against 69.2 percent for men. Despite the high
number of out of school women and girls and cost effectiveness of Non Formal
Education (NFE), and the benefits to women, their participation and success rate is
much lower than men in 2004/05.

3.1.3.2 Primary Schools (grade 1-8)

The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in 2004/05 for primary education was 71.5
percent for girls and 88 percent for boys; with a wide regional variation, widest in
Somali and Afar. The same trend is observed in the first and second cycle
secondary schools. The proportion of female teachers has grown from 30 percent
in 2000/01 to 35.6 percent in 2004/05 (MoE, 2005).

Nonetheless, schools of all levels are expanding. As the centers for basic and
alternative education are expanding, the growth in enrollment rate in the
alternative basic education is showing an increase. There is a noticeable
increase in gross enrollment rate in primary education (the national average for
the academic year 2004/05 is 79.9 percent), but the enrollment rate for the same
level of education in Pastoral regions of Afar with 20.9 percent and Somali 23.3
percent is an area of concern to reckon.

3.1.3.3 Secondary Schools

The GER in 2004/05 for First cycle secondary education (grade 9-10) was 19.8
percent for girls and 34.6 percent for boys. The preparatory program started in
2001. The total number of students enrolled in grades 11 and 12 in 2004/05 was
92,483 and out of the total enrolment 25,070 (27.1 percent) were girls (MOE, 2005).

3.1.3.4 Technical Education and Vocational Training

Technical and Vocational Education Training was started in 2000/01. There are
more than 30 courses under six categories: Business, Construction, Industrial,
Water technology, Extension Package and Home Sciences streams. In Technical
and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), female students outnumber men,
but the areas of training are mainly those typically considered as fit to women's role.
Attempts to break away from traditional areas in TVET are hindered by the inability
to find employment because of employers' preference for men (WAO/PMO, 2005).

21
In the year 2004/05 there were 108 government and 91 non-government TVET
schools in the country enrolling a total of 106,336 students. The government-run
TVET’s enrolled 45,417 regular students while 17,629 regular students were
enrolled in non-governmental institutions. The share of female enrolment has
reached 54,396 (51.2 percent) in the same year from that 23.4 percent in 2000/01.
The number of TVET schools has shown a noticeable increase. The 48 TVET
schools of 2000/01 have increased to 199 TVET schools in 2004/05, (MoE,
2004/05)

During the same year, there were also 25 government TVET centers run by the
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development enrolling a total of 42, 175 students
out of which 37,411 were males and 4, 764 (11.3 percent)females (MoE,204/05).

The Teachers Training Institutions (TTI) Certificate Program enrolled 8,808 trainees
in regular and evening programs in the year 2004/05 out of which 3,721 (42 .2
percent) were females. A total of 1,339 trainees enrolled in Teachers Training
College (TTC), Diploma Program, in government and non-government Colleges in
2004/05 out of the total enrolment in TTC 287 (21.4 percent) were females (MoE,
2005).

Table 7. TVET Enrolment by Field of Specializations

Field/specialization Total Female %male %female
Secretarial Science 6784 6595 12.8 97.2
Food Preparation 668 476 28.7 71.3
House management, Keeping 126 79 37.3 62.7
hair dressing and Beautification 450 405 10 90
Wood Work, 1262 229 81.9 18.1
Road Construction 705 144 79.6 20.4
Building Construction 2636 602 77.2 22.8
Electricity, 3495 773 77.9 22.1
Auto Mechanics 2975 206 93.1 6.9
Machine Technology 847 148 82.5 17.5
Gymnastics and Athletics 18 2 89 11
Source: MoE, Educational Statistical Annual Abstract 2004/05

3.1.3.5 Higher Education

22
In 2004/05 a total of 191,165 students (24.4 percent women), was enrolled in
higher education institutions in all programs- Diploma, Undergraduate Degree,
Post graduate second Degree and Post Graduate PHD in Regular, Evening
Kiremet (summer and Distance for both government and Non-government
institutions).

The number of women is inversely related to the levels of education. The number
of women in Diploma program is higher than in other subsequent programs.
Women constitute 26.5 percent of the diploma program, 24.0 percent in
Undergraduate degree program, 9.2 percent in Postgraduate second degree
program and 6.4 percent in Postgraduate PHD programs, and the percentage of
women graduates in the same year from all programs was 23.6.

3.1.3.6 Impediments of girls’ participation in education

Women's and girls' access to education was constrained by lack of awareness of
policies, guidelines and programs; Socio-economic and socio-cultural problems
comprising of poverty, HIV/AIDS, workload in the house, early marriage and
parents preference to educate their sons; School distance; Sexual harassment;
Girls' shyness and feeling of discomfort to participate with men; Lack of role models
due to the small number of female teachers in schools, and smaller number in
leadership. Relative to other sectors, however, a lot has been done in education to
close the gender gap at various levels.

23
3.2 Health

• Primary Health Service coverage in Ethiopia is 72 percent.

• HIV/AIDS prevalence is 4.4.
• Morbidity rate among women is higher (76 percent for women an
23 percent for men).
• Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) is 871/100,000, and is one of the
highest in Africa.
• Current use of Family Planning of any method is 11 percent.
• Total fertility rate at national level is at 5.4 while it is 2.4 and 6 in
urban and rural areas respectively.

3.2.1 General Information

The health problems largely attributed to preventable infectious ailment and

nutritional deficiencies. Infectious and communicable disease account for about
60-80 percent diseases. There is a very high-unmet health needs in rural
Ethiopia that needs to be addressed through rapid expansion of Primary Health
Care (PHC) services (MoH, Health Indicators, 2004/05).

The top ten diseases in Ethiopia are malaria, Helminthes, Tuberculosis,

Bronchopneumonia, Gastritis and Duodenitis, Acute Upper respiratory infections,
Inflammatory diseases of eye, infections of skin and subcutaneous tissues, All
other respiratory diseases, and Diarrhoea. The cases of the top ten diseases
constitute 50.2 percent of the total of all diagnosis diseases registered in 2004/05
(MOH, 2004//05).

Table 8. Cases of the Top Ten Diseases in Ethiopia

Diseases Percent
Malaria 16.6
Helminthes 7
Tuberculoses 4.5
Bronhopneumonia 4.3
Gastritis and Duodentitis 3.9
Acute upper respiratory infections 3.9
Inflammatory disease of eye 2.7
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissues 2.4
Respiratory Diseases 2.7
Diarrhoea 2.2
Total of the top ten diseases 50.2
Source: MOH, Health Indicator, 2004/2005

24
3.2.2 Health Infrastructure

The health service system has a four tire structure: Referral Hospital, Health
Center, Health Station and Health Post. There are 131 Hospitals, 600 Health
Centers, 1,662 Health Stations, 4,211 Health Posts and 1,578 Private Clinics all
over the country.

In year 2004/05, the total number of health professionals working in the sector is
48,597 out of which 23.2 percent is constituted by women health professionals.
The women profile from the total health professional is shown on Table 9.

