INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Definitions of Research
 A scientific investigation of phenomena, which includes collection, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation with reality.
 A continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown.
 A systematic study or investigation of something for the purposes of answering question posed
by the researcher.
 The process of gathering data or information to solve a particular or specific problem in a
scientific manner.

What are the characteristics of research?

The following are the characteristics of research:
Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher. The collection
of the data relies on practical experience without benefit of the scientific knowledge or theory
Logical. Research is always based on valid procedures and principles. Scientific investigation is done
in an orderly manner so that the researcher has confidence on the results.
Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process. It starts with a problem and ends with a problem.
Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether historical,
descriptive, experimental, or case study.
Replicable. The research designs and procedures are replicated to enable the researcher to
arrive at valid and conclusive results.
Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.

What are the criteria of a good research?

Good research can be thought of as that which uses the scientific method. Emory and
Cooper (1993) suggest that good research should meet the following tests:
1. The problem and the purpose of the research should be clear and specific.
The objectives of the research or statement of the research problem should be clear and
specific. It should include analysis into its simplest elements, its scope and limitations, and
precise specifications of the meanings of all words significant to the research.
2. The procedures used should be detailed to permit another researcher to repeat the research.
The methodology of the research should be explained in detail.. It should reveal with
candor the sources of data and the means by which they were obtained.
3. The research designs should be well planned to yield objective results.
A detailed proposal should be done to explain very well the procedures of research
design to be used, sampling techniques to indicate representativeness of the sample. Direct
observations should be recorded in writing as soon as possible after the event. Efforts
should be made to minimize the influence of personal bias in selecting and recording data
4. The researcher should be honest to report problems encountered in the use of the design and
its effect upon the findings.
A researcher should be honest enough to indicate the problems he encountered
regarding the choice of his research design and its effects on his findings.
5. Use of appropriate statistical tool is important to yield significance on the study. The role of a
statistician should not be overlooked to provide the appropriate statistical tool to be used. The
validity and reliability of data should be checked carefully. The data should be classified in
 ways that assist the researcher to reach pertinent conclusions. When statistical methods are
used, the probability of error should be estimated and the criteria of statistical significance
applied.
6 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
Researchers should not draw conclusions beyond the findings of his study. Personal
experiences and opinions should not be part of the conclusions..

Why is research important to man?

Research has become indispensable to man. The improvement that research has done to
people since the beginning is tremendous. Research is important for the following reasons:
1. Research improves the quality of life. Researchers search for modern techniques to improve
the quality of life of the people. Research may be done along developing of technologies to
improve production to improve the income of the people.
2. Research improves instruction. In order to improve instruction, research should be done.
The output of research should be used in instruction. Several innovations, methods or
strategies have been tried through research to improve instruction. Combinations of
methods and strategies had already been tested
3. Research reduces the burden of work. Many work today has been reduced due to the
advancement in science and technology.

4. Research improves the quality of food products. Through research, the quality of food
products has improved.

What are the various kinds and classification of research?

Researches are classified according to the following criteria:
1. According to Purpose
2. According to Goal
3. According to the Level of Investigations
4. According to the Types of Analysis
5. According to Scope
6. According to Choice of Answers to Problems
7. According to Statistical Content
8. According to Time Allotment
9. According to the Types and Kinds of Research
The kinds and classifications of research are as follows:

According to Purpose
a. Predictive/Prognostic - determines the future operation of the variables
An example of a predictive/prognostic research is
the feasibility study where the researcher shows that
the behavior of this kind of student/person will be
different.
b. Directive – determines what should be done based on the findings.
An example of a directive research is a research
similar to what has been conducted because this
research has been conducted based from the
recommendation of the previous research.
c. Illuminative – concerned with interaction of the components of the variables
An example of an illuminative research is the study
on Factors Affecting the Behavior of gifted students.

According to Goal
a. Basic/Pure – done for the development of theories and principles.
The various theories of management such as the
Theory X and Theory Y were developed as an offshoot
of researches in management.
b. Applied – done to solve some problems or to test the efficiency of theories and principles.

A research on the problems of students .