Table 9. Health Professionals by Gender

Profession Government NGO Private Total
Both Female Both Female Both Female Both
sexes sexes sexes sexes
Physician 1431 125 578 71 444 48 2453

Health Officer 702 69 42 4 32 3 776

Pharmacist 139 9 31 5 21 5 191

Nurse 17413 6214 912 586 484 396 18809

Environmental health 1,286 134 19 2 7 0 1312

Lab. Technician 2183 252 355 71 299 59 2837

Radiographer 401 49 51 9 39 6 491

Pharm. Technician 1326 161 62 15 40 15 1428

Health Assistant 5215 1344 704 195 444 115 6363

Field level Health Worker 11158 1256 42 31 0 0 11200

FLHW*
Health Extension worker 2737 NA 0 0 0 0 2737
-
Total 43,991 9,613 2796 989 1810 647 48,597

Source: Compiled from 2004/05 Health indicators, MoH, 2005

* includes CHA, TBA & PHW

Government is employing 90.5 percent of the health professionals, while the

NGO and Private sectors are employing 5.8 and 3.7 percent respectively.
Female heath professionals account 23.2 percent of the total health
professionals. Of the 2,453 total physicians that made 5.3 percent of the total
professionals female physicians are 10.8 percent only. Of the total number of
health personnel, Field level Health workers (Traditional Birth Attendant,
Community Health Workers and Primary Health Workers) are covering 24.4
percent of the health personnel out of which 11.5 percent is accounted by female.

25
Table 10. Professionals to Population Ratio in year 2004/05
Professionals Ratio
Physician to population ratio 1:29,777
Physician and health officer to population ratio 1:22,621
Senior nurse to population ratio 1:6,945
Senior and Junior Nurses to population ratio 1:3,883
Environmental Health Workers to population ratio 1:55,673
Health Extension worker to population ratio 1: 26,687
Source: MOH, Health Indicator, 2004/2005

Health service coverage with health center, health station and health post was 72
percent at national level. The service of the private clinics is calculated to raise
the national potential health coverage by 11 percent.

3.2.3 Women’s Current Health Status

The health status of the people particularly women is poor, influenced by the higher
rate of illiteracy and poverty among women which has hindered their access to
health services, information and decision making in health matters. Even though
knowledge about reproductive rights was equally low among both men and women,
due to men’s access to and control over resources; as well as decision-making
capacity and their frequent interaction outside of their home sphere, men had better
access to services and information with regards to health and HIV/AIDS. This is
because men have better access to health information, better control over
resources, and better decision making power over resources at household level
than women.

Morbidity rate among women is higher (76 percent for women and 23 percent for
men). Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) is 871/100,000, and is one of the highest in
Africa.

The Maternal Health Service coverage in 2004/05 is:

• antenatal service coverage is 42.1 percent,
• all attended delivery coverage is 12.4 percent
• Health postnatal service coverage is 13.6 percent.

There is wide regional variation in health services delivery; Afar, Oromia and
Somali are in worse situations. The majority of women deliver at home. Absence of
services is widespread in the country (MOH, 2004//05).
Access to Family Planning (FP) and choice of methods remains severely limited.
About 36 percent of women needed FP for both spacing and limiting the number of
children, but the unmet need for FP is at 34 percent. Women are not able to decide

26
alone on FP. Only one in four women is able to decide without their husbands'
approval. Current FP of any method is 11 percent.

Total fertility rate at national level is at 5.4 while it is 2.4 and 6 in urban and rural
areas respectively. About 19 percent of the married women aged 15-49 do not
want to have children. None use of FP is influenced by limited access to
information and services, the husband's disapproval and community perception
(MOH, 2004//05).

Women's health status is also deeply affected by Female Genital Mutilation (FGM),
early marriage, abduction, and rape all of which pose huge risks for transmitting
sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and Human Immuno Virus (HIV). Unfair
division of labor that exposes girls and women to high energy expenditure with
severe physical and psychological stress is additional cause for heavy burden of
disease. Women's delayed recognition of being infected, financial limitation and the
little access to information has been noted to stop women from seeking health
services (MOWA, 2005).

Women are unable to exercise their reproductive rights and attain health because
of:
• Limited awareness and commitment among those in leadership positions on
population and health issues;
• Women's low awareness on many health issues, due to low educational
attainment, non-participation at meetings due to workload and cultural
influence and inadequate utilization of the media;
• Male supremacy and cultural barriers, making women unable to discuss
what they know even revealing their pregnancy;
• Religious belief barring women from using contraception;
• Inadequate health care services, due to shortage of staff and supplies,
including contraception of choice;
• Cultural practices violating women's rights;
• Extreme poverty and economic dependence on men resulting in low
decision making capacity including on contraception, and
• Limited decision making and negotiating power and male’s non-involvement
in population issues including using contraception (MOWA, 2005).

3.2.4 Budget Allocation and Expenditure

The recurrent health budget allocated for 2004/05 was 986 million birr out of which
88.6 percent was utilized. The capital budget allocated and utilized for the same
year was 689.4 million birr and 51.6 percent respectively. The total public health
budget was 1,675.4 million birr (1.7 percent of the total Federal government

27
budget) of which 73.4 percent was utilized. The health budget allocation could be
characterized by high fluctuation. The health budget of year 2002/03 was 7.4
percent of the national budget while that of the 2003/04 decreased to 2.2 percent
(MoH.2005)

3.3 Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries

• 85 percent of the total population is engaged in agriculture, agro-

pastoral and pastoral activities and making a living mainly in
agriculture.

3.3.1 General Information

Agriculture is the predominant sector of the economy. However, the

agricultural sector is characterized by low productivity, poor storage and
significant pot-harvest and processing losses. Consequently, food insecurity is
another daunting challenge facing the country. Women’s labour input is an
essential component of agricultural production and overall rural livelihoods.
They participate actively in agricultural production including animal husbandry
other income generating activities, household management and childcare.
These numerous activities take up an average of 12-14 hours per day, much of
the work requiring hard physical labour. Furthermore, women are required to
provide much longer labor inputs in the field during the peak season, a time of
year that coincides with the period of lowest household food availability. This
situation increases the strain and poor nutrition of women and children with
dire health consequences (MOA, UNDP, UNIDO, 2000 cited in WAO/PMO,
2005).

85 percent of the total population is engaged in agriculture, agro-pastoral and

pastoral activities and making a living mainly in agriculture. About 80 percent of
the employed persons were absorbed by the agricultural (agriculture, Hunting,
forestry and Fishing) activities and 89 percent in rural areas were engaged in
agricultural activities. The share for males in this sector is 93 percent while that of
females is 84 percent (CSA, Employment and Unemployment Survey, 2006).

While settled agriculture and animal husbandry make up the predominant form or
rural livelihoods, about 12 percent of the total population of the country is
pastoralists occupying about 60 percent of the territory. Pastoralists are found in
parts of Oromiya, Somali, Afar, and SNNP Regions. Most of these areas are
characterized by harsh climatic conditions, degraded land and extreme forms of
underdevelopment.

28
The major components of agricultural products are crop production which is 67.8
percent, livestock production 19.8 percent and forestry 9.85 percent. Although
agriculture is carried out mainly in the highlands, there are almost no irrigation
facilities so farms are very susceptible to drought due to inadequate rainfall.
Agricultural dissemination activities are being carried out only to a few farmers
and pastoralist are not beneficiaries as such. Therefore, the majority of farmers
do not have access to a modern system including improved varieties, artificial
fertilizers and funds. Forest areas have diminished to less than 3.5 percent so
that soil erosion has progressed rapidly without control.

3.3.2 Land tenure

The total land reported for the private peasant holdings was estimated at more
than 14 million hectares and operated by more than 11 million agricultural
households and about 12 million holders.