According to the Level of Investigations
a. Exploratory – study of variables pertinent to a specific situation.
For example is a study on the exploration of the Sierra
Madre Mountain in terms of its floral diversity.
b. Descriptive – study of the relationship of variables.
For example, a study on the Performance of Psychology
Students in their On the Job Training.
Experimental – study of the effects of variables on each other
An example is, A Study on the Effect of Using CellPhone
on the study habits of students .
According to the Types of Analysis
Analytic Approach - identification and isolation of components of a research situation.
An Example is the study on Behavior of people
with schizophrenia
a. Holistic Approach – beginning with the total situation, focusing on the system and its
internal relationships
For example is the integrated research on
the impact of mining the communities of Masinloc
According to Scope
a. Action – application of the steps of the scientific method in the classroom problems
Effects of High Level Thinking Case Analysis in Teaching
education Subjects

According to Choice of Answers to Problems

a. Evaluation – all possible courses of action and what are advantageous.
Impact of Livelihood Training on the Socio-
Economic Situation of the People in the Community
b. Developmental – finding or developing a more suitable instrument or process than what is
available

An example is the Development of a technique to treat

AIDs disease
What are the qualities of a good researcher?
Researchers must have the following qualities:
Intellectual Curiosity. A researcher undertakes reflective thinking, raises questions to find answer,
and continues to read the related literature. As the problem becomes clear he formulates and tests
hypotheses which may be accepted or rejected. The result of the hypothesis depends on the
analysis of data he gathers.
Prudence. A researcher uses the 4M’s (Man, Money, Materials & Machinery) effectively and
economically.
High Tolerance to Healthy Criticism. A researcher is doubtful of the veracity of the results are
collected honestly.
Intellectual Honesty. A researcher’s success and failure depends on his honest collection of data
and its interpretation.
Other traits of researchers are suggested in the following acrostic:
R - Result oriented
E - Efficient
S - Scientific
E - Effective
A - Active
R - Resourceful
C - Creative
H - Honest
E - Economical
R - Religious

What are the requirements of a good research?

A good research requires the following:
A. Systematic- a research proceeds through a series of steps and stages. It follows a logical flow
which must be understood by the researcher.
B. Accurate - a research emphasizes the importance of correspondence between what you say,
you have observed and what has actually occurred.
C. Precise- a research aims at estimating the exact amount of the event that has occurred or may
yet to occur.
Statistics is useful if you quantify the incidence of the event being observed.
Quantitative method is used if the researcher is interested in characterizing the event.
D. Record- observations must be recorded. It is necessary to document observations with the aid
of instruments like questionnaires, tape recorders for interviews.
E. Objective- one’s observations must not be influenced by personal preferences, prejudices,
biases, attitudes and feelings. Scientific research is undertaken through an assessment of
what is rather than what ought to be. Subjective influences may take place especially when
dealing with human behavior.
F. Controlled conditions- refers to aspiring, to eliminate other factors or variables that might
intrude into the observation of the major factors variables to be investigated.
Documentation ensures that other researchers of interested parties will be able to check the
validity of the method applied for a particular investigation and the quality of the results
obtained.
Is research always problem based?
Studies were undertaken in direct response to problems that needed solving. The practical
problem-solving emphasis is a critical feature of applied research, and one should expect such
studies to be closely related to action or policy needs. Pure research is also problem solving, but in
a different sense. It is aimed at solving perplexing questions (that is, problems) of a theoretical
nature that have little direct impact on action or policy decisions. Thus, both applied and pure
research are problem based, but applied research is directed much more to making decisions.

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Principles of ethics in research?

1. Safety or Protection of Participants from Harm
Unless the research has the potential to provide information of extreme benefit to human
beings, a researcher must do all in his/her power to ensure that participants in a research study
or protected from physical or psychological harm, discomfort, or danger that may arise due to
research procedures. A further responsibility is obtaining the consent of individuals who may be
exposed to any risk.
2. Ensuring of Confidentiality of Research Data
The confidentiality of the data collected from the sources should be kept by the researcher.
Whenever possible, the names of the respondents should be withdrawn from all data collections
forms by using numbers or codes. The result of the data should also be held in confidence. The
names of individual respondents should never be used in any publications that describe the
research.
3. Truthfulness to respondents
Deception occurs when the respondent is only told a portion of the truth or when the truth
is fully compromised. Some believe this should never occur. Others suggest two reasons to
legitimate deception: (1) to prevent biasing the respondents prior to the survey or experiment
and (2) to protect the confidentially of a third party (e.g., the client). Deception should not be
used in an attempt to improve response rates.
4. Research with Children
The following are guidelines when using children or minors as participants in a research
study;
a. Informed consent of parent or guardians is required for participants defined as minors.
Signers must be provided all necessary information in appropriate language and must have
the opportunity to refuse.
b. Researchers do not present themselves as diagnosticians or counselors in reporting results
to parents, nor do they report information given by a child in confidence. Children or minors
may never be coerced into participation in a study.
c. Any form of remuneration for the child’s services does not affect the application of these (
and other) ethical principles.