The size of distributed land area is decided by the number of household

members and feasible land area to be cultivated. The average holding size per
household and was 1.24 hectares.

Due to the wrong perception of about role and rights of women over the
household property, women are traditionally alienated from holding land as the
registration of land holding certificate is done by the name of the husband.
Nonetheless, those women that were with out husband for what ever reasons
have got the chance of being allotted a land under their name. Out of a total of
12,041,898 land holders in the country the number of female holders acounts
18.1 percent (2,182,978 only (CSA, 2005). 77 percent of women land holders
are occupied in both Crop and Livestock activities.

The evidence derived from the study conducted in 2005 in the Pastoral regions of
Somali, Afar, and Borana in Oromiya by Pastoral Community Development
Project (PCDP) indicated that male and female- household heads often have
very different rights and responsibilities with respect to resource ownership and
decision- making in the process of agricultural production. In terms of access to
and control of resources, it was observed that there is no significant difference
between male-headed and female – headed households particularly, with respect
to access to farmland and livestock. There are, however, significant differences in
terms of number of cattle owned and family size between male-headed and
female – headed households. Male – headed households also had more access
to education than female – headed households. Lack of education, draft power
and labor will limit access of female-headed households to agricultural
technology, which will have a negative effect on agricultural production
(WABEKBON/WIBD, 2005).

3.3.3 Agricultural extension

Access to extension services, most studies revealed that female farmers are

29
marginalized in extension services and in the process of diffusion of new
technologies. Agricultural extension work is mainly done by men. The ratio of
female to male extension personnel was found to be 1:15 and the ratio for
agricultural development agents in terms of female to male ratio is 1:50 (ADB,
2004). Inadequate attention has been given to ensuring the inclusion of a
sizable number of women in the recruitment and training of Development
Agents in the context of the Participatory Demonstration and Training
Extension Agents (PADETES). Most extension services are geared to the head
of household often men. It was found that 1,217,932 men and only 120,031
women representing (9 percent) have access to extension services.

Women’s labour input is an essential component of agricultural production and

overall rural livelihoods. They participate actively in agricultural production
including animal husbandry other income generating activities, household
management and childcare. These numerous activities take up an average of
12-14 hours per day, much of the work requiring hard physical labour.
Furthermore, women are required to provide much longer labour inputs in the
field during the peak season, a time of year that coincides with the period of
lowest household food availability. This situation increases the strain and poor
nutrition of women and children with dire health consequences (MOA, UNDP,
UNIDO, 2000).

The budget allocated to the agricultural sector from year 2001/02 to 2005/06
has been increased from Birr 780 million to 1,585 million. However, the
percentage of the budget allocated to Agricultural sector from the total budget
remained the same, which is 1.5 percent in 2001/02 to 1.4 in year 2005/06,
(MOFED, 2006).

30
3.4 Economic Activities

• About 27.3 million people were economically active out of

which women account for 45.5 percent of the economically
active population in year 2004.
• In April 2006 the overall unemployment rate was 16.7
percent. The unemployment rates among men and women
are 11.5 percent and 22.1 percent respectively.
• Among the Ethiopian Microfinance Institutions’ clients,
women account for 38 percent only.

According to the Population and Development Indicator of 2004, about 27.3

million people were economically active out of which women account for 45.5
percent of the economically active population. About 85.8 percent of the
economically active population was residing in rural areas.

3.4.1 Women and Micro-and Small Enterprises

3.4.1.1 Accessibility to Micro-finance

According to the Performance Indicators Report of Association of Ethiopian

Microfinance Institutions, 2005, out of a total of 658,708 active borrowers, women
account only 30 percent in Ethiopia. This is very low as compared to the active
borrowers of Women in Africa, which is 65.3 percent. Recently, women’s share
of micro-finance clients is 38 percent, while women are estimated to own two-
thirds of the informal and micro enterprise (AEMFI 2005).

The majority of women are accessing credit through Microfinance Institutions

(MFIs) and Saving and Credit Cooperatives (SACCO) systems. Women-owned
Micro and Small Enterprise (MSEs) are not able to graduate beyond the micro-
finance level as commercial banks in general do not give favorable attention to
MSE operators. This is because of high transactions costs and perceived higher
risks. Consequently, this negatively affects the growth of women owned MSEs.

Regardless of the importance of business development support and information

women entrepreneurs do have low awareness to take-up business development
support and information. As most women-owned MSEs do not have ready
access to computer or the Internet there exist a gap in providing affordable
Business Development Service (BDS). There is no evidence of BDS focused on
women’s growth challenges. Many women can not afford services of professional
consultants, and women counsellors are very limited as well.

31
3.4.1.2 Business development support and Information services

An Ethiopian Business Development Services Network CD-ROM has been

produced and a business website has been developed (includes a women in
business section), but few women owned MSEs have internet access at their
place of business. The Ministry of Trade and Industry – Women Affairs
Department (MoTI-WAD) is working to develop and build the capacity of Women
Entrepreneurs Association (WEAs) to deliver information services to women-
owned MSEs. There is no evidence of the existence of networks of women’s
enterprise resource centers.

3.4.1.3 Women’s entrepreneurs Associations and access to business

networks

There are Women Entrepreneurs’ Associations (WEAs) in 7 regions. The

overwhelming majority of women entrepreneurs do not have the opportunity to
participate in the local or regional activities of WEA. Government efforts to
mobilize WEAs on a local base are underway. Support from International Labor
Organization (ILO) projects have been helping to build the capacity of WEAs
encourage the start up of more associations, and promote linkages with other
business associations such as national employees organizations. WEAs are
partners in delivering women’s focused projects. They have organized women’s
trade fairs with ILO support, facilitation services for women, consideration being
given to expanded role in BDS.

Good practices exist in the organization and development of WEAs. The Amhara
Women’s Entrepreneurs’ Association is advocating for their members in the
Amhara region and assisting them in obtaining plots of land for their business
premises. They are also helping to expose their members to market opportunities
through organized trade fairs. At present none of the existing associations is
adequately resourced to be fully effective partner with government to improve the
situation of women entrepreneurs. They need more vibrant membership;
fundraising mechanisms; dedicated and committed members and leaders;
greater representatives; more transparency; and some demonstrations of the
benefits of the members.

3.4.2 Participation in labor

3.4.2.1 Employment and Labor

Since 84 percent of women are involved in the agricultural sector, in addition to

various agricultural operations, they manage domestic chores and childcare and
participate in community activities as well. Most of the activities performed by
women do not have a monetary return and are not counted by as an economic
activity as such. Regardless of the participation of women in the economic
activities that are informal in most cases thus are not counted in the economic
statistics.

32
Families who once lived in rural communities are forced to migrate to urban
areas. In accordance to Population and Development indicators of 2004 the
rural-urban migration is on the rise and is currently 23.5 percent while the urban-
rural migration which is 15.7 percent is much lower than rural-urban migration.
Note that the rural-rural migration with 37.6 percent is the highest of the internal
migration. This has contributed to an increase in street children who are forced to
live in poverty or in inferior environments. In addition, grazing land is being
depleted through drought or pasture decreases, so the subsistence of people
who make a living by grazing is also at a crisis.

The 2006 Employment and underemployment survey in urban areas conducted

by the Central Statistics Agency indicates that at the country level, an estimated
2.85 million people were employed. The majority of employed population is self-
employed, accounting for 41.3 percent followed by government and government
parastatal (21.5percent) and private organizations (16.5 percent).