5. Right to Quality Research

From the proposal through the design to data analysis and final reporting, the researcher advises
the client on the proper techniques and interpretations.
6. Benefits
The purpose and benefits of the study or experiment must be concealed from the respondent to
avoid introducing bias. The need for concealing objectives leads directly to the problem of
deception.

7. Debriefing of Respondents
Debriefing usually includes a description of the hypothesis being tested and the purpose of the
experiment. Subjects who were not deceived still benefit from the debriefing session. It is here
that they are able to understand why the experiment was created.

8. Rights to Privacy
The privacy laws are taken seriously and are safeguarded. All individuals have a right to
privacy, and researchers must respect that right. The importance of the right to privacy is
illustrated with an example.

9. Respondents’ Consent
In most cases, securing informed consent from respondents is a simple matter of describing
the proposed survey or other research design and requesting permission to proceed. When dealing
with children, it is wise to have a parent sign a consent form.

10. Client’s Ethics

Occasionally, researchers may be asked by clients to identify respondents or their groups,
alter the data, interpret the data in a favorable light, omit sections of data analysis and
conclusions, or change the research findings. Each of these is an example of unethical client
behavior. Compliance by the researcher would be a breach.

11. Protection of Anonymity

Researchers and assistants protect the confidentiality of the clients in formation and the
anonymity of the respondents. Each person handling data should have signed a confidentiality
statement.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

By Saul McLeod, updated 2017

There exists a fundamental distinction between two types of data: qualitative and quantitative. The
way we typically define them, we call data 'quantitative' if it is in numerical form and 'qualitative' if
it is not.
 Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are not in the form of numbers (Punch,
1998, p. 4).

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its

subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings,
attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.

Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

An interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists
(e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as the behaviorists (e.g., Skinner).
Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate
way of carrying out research, since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the
essence of what it is to be human. Exploring the experience of participants is known as a
phenomenological approach (re: Humanism).

The aim of qualitative research is to understand the social reality of individuals, groups and cultures
as nearly as possible as its participants feel it or live it. Thus, people and groups, are studied in their
natural setting.

Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a
particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context.
Methods (used to obtain qualitative data)

Qualitative researchers use a variety of methods to develop deep understandings of how people
perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

For example, diary accounts, open-ended questionnaires, documents, participant observation, and
ethnography.

The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to
direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual
materials or personal experience.

Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

A good example of a qualitative research method would be unstructured interviews which generate
qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth,
choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s
understanding of a situation.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound
recordings and so on, can be considered qualitative data.

Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field
with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the
data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun &
Clarke, 2006) or discourse analysis.
Key Features
Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative
researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not
contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their
perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in
which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data, without the active participation of the
researcher, no data exists.
The design of the study evolves during the research, and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses.
For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality, it is subjective and exist only in reference to
the observer.
Theory is data driven, and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are
collected.
Limitations

Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from
large-scale data sets.

The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature
of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of
reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the
generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies. Also, contexts, situations, events,
conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent nor can generalizations be made to a
wider context than the one studied with any confidence

The time required for data collection, analysis and interpretation are lengthy. Analysis of qualitative
data is difficult and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to try to interpret qualitative data, and
great care must be taken when doing so, for example, if looking for symptoms of mental illness.

Strengths

Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider's view of the field. This
allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the
scientific, more positivistic inquiries.

Qualitative descriptions can play the important role of suggesting possible relationships, causes,
effects and dynamic processes.

Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which are a reflection of social
reality (Denscombe, 2010).

Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to
the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports in order to examine forms of knowledge
that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research gathers data in a numerical form which can be put into categories, or in rank
order, or measured in units of measurement. This type of data can be used to construct graphs and
tables of raw data.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenonomon across different
settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Methods (used to obtain quantitative data)

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things.
However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires can produce
both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data
as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no”
answers).

Experimental methods limit the possible ways in which a research participant can react to and
express appropriate social behavior. Findings are therefore likely to be context-bound and simply a
reflection of the assumptions which the researcher brings to the investigation.
Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision making. We can
use statistics to summarise our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics
can be descriptive or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarise our data whereas inferential statistics are used to identify
statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups
in a randomised control study).

Key Features
Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias), and is separated from the data.
The design of the study is determined before it begins.
For the quantitative researcher reality is objective and exist separately to the researcher, and is
capable of being seen by anyone.
Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.
Limitations

Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not
allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions may have for those
participants (Carr, 1994).

Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect
analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).

Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small scale
quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010).
This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.

Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or
hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Strengths
Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since
statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as
scientifically objective, and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).

Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.

Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis,
especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).

Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because
numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation. Hypotheses can also be tested because of
the used of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Importance of Proposal
A research proposal is the framework of objectives, goals, expected output, inputs and
activities to be done. According to Bestand Kahn (1989), it is a blueprint of the plan of the
researcher. A proposal contains the budget requirement of the project.
Initially, a proposal may be in capsule form pending its approval. Once it is approved for
implementation by the funding agency it is transformed into detailed proposal. The format of the
proposal varies from institutions to institutions but funding agencies require their own formats.

The proposal has several advantages:

1 It is a course requirement. Every undergraduate or graduate student can never escape doing
research. But before he conducts his research a proposal is a requirement. The subject research
is now a part of the curriculum of almost all courses being offered in the country. A research
proposal is always required of each student as an offshoot of the lectures in the course. It is
usually submitted before the semester ends. For the graduating students a research is required to
be conducted and a manuscript is submitted before graduation.
2. Second, the proposal serves a guide for the researcher to follow in the actual implementation of
the project. Fourth, the proposal obliges the researcher to follow deadlines, targets, and the
estimated budget so that costs and work schedules are monitored. Lastly, the proposal becomes
the primary basis fro the preparation of the final research report which can either be published
and/or presented to the requiring or sponsoring group.

3. The research proposal is in many ways of great value to the sponsoring organization or school
because it enables the organization or school to assess the conceptual and technical competence of
the proponent based on the clarity, coherence, depth, and organization of the proposal .It also
allows the organization or school to set the terms of reference, which include objectives and
expected output that will guide the researcher in preparing the proposal.

4. It becomes the basis of the contract or agreement by which the researcher’s performance is
assessed so that the corresponding compensation or grade can be given.

4. It serves as training for the neophyte researcher to hone his skills in technical writing. Through
his proposal, his skills in writing proposals is developed.

5. Motivating factor for the writer to engage in research. Once the writer discovers that he can
write a proposal, he will continue to write until he discovers that he can become a good researcher.
.6.It can lead to professional growth and promotion. The more research proposals done by the
teacher or researcher, the more publications he can have and theses will all contribute to his
promotion and professional growth.

6. It develops good behavior and attitude towards life. Being a researcher, doing research develops
patience and diligence. . The proponent must be industrious and interested with the proposal to
have the determination to finish it within a certain period of time. A researcher tends to become
honest so that he can come up with reliable results.
7. It strengthens linkages with other agencies. Once the proposal is completed and it has potential
impact to the community, this can be submitted for funding.

What are the major steps in research?

The steps in conducting research are:
1. Identification of Research Problem-Formulation of Research Problem and Objectives
2. Development of the Theoretical Framework
3. Designing the Research Methodology
4. Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation of data
5. Presentation of Conclusions and recommendations
6. Taking Course of Action
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

How is a research problem formulated?

Problem formulation appears to be the most difficult aspect in doing research. In fact many
students and even teachers hate doing research because identifying problem is very difficult. Not all
questions are researchable and not all research questions are answerable.
Edralin (2002) suggests that a student researcher may use the following as source of problems
or problem areas:
1. Literature. Before one can identify his problem, he should first read literature. Literatures include
books, journals, theses, dissertations, monographs, and similar published and unpublished research
publications. One has to read the recommedations of previous studies or researches.
2.Professionals. Professionals in the business or such as managers and employees from government
agencies or even in the firms and other departments in the business sector may be consulted to give
problems.
3. Academicians. Teachers from higher education institutions are some of the most reliable sources of
problems . They may not be in the business but research in higher education institutions is being
strengthened. State colleges and universities are mandated to do research. Professors of SUC s are
required to do research, hence they are experienced.
4.Conferences / Fora / Symposia. The issues and prospects which are being discussed by leaders,
mangers and other researchers pertaining to business can provide topics or areas which are worth
conducting.
5.Funding Agencies. Funding agencies provide their list of priority programs and projects. If problems
are anchored along their priorities for funding, chances are the proposals submitted will be funded.

What are the considerations in selecting a problem?

1. Newness of Topic. Topic should be relatively new or has not been done before.
2. Availability of Data. Needed data, primary or secondary, can be acquired to answer the problem
3. Time constraint. Research goal are achievable within the given timeframe.
4. Availability of Resources. Access to funds, facilities, computer technology, and human resources exist
for one to undertaken the study.
5. Significance of Topic. Research findings could comprise a valuable contribution to the field.
6. Availability of Literature. Literatures are available to serve as basis in constructing especially the
methodology.
7. Timeliness of the research. Research problems formulated should answer he existing problem.