Paid employees which constitute employees of government parastatal, private

organization, NGOs, domestic employee represent 49.5 percent of the total
working population. Unpaid family workers that has considerable share is 7.2
percent of the total employees. Women with 59.3 percent are the majority in the
sector.

The proportion of female employees of private organizations and NGOs

constitutes almost one- third of the total employees of the sectors. On the other
hand more females than males are found in domestic (77.6 percent) and unpaid
(59.3 percent) sectors of employment. While the number in the paid employment
sector is not more than 30 percent.

3.4.2.1.1 Formal Sector/Public Sector

According to the statistical data obtained from Federal Civil Service Authority in
2005/06, there were a total of 424,067 government employees out of which 139,
685 (32.9 percent) were women. The regional governments, having a share of
89 percent of the total employees, are the major employers of the public sector.

3.4.2.1.2 Informal sector

Women are highly involved in the informal sector, as employees and self-
employed. As self employed, they face problems of low income both in
establishing and sustaining their businesses. A survey of the informal sector
showed that, out of the 997,380 individuals engaged in the informal sector; 60
percent were female, many engaged in small businesses that require small
capital, not demanding sophisticated management and bookkeeping skills (CSA,
2003).

In urban areas, women were mostly engaged in selling of commodities,

processed and prepared foods and drinks The kind of income generating
activities being undertaken in both rural and urban areas were found to be
focused on small-scale trade in urban areas; gardening and poultry in rural areas.

33
In urban areas women run kiosks collect solid waste, engage in gardening,
poultry production, animal husbandry, and weaving. In the agricultural package,
women are engaged more in small-scale activities related to housekeeping and
gardening and are not direct beneficiaries of the main package (WAO/PMO,
2005).

3.4.2.2 Unemployment and gender

In April 2006 the overall unemployment rate was 16.7 percent. Unemployment is
more a problem to women than men. The unemployment rate among men and
women are 11.5 percent and 22.1 percent respectively. Most unemployed
women are reported to have no previous work experience, while more than
three-fifth of unemployed men had previous work experience (CSA,
Unemployment survey, 2006).

3.5 The Role of UN Organizations and NGOs in Improving

Women Status

3.5.1 United Nations (UN) Organizations

The UN organizations such as UNDP, UNICEF, WFP and African Center for
Women, Economic Commission for Africa play immense role in improving
women’s status in Ethiopia. The major focus of the UN organizations in
improving women’s status include poverty reduction, promotion of equal rights of
women and children, provide food aid for vulnerable women and children,
mainstream gender, support the implementation of the UN resolutions,
conventions concerning gender equality, advocacy and policy analysis for gender
mainstreaming women support, mainstream gender issues in all operation, and
provide access to food, information dissemination on gender.

Bi-lateral organizations such as Canadian International Development Agency

(CIDA) also play important roles in mainstreaming gender, governance and
democracy, integration of women as full beneficiaries all CIDA funded projects.

3.5.2 Non-Governmental Organizations

The NGOs currently working on improving women’s status in Ethiopia include

Action Aid Ethiopia, Agency for Co-operation and Research in development
(ACORD), Care International in Ethiopia, Catholic Relief Service (CRS), Cheshire
Foundation Ethiopia (CFE), Christian Children's Fund Inc. (CCF), Concern,
Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus (EECMY), Save the Children
Fund/UK (SCF/UK), SOS Sahle International/UK (SOS SAHEL), World Vision
International/Ethiopia (WVI/E), etc.

The major activities of the NGOs in improving the status of women include:
• Ensure social Justice,
• Integrate gender issues training, stopping violence against women,
• Construction of stoves,
• MCH and family planning,

34
• Rural water development, Hand dug wells, pond construction, spring
capping and protection,
• Income generation schemes,
• Integrated water, health and sanitation, and
• Saving schemes.

35
 4. WID/GENDER PROJECTS BY DONORS

Project/Programs Implementi Donor Budget Gender-related

ng (US$) Issues
Agency
i) Education, Skill
training, Capacity
Building
1. Girls’ Education Project Unity SIDA 244,981 Gender parity
University /equity and
equality in
education
2. Food for Education MoE WFP NA Empowerment
through education
3. Gender Mainstreaming Regional AC-ECA NA Gender responsive
WABs development
policies and
programs
4. Capacity Building, NEWA CIDA- 2.3 Million Aware and
Networking and Action- influence Policy
Advocacy AID DFID Makers, Gender
Irish friendly policy
Embassy,
Netherlan
ds
Embassy
5. Gender Forum Panos- Henry NA Experience
Ethiopia Boul sharing on gender
Foundatio work and
n (HBF strengthening the
knowledge base
on gender

36
Project/Programs Implementing Donor Budget Gender-related
Agency (US$) Issues
ii) Health, Family
Planning and
Reproductive
health
1. Nutrition targeting WFP DPPC, NA NA
supplementary feeding Regional
(100,000 beneficiaries) Bureau
2. women reproductive Packard NEWA 250,000.00 NA
health right Foundation
3. HIV and Women Action AID Action- Not known NA
Ethiopia AID
iii) Agriculture,
Forestry and
Fishery
1. Food for Asset MoA WFP NA NA
iv) Economic
Activities,
Income
generating
activities, Saving
and credit
1. Income generating Women World 9.2 million NA
Activities Development Bank,
Initiative Fund Ethiopian
Governm
ents
v) Others (Women’s
right, Housing,
Human right,
Leadership)
1. End Violence Against Panos- Comic NA NA
Women Ethiopia Reflection
, CORD-
AID
2. Gender and CRC UNICF MoLSA, 100,000 NA
Combating FGM, early EWLA
Marriage, Abduction
3. Addressing UNICEF 5,000,000 NA
Vulnerability of
children
4. Violence Against Action AID- Action – Not Known NA
Women, Land Right, Ethiopia AID
Decision-making

37
 5. GENDER INFORMATION SOURCES
5.1 List of Government, International Organizations, NGOs and Consultants
Gender Name Objective Activities Contact Address
Information
Sources

I. 1. Women Affairs To promote the Awareness W/o Muluembet,

Governments Department, Ministry participation of women in creation, gender WAD-Head
of Agriculture agricultural development guideline P.O Box 62347
and ensure their benefit development ,
conducting
research
2. WAD- Ministry of Promoting girls education; Capacity Building , W/o Asmaru Berihun
Education Technical support for research, manual P.O Box 1367
regional TTIs preparation Tel. 56-14 94
Educational Ministry of
Statisti8cal Education,
Abstract Education
Mainstreaming gender Management
Information Systems

To oversee the Health and Health W/oTsigeroman

3. Ministry of Health implementation of Related indicators Abers
Women’s Policy Implement E-mail: MOH@ethio
net .et
Statistical Abstracts Preparation of
guideline and
checklist

4. Min of Finance and Creating conducive Statistical

Economic working environment for Abstracts W/o Tiruwork Tizaxu
Development women entrepreneurs E-mail:
Budget Allocation [email protected]
Mainstreaming gender Report

Enable women to be
empower themselves
Advocacy on women’s Facilitate training NA
5. Ministry of Women’s rights, programs and
Affairs study tours for
Women
Gender Mainstreaming, entrepreneurs

Capacity Building Ensuring that

gender needs and
priorities are
reflected in
development

Research,
Training,
Education
6. Central Statistical Collection, analysis, Collection, FDRE, Central
Authority, dissemination of analysis, Statistical
information dissemination of Authority, Addis
information Ababa

38
 7. Institute of Gender Collection, analysis, Collection, Dr. Lamerot
Studies dissemination of analysis, E-mail
information dissemination of CERTWID@hotmail.
information com

UN Agencies 1. UNDP Contribute to the reduction Mainstream Ms Emiliana Tapia

of poverty gender, support Tel. 515177
the implementation E-mail
Promote equal rights of of the UN emiliana.tapia@und
women and children resolutions, p.org.
conventions
concerning gender
equality
2.UNICEF-GAD/CWSPN Food Aid Mainstream Ms Zewide Abegaz
gender issues in Tel:51-16-28
all operation E-mail
Advocacy and Policy [email protected]
analysis for gender
mainstreaming Women
Support
3.WFP Food Aid NA Ms. Johanna Maula
Tel:51-51-88,
E-mail
Johanna.Maula@wf
p.org
4. African Center for Provide access to food, NA Ms. Josephine
Women, Economic information dissemination Ouedraogo
Commission foe on gender Tel: 251-1-511263
Africa, Addis Ababa, Fax: 251-1-512785
Ethiopia E-mail:
[email protected]
Bilateral (i) Canadian Mainstreaming gender , Integration of Ms Yeshi
Agency International governance and women as full Habtemariam
Development democracy beneficiaries all P.O. Box 1261 AA
Agency (CIDA) CIDA funded tel. 654675
project E-mail
[email protected]
NGOs (i) Action-Aid Ensure social Justice Integrate gender Ms. Ellen Alem
Ethiopia) issues training, E-mail ellen
stop violence [email protected]
against women Tel: 465-46-71
A
127372
(ii) Agency for Co- Construction of stoves NA P.O. Box 12377
operation and Addis Ababa
Research in tel. 183614
development
(ACORD)
(iii) Care MCH and family planning NA P.O. Box 4710 Addis
International inRural water development, Ababa
Ethiopia Hand dug wells, pond tel. 613422
(CARW) construction, spring
Capping and protection
(iv) Catholic Relief MCH and family planning NA P.O. Box 6592 Addis
Service (CRS) Income generation Ababa
schemes tel. 654450
Water programs

39
(v) Cheshire MCH and family planning NA P.O. Box 31938
Foundation Integrated water, health tel. 610804
Ethiopia (CFE) and sanitation

(vi) Christian MCH and family planning NA P.O. Box 5545 Addis
Children's Fund Water programmes Ababa
Inc. (CCF) tel. 612866

(vii) Concern MCH and family planning NA P.O. Box 31938

Income generation tel. 610804
schemes
Water programs
(viii) Emmanuel Income generation NA P.O. Box 2399 Addis
Home (EH) schemes Ababa
tel. 551246

(ix) Ethiopian Stoves in regions NA P.O. Box 2087

Evangelical MCH and family planning tel. 553722
Church Mekane Income generation
Yesus (EECMY) schemes
Rain water harvesting
(x) Ethiopian gemini MCH and family planning NA P.O. Box 3547 Addis
Trust (EGT) Income generation Ababa
schemes tel. 151947

(xi) Ethiopian Income generation NA P.O. Box 503 Addis

Orthodox schemes Ababa
Church/ Water programme tel. 119661
Development &
Interchurch Aid
(EOC/DICA)
(xii) Food, Income generation NA P.O. Box 5746 Addis
Agriculture and schemes Ababa
Research tel. 550511
Management -
Africa (Farmafri)
(xiii) Food for the MCH and family planning NA P.O. Box 4181 Addis
Hungry Income generation Ababa
International schemes tel. 514577
(FHI)
(xiv) Integrated MCH and family planning NA P.O. Box 6889 Addis
Holistic Income generation Ababa
Approach-Urban schemes tel. 156375
Developemnt
Programme
(IHA-UDP)
(xv) Kale Heywet Income generation NA P.O. Box 5829
Church MCH and family planning tel. 515844
Development
Programme
(KHCOP)
(xvi) Lutheran World Water supply NA P.O. Box 40132
Federation Addis Ababa
tel. 553288

40
 (xvii) Marie Stopes MCH and famly planning NA P.O. Box 5775 Addis
International Ababa
Ethiopian (MSIE) tel. 552697

(xviii) Save the MCH and family planning NA P.O. Box 7165 Addis
Children Water supplies Ababa
Fund/UK tel. 611177
(SCF/UK)
(xix) Selam MCH and family planning NA P.O. Box 8577 Addis
Environmental Income generation Ababa
Development schemes tel. 118383
Association
(SEDA)
(xx) SOS Sahle Fuel saving stoves NA P.O. Box 3262 Addis
International/UK Income generation Ababa
(SOS SAHEL) schemes tel. 189585
Water improvement
(xxi) World Vision Saving schemes NA P.O. Box 3330 Addis
International/Ethi MCH and family planning Ababa
opia (WVI/E) tel. 610550

Consultants I Rural Development WABEKBON Development Consultants PLC. Tel. 0116-63 9575, E-
mail: [email protected] Contact Person, Kejela Gemtessa.

II. Democracy and 1. Mr.Getnet Kassie ; MA in Economics; Tel: 52-50 -95

Governance 2. Ms Kuleni Berhanu ; MA in Sustainable International Development
/empjhsis on Gender; E-mail [email protected]
3. Me Melaku Tegegn, MA in Development Science; E-mail
[email protected]

III. Counselling 1.Mrs. Asefach Haileselassie; BA in Psychology; E-mail

[email protected]
2. Mrs Kassech Demissie Mekebeb; MSc in General Psychology; E-
[email protected]

IV. Development 1. Mr Girma Feyissa; MA in Development Studies; E-mail: girma-

[email protected]
2. Ms Haddas Woldegiorgis; BA in Management; E-mail:
[email protected]

V. Education 1. Dr.Emebet Mulugeta: Doctrate in Education; E-mail:

[email protected]
2. Mr. Jember W/Mariam;MA; E-mail: [email protected]
3. Mrs.Fantanesh Tilahun Moges; MSc in Economic; P.O.Box 1367

VI. Empowerment, 1. Haddis Mulugeta; MA in Regional Planning; E0mail:

Capacity Building, [email protected]
Leadership and 2. Ms. Meedan Mekonnen; Post graduate in Peace and Conflict
Decision0making Transformation; E-mail [email protected]
3. Mrs. Zahara Ali; MSc in Agricultural Extension; Tel:
09011022054037 C/0

1. Ms Ehetemariam Taddesse; MA in Environment Planning for

VII. Environment developing countries; E-mail: [email protected]
2. Ms. Lakech Haile; MSc. In Social Development Planning; E-mail:
[email protected]
3. Dr. Medhin Zewdu; PhD in Organic Chemistry; E-mail:
[email protected]

41
VIII. Gender 1. Addis Yalew; MA IN rural Development ; Tel: 51-41-20
Issues :General 2. Ms Axeb Birke; Main Economic and BA in Psychology; E-mail:
[email protected]
3. Ebise Ashana ; MSc in Poverty Reduction and Development
Management; E-mail: [email protected]
4. MS Etalem Menegstu; Bsc in Agricultural Science; E-mail:
[email protected]
5. Mrs. Fetenu Bekele; MA in Gender and Development; E-
[email protected]
6.Mrs Lenesil Asfaw; Bain Poltical Science, Diploma in Law Maters in
Social Work (studying); E-mail: [email protected]

1. Abebech Alemneh; BA in Social Work; E-mail: nctpe@ethionet. et

2. Dr.Abonesh Haile Mariam; Pediatrician; email:
[email protected]
IX. Health 3.Mrs. Fekerte Belete; Bain Applied Sociology with Medical
Background; email: [email protected]
4.Ms Hargewoin Cherinet; MPH (Mastres in Public Health; email:
[email protected]
5. Konjit Kefetew; MSc in Demography; email: [email protected]
6. Dr. Muna Abdullah MD,MA in Population and Development; email:
[email protected]

42
5.2 List of Reports and References Related to Gender

Title Author Year Available at

Educational Training
Zenbework Taddess 2002 AAU
Gender Policy Dialogue series

Cost Effectiveness of Key Inputs in Education Institute of Educational 1996 MOE

Research
Education and Training Policy Ministry of Education 1994 MOE

Educational Statistics, Annual Abstract, 2004/05 Education Management 2005 MOE

Information Systems,
Ministry of Education
Health
2005 Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey CSA 2006 CSA

Health and Health Indicators Ministry of Health 2004/05 MOH

Health Policy MoH 1994 MoH

The impact of Poverty on Women’s health in Ministry of Health 2003 MoH-WAD

Selected localities of Ethiopia (Draft)

Women’s Vulnerability to HIV/AIDS: the need for Kumsa Mekonen 2004 EWLA
litigation

Economic Activities
Gender and Social Analysis in Pastoral WABEKBON/WIBD 2005 PCDP
Communities of Ethiopia, 2005 Consult

Women Empowerment through Delivery of WABEKBON Consult 2006 AEMFI

Microfinance in Ethiopia, 2006

FY 1997/98 and 2005/06 Capital Budget, Sectoral Ministry of Economic Oct, 2006 Ministry of Finance
Allocation Development and and Economic
Cooperation Development
Study on Micro-Finance and Impacts on Women Zenbework Taddess, 2002 EWLA
Eshetu Bekel and Konjit
Fekade
Support for Growth-Oriented Women’s Lois Stevevesonand 2005 Ministry of Trade and
Entrepreneurs in Ethiopia, Kenya and Annet St-Onge Industry
Tanzania :An overview Report
Toward Poverty Alleviation Action program IMF and World Bank 1992
Mission

Women and Poverty: gender –based Poverty in Aster Birke. Adanetch 2002 EWLA
Ethiopia Kidanemarial , Embete
Mulugets, Haregewoine
Cherinet, Konjit Fekade.
Meaza Ashenafi Yeshi
Habtemariam and
Zenebwork Tadess
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery
Land Redistribution and female headed Household Yigremew Adal 2003 Institute of
Women in Primary and Secondary Education Development
Research-AAU

43
Agricultural Sample survey. Report on Land The FDRE, CSA Dec. CSA, Addis Ababa
Utilization (Private Peasant Holdings) Vol. iv 1998??.
Statistical Bulletin 193.
Others
Assessment of the Situation of Women and Girls in TREG Consult 2006 Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa Women’s Affairs
Office
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of UNICEF, UNIFEM ---- Institute of Gender
Discrimination Against Women Studies

Cursory Survey on Gender in Leadership and Lelnsil Asfaw 2006 IIRR-Ethiopia

Decision-making in Public Office

Definition of Powers and Duties of the Executive FDRE Nov. 2005 Berhanena Selam
Organ of the FDRE Proc. No.471/2005 Printing Press

Development and Public Access to information in Alemseged Herouy 1999 FSS

Ethiopia

Environment in Ethiopia Zenbework Taddess (ed) 2000 FSS

Environment, Poverty and Gender Gidion Asfaw (ed) 2003 Forum for Social
Studies (FSS)

Food Security and Sustainable livelihood in Yared Amare (ed) 2001 FSS
Ethiopia

Gender Dimension of Urban Poverty in Ethiopia Meron Assefa FSS

Gender Relations in Ethiopia :Final Report Ministry Of Women’s 2005 MoWA

Affairs

Issues in Urban Poverty Daniel Kassahun FSS

Old Beyond Imaginings : Ethiopia Harmful National Committee on 2003 NCTPE

traditional Practices Traditional Practices of
Ethiopia
Population and Development Indicators National Office 2004 NOP
Population

Poverty and Social Context of Sex Work in Addis Zenbework Taddess (ed) 2000 FSS
Ababa

Review of Gender Perspectives In the Civil service Rose Chege 2005? Ministry of Capacity
Program in Ethiopia Building

Roster: Resource Persons on Gender in Addis Panos-Ethiopia 2003 Panos-Ethiopia

Ababa, Ethiopia

Survey on the status of men and women Partners Consultancy & 2006 Federal Civil Service
employees and strategies for gender equality : Information Services Agency
Federal Civil Service Commission
The Rights of Women Under Ethiopian Penal Law, Hillina Taddesse, 1997 Ethiopian Women
EWLA, Addis Ababa Lawyers Association,
Addis Ababa
Who is Doing What On Gender Issues : A directory Panos-Ethiopia 2001 Panos-Ethiopia
Of Organizations Working on Gender in Ethiopia

Women contestants and elected in 2005 National Election Board 2005 NEB

Women in Development A Country Profile, Ethiopia JICA 1999 JICA, Addis Ababa

44
References
AEMFI, 2005, Performance Indicators Report of Association of Ethiopian
Microfinance Institutions,
Central Statistical Authority, Urban Bi-annual Employment Unemployment
Survey, Sept. 2006.
Central Statistics Agency, Employment and Unemployment Survey, 2005

CSA, 2006, 2005 Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey.

CSA: Urban Bi-Annual Employment Unemployment Survey, September 2004,

Statistical Bulletin 319.
DHS, 2005 Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey, Fact Sheet ,2006

Federal Civil Service Agency Personnel Statistics, 2006.

Federal Civil Service Agency, Personnel Statistics, 2006

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, The constitution of The Federal

Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Prol No 1/ 95, 95

_________ Federal Proclamation on Rural Land and Administration No 89.97, 97

__________ Gender Relations in Ethiopia (Final Draft), 2005

IIRR /NNGLDM, 2005. Cursory survey on Gender and leadership in public offices

ILO, An Overview Report, support for growth oriented women Enterprise in

Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, 2005

JICA, 1999, Women in Development A Country Profile, Ethiopia, JICA, Addis

Ababa.

Lenesil Asfaw, Cursory Survey on Gender and Leadership with An emphasis on

Federal Public Services, 2005

Mehari Redae, Women’s Access to Rural Land Legal and Practical constraints,
2003

Ministry of Finance and Economic Development , 2006, 2005/06 Capital Budget

by Sector.
Ministry of Capacity Building- District and Local Decentralization Program (MCB-
DLDP), 2006).
Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, 2005, Plan of Action for
Sustainable Develop to Eradicate Poverty (PASDEP).
Ministry of Health, 2003, The impact of Poverty on Women’s health in Selected
localities of Ethiopia (Draft).
Ministry of Health, August 2004/05, Health and Health Related Indicators.

45
Ministry Of Women’s Affairs , 2005, Gender Relations in Ethiopia :Final Report
2005, MoWA.
MOE, 2004/05 Education Statistics Annual Abstract 2004/05.

MoE, Education and Training Policy, 1993

MoFED, Ethiopia: Building on Progress: A Plan for Accelerated and

Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP) 2005/06 –
2009/10, 2005

MoH, Health Policy 1993

National Committee for Traditional Practices Eradication, 2003, Old Beyond

Imaginings : Ethiopia Harmful traditional Practices.

National Committee on Traditional Practice of Ethiopia, Old Beyond Imaginings:

Ethiopia Harmful Traditional Practices, 2003

National Office For Population, 2004

Public Servant Proclamation No.262/2002, 2002

TGE, National Policy on Ethiopian Women, 1993

UNECA, The Ethiopian trial on Gender Status Index (GSI) and African

Women’s Progress Scoreboard (AWPS) for the African Gender Development

Index (AGDI) 2004

WABEKBON Consult, 2006, Women Empowerment through Delivery of

Microfinance in Ethiopia, 2006, AEMFI.

WABEKBON/WIBD Consult, 2005, Gender and Social Analysis in Pastoral

Communities of Ethiopia, 2005, PCDP.

WAO/PMO, Annual Report 1999

Zambia: Country Gender Profile, 2005

46
Definitions

Women’s Associations
Associations organized by women based on interest of the members and
having common vision and goals.

Women’s Professional Associations

Associations established by women having similar profession in order to
build up their career through their associations.

Gender
Analysis concept to clarify the social role of men and women and inter
relation between them

Informal Sector
Part of the economy consisting of small competitive individuals or family
firm. According to the definition of ILO, those engaged in the sector have
simple technology, insufficient fund unidentified business location,
minimum number of employees, lack of legality and registration and no
capacity of book keeping.

Reproductive Health /Rights

Health rights concerning sex and reproduction. To be able to live safe and
satisfied sex life, and to have freedom to decide whether, when and how
many children to deliver

Empowerment
To empower individuals or groups in political, economical and social
sense

National Machinery
Administrative organization to promote equal participation between men
and women, and to implement and strengthen policies related to women.

Affirmative action
Prioritized positive measures to promptly correct the difference, in the
case that discriminated groups are placed in extremely unequal conditions
to other groups, due to discrimination accumulated in the past

Access and Control

Access is to be able to use resources and services for the economic
activity, or to have a right to exercise them. Control is a right to decide
how to manage resources and services or to own them.

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Reproductive Activity
Activity to produce for the next generation including to give birth and raise
the children, and to sustain the daily life, for instance, washing and
cooking.

Total Fertility Rate

Average number of children whom a woman deliveries in all life

Infant Mortality Rate

Annual number of infants who die among 1,000 newborn babies within 5
years after birth

Maternal Mortality rate

Annual number of mothers who die among 100,000 cases of delivery
because of pregnancy related – complications

Percentage of birth attended by trained health personnel

The rate of birth with the help of doctors, nurses, midwives, trained health
personnel, or trained traditional birth attended ants.

48
Annexes: Basic Data

Annex 1. Number of Elected Women and Men in the House of Peoples’

Representative, Regional Councils, and Top Government Positions in
2005
Description of Status Male Female Percent Total
of
Female
a) Council Member 430 117 21.4 547
b) management Officials
Speaker 1 - - 1
D/speaker - 1 - 1
Office head - - - -
Department head - - - -
c) Standing Committee
Total (Standing Committee 113 35 23.6 148
members)

Committee Chair person 10 2 16.7 12

Deputy chairperson 7 5 41.7 12

d) Total Regional 1303 500 27.7 1803
Addis Ababa City
Administration 119 19 16 138
e) Top Government Positions
Minister 16 2 11.1 18
Rank of Minister 5 0 0 5
Acting Minister 1 0 0 1
State Minister 12 5 29.4 17
Rank of State Minister 0 2 100 2
Deputy Minister 11 0 0 11
Rank of a deputy Min 1 0 0 1
Commissioner 8 0 0 8
Deputy Commissioner 2 0 0 2
Source: IIRR /NNGLDM, 2005. Cursory survey on Gender and leadership in public
offices

49
 Annex 2. Distribution of Men and women Employees as of APRIL 2004
Employment Status Total Employees percent
Female
Government Employee 552,477 33.0
Government parastatal 59,246 31.4
Private Organization 472,057 29.0
NGOs 56,391 28.6
Domestic 270,794 77.6
Self-employed 1,178,719 45.0
Unpaid family worker 205,917 59.3
Employer 16,255 30.6
Apprentice 8,256 33.3
Member of cooperatives 6,673 22.8
Others 26,978 9.6
Not stated 559 62.6
Total 2,854,322 43.0
Source: Central Statistical Authority, Urban Bi-annual Employment Unemployment
Survey 2005.

Annex 3. Total government employees and employment by gender, 2006

Employment Female Male Total
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
Permanent 139,685 32.9 284,382 67.1 316,889 100
Temporary/Contract 1,916 30.7 4,314 69.5 6,230 100
Source: Federal Civil Service Agency Personnel Statistics, 2006.

Annex 4. Number of Male and Female Employees at Federal and Regional Level by
Service Type.
Total employees
(F+R) Percent of total
Type of Services Male Female Male Female
Professional and Scientific 20,383 2,879 9.9 1.4
(PS)
Administrative (AD) 7,302 2,130 3.6 1.0
Sub Professionals 35,516 12,896 17.3 6.3
Clerical and Fiscal (CF) 18,147 27,078 8.9 13.2
Trade and Crafts (TC) 9,594 2,911 4.5 1.4
Custodial and Manual (CM) 26,434 18,430 12.9 9.0
Special Classification 5,050 1,079 2.5 0.5
Appointment 5,052 555 2.5 0.3
Non stated 6,630 2,970 3.2 1.4
Total 134,108 70,928 65.4 34.6
Source: Compiled from Federal Civil Service Authority, Personnel Statistics 2006

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Annex 5. Permanent employees by sex and year of regional and federal levels
Year Male Female Total percent
Female
from total
2000/01 248,569 113,687 362,256 31.4

2001/02 252,113 119,586 371,699 32.2

2002/03 263,624 125,939 389,563 32.3

2003/04 267,308 130,840 398,148 32.7

2004/2005 284,382 139, 685 424,067 32.9

Source: Federal Civil Service Agency Personnel Statistics, August 2006

Annex 6. Proportion of working population in the informal sector by sex and

region as of April 2004
Proportion of Working
Total working population Population in the Informal
Sector
Region Total Male Female Total Male Female
Tigray 156,839 88,441 68,398 47.9 36.6 62.4
Afar 21,042 14,137 6,905 39.6 30.0 59.4
Amhara 416,395 217,243 199,152 51.5 37.7 66.5
Oromia 687,710 413,045 274,665 50.7 41.1 65.1
Somali 53,858 29,642 24,216 54.5 39.3 73.2
Benshangul 14,446 8,534 5,912 37.8 26.2 54.6
Gumuze
SNNP 279,130 164,184 114,946 53.7 42.5 69.9
Harari 26,493 14,746 11,747 49.4 41.1 59.9
Addis Ababa 713,648 467,250 246,398 33.7 33.1 35.0
Dire Dawa 53,360 32,239 21,121 48.5 41.8 58.6
Total 2,422,921 1,449,461 973,460 45.8 37.7 58.0
Source: CSA, Urban Bi-Annual Employment Unemployment Survey, September 2004,
Statistical Bulletin 319

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Annex 7. Unemployment rate in Urban areas by Sex and Region :2006
Region Unemployment rate
Both sexes Male Female
Country Level 16.7 11.5 22.1
Tigray 13.6 9.4 18.1
Afar 17.1 6.3 30.1
Amhara 10.3 7.7 12.8
Oromia 13.2 7.8 19.3
Somali 24.1 20.5 28.7
Benshangul Gumuze 7.9 4.6 11.8
SNNP 11.6 7 17.2
Gambella 11.2 4.6 19.8
Harari 15.1 12.4 17.9
Addis Abeba 28.6 21.4 36.1
Dire-Dawa 22.5 17.6 27.2
Source: Central Statistical Authority, Urban Bi-annual Employment Unemployment
Survey, Sept. 2006

Annex 8. The Trend of GER at first cycle secondary (9-10) level

Year Boys Girls Total
2000/01 16.1 12.1 14.1
2001/02 20.4 13.7 17.1
2002/03 24.0 14.3 19.3
2003/04 28.2 15.9 22.1
2004/05 34.6 19.8 27.3
Source: Education Statistics Annual Abstract2004/05, MOE

Annex 9. Enrolments I Higher Education Institutions in 2004/05

Program Enrolment percent
Government Non Government Government and program
Non Government
BS F BS F BS F
Diploma 19,765 4,77 29,637 8,326 49,402 13,098 25.8
2
Undergraduate 120,38 27,2 17,775 5,939 138,159 33,146 72.3
Degree 4 07
Postgraduate 3,557 327 3,557 327 1.9
Second Degree
Postgraduate 47 3 47 3
PhD
Total 143,75 32,3 47,412 14,265 191,165 46,574
3 09
Source: Education Statistics Annual Abstract 2004/05, MOE.

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Annex 10. Summary of Basic Health Indicators
Indicators 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05
Population 69,127,021 71,066,000 73,043,510
Potential Health Service Coverage 61.3 64.0 72.1
EPI Coverage 50.4 60.8 70.1
Contraceptives Prevalence Rate 21.5 23.0 25.2
MCH Coverage(antenatal Coverage 27.4 40.8 42.1
Source: FDRE, Ministry of Health, August 2004/05, Health and Health Related Indicators.

53
Annex 11. Ethiopia: Summary of General Government Finance, Consolidated
Budget, 2001/02 - 2005/06
(In millions of Birr)
2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06
Total Revenue and Grants 15077 15911 17817 23936 29047
Revenue 11699 13117 13140 18083 21818
Tax revenue 8373 9330 10431 13365 15509
Direct taxes 3296 3612 3923 5543 4977
Indirect taxes 5076 5718 6508 7822 10533
Domestic indirect taxes 1772 1856 2280 2796 3645
Import duties & taxes 3252 3828 4228 5026 6887
Export taxes 52 34 0 0 0
Non-tax revenue 3327 3787 2708 4718 6309
Grants 3377 2793 4677 5852 7229
Grants in kind/earmarked 2592 2312 2202 2681 3723
Untied cash & CPF/grants 786 481 2475 3171 3506

Expenditure 17951 20455 22122 28898 35098

Current expenditure 11968 13210 13364 14531 16182
Defence 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000
Poverty-targeted expenditure 3387 4118 4400 5069 6203
Education 1928 2427 2688 2975 3587
Health 555 653 653 739 858
Agriculture 780 896 934 1225 1585
Roads 125 143 126 130 172
o/w: HIPC poverty targeted
expenditure 39 41 41 41
Interest payments 1183 1280 1406 1567 1385
Domestic interest 679 686 773 739 846
External interest 504 594 633 828 539
External assistance (food &
related relief aid) 1317 902 876 901 586
Others 3080 3910 3682 3994 5009
Capital expenditure 5983 7245 8114 13600 18916
Central Treasury 2725 3636 4645 9744 13764
External assistance 1275 1410 1326 1780 3137
External loans 1983 2199 2143 2076 2015
o/w HIPC poverty-
targeted expenditure 0 740 778 778 778
o/w: Poverty Targeted
Expenditures 4723 6210 7363 10049 13628

Special programs 1144 982 644 767 0

Overall balance including grants
(excl. special programs) -2874 -4545 -3661 -4195 -6051
Overall balance excluding grants
(excl. special programs) -9578 -11125 -8338 -10048 -13280

54
 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06
Overall balance including grants -4018 -5527 -4305 -4962 -6051
Overall balance excluding
grants -10722 -12107 -8982 -10815 -13280

Financing 4018 5526 4305 4962 6051

External (net) 3618 4676 3041 3443 2051

Gross borrowing 4268 4554 3027 3535 2015
Capital budget 1983 2199 2143 2076 2015
CPF generations/loans 1141 1373 240 692 0
Special programs 1144 982 644 767 0
HIPC relief 0 779 819 713 1015
Amortization paid 650 657 805 804 980

Domestic financing 400 850 1264 1519 4001

Domestic(net) 0 500 1164 1509 4001
Banking system 0 500 1002 1509 4001
Non-bank sources 0 0 162 0 0
Privatization 400 350 100 10 0

2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06

(In percent of GDP)

Total Revenue and Grants 29.1 29.1 27.7 24.8 26.1

Revenue 22.6 24.0 20.5 18.7 19.6
Tax revenue 16.2 17.1 16.2 13.8 13.9
Nontax revenue 6.4 6.9 4.2 4.9 5.7
Grants 6.5 5.1 7.3 6.1 6.5
Expenditure 34.7 37.5 34.4 29.9 31.5
Current expenditure 23.1 24.2 20.8 15.0 14.5
Defense 5.8 5.5 4.7 3.1 2.7
Poverty-targeted expenditure 6.5 7.5 6.8 5.2 5.6
Education 3.7 4.4 4.2 3.1 3.2
Health 1.1 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8
Agriculture 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.4
Roads 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2
o/w HIPC Poverty-targeted
expenditure 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0
Interest payments 2.3 2.3 2.2 1.6 1.2
Others 6.0 7.2 5.7 4.1 4.5
Capital expenditure 11.6 13.3 12.6 14.1 17.0
o/w HIPC Poverty-targeted
expenditure 0.0 1.4 1.2 0.8 0.7
o/w: Poverty Targeted
Expenditures 9.1 11.4 11.5 10.4 12.2

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 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06
Special Programs 2.2 1.8 1.0 0.8 0.0

Overall balance including grants

(excl. special programs) -5.6 -8.3 -5.7 -4.3 -5.4
Overall balance excluding grants
(excl. special programs) -18.5 -20.4 -13.0 -10.4 -11.9

Overall balance including grants -7.8 -10.1 -6.7 -5.1 -5.4

Overall balance excluding grants -20.7 -22.2 -14.0 -11.2 -11.9

Financing 7.8 10.1 6.7 5.1 5.4

External (net) 7.0 8.6 4.7 3.6 1.8
o/w HIPC external assistance 0.0 1.4 1.3 0.7 0.9
Domestic 0.8 1.6 2.0 1.6 3.6
Banking system 0.0 0.9 1.6 1.6 3.6
Privatization 0.8 0.6 0.2 0.0 0.0

Memorandum item
GDP at current market price 51760.7 54585.9 64249 96555 111279
Source: MOFED , 2006.

56