2.1 Formulation of the Research Problem and Objectives

2.1.1 Formulation of Research Problem

In formulating the problem statement, the following criteria should be considered:

1. The research problem is written in question form.
.2. The research problem identifies a specific area.
3. It indicates a specific area
4.Topic is phrased in workable team
5. The scope is limited
 6. he words used are unbiased
. 7.The topic is phrased in workable and manageable terms.
8.The scope is limited to realistic parameters that are not too narrow not too broad
9.The words used are unbiased, objective, and not emotion-laden.
10. The relationship between variables to be studied are clearly cited.
11. The phrases and wordings are measurable and can be empirically proven.
12. The research problem identified the data and techniques needed to answer the questions.
13. The research problem is stated clearly in grammatical terms.

2.1.2 Formulation of Research Objectives

In some research, instead of statement of the problem, objectives are given. The general
objective is presented first followed by the specific objectives. Research objectives are presented
to what are to be attained in the study.
Given this nature, research objectives provide a detailed definition and delimitation of the
research problem. Moreover, objectives give particular and specific reference to the question
posed at the introduction by formulating subordinate items that need to be investigated in order
to answer the question .

Objectives should meet the following criteria:

1. Specific. The objective of the study is definite to a particular area.

2. Manageable. The study can be controlled.
3. Attainable .The objective of the study is doable.
4. Realistic. The study looks into available resources and is practical.
5. Time bound. The study should have a duration

Chapter 2. FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

2.2 Review of Related Literature

The survey of related literature involves the comprehensive documentation of published and
unpublished materials relevant to the research problem.
The review of literature is primarily done by going through secondary sources in various libraries
and/or accessing the data through the computer.
In undertaking an adequate related literature survey, researches may follow these guidelines:

1. Identify the relevant data sources. Data may be obtained from published and unpublished works
available in libraries and offices. One may refer to indexes or catalogues that compile lists of journals,
periodicals, books, articles, magazines, newspaper, and monographs. Researchers should be able to
access libraries in websites, for collections that are relevant to the topic under review.

2. Develop a systematic procedure and note-taking skill in collecting literature survey data. Researchers
will always be faced with the problem of wanting to gather as much information as possible within a
period of time. In this case, familiarity with the location of the materials in the library and possessing
 computer skills in accessing and downloading databased information will be helpful. One should start
with the latest (preferably the last 10 years) bibliographies published locally and internationally. When
going through the material, the researcher should first read the abstract or executive summary, before
going through the entire text, to know if the work is relevant to one’s proposed study.
3. Write a concise review of related literature. The review of related literature should never be an
enumeration of annotated bibliography. Data should be presented by topic or variable based on the
objectives of the study. Information should not be too detailed nor too brief to present the study
overview. Text should be written in the past tense, citing author and date of publication.

2.4 Significance of the Study

One of the primary considerations in undertaking research is the immediate or long-term benefit
accruing to the end-user. It is, therefore, vital that the researcher is able to cogently articulate the value
of the investigation to various individuals, groups, or sectors. Study-derived benefits may accrue to all or
any of the following:

2.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The statement of the research problem requires a detailed explanation of the study’s parameters
and limitations. The section on scope and limitation should indicate study coverage with concrete
reference to (1) variables, (2) source of data, (3) method(s) to be employed in data collection and
analysis, (4) timeframe, and (5) constraints that might be encountered in the conduct of investigation,
such as non-availability of data, uncooperativeness of respondents, inability of respondents to recall
accurate responses, and confidentiality of some relevant information.

3.1 Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a supposition of an occurrence of an event that can be tested. It is an educated
guess which can be proven empirical. One advantage of hypothesis is that it enables researcher to
formulate a provisional explanation of outcome that can serve as a guide in the investigation. One good
source of hypothesis is the results of previous investigations on the same line of topic to be studied.

Two types of hypothesis:

1. Null hypothesis expresses a no relationship or no difference between two variables, or an assertion
that is it hoped to be rejected.
2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha). This hypothesis expresses that there is a relationship or a difference
between two variables or the conjecture top be accepted.
The statement of the hypothesis is usually written in the null form (Ho).. Statistically, it is the null
hypothesis that is tested or proven. If the null hypothesis is rejected, then the alternative hypothesis is
accepted.

The Variable
Meaning of Variable

A variable is defined as a quantity or a “characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values of
properties.” (Sevilla et al., 1992). Numerical values or categories represent these quantities or
characteristics.

Types of Variable
There are five types of variables. These are the (1) independent variable, (2) dependent variable,
(3) moderate variable, (4) control variable, and (5) interning variable.
1. Independent variable. This is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher to
determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon.
2. Dependent variable. This is the response variable which is observed and measured to
determine the effect of the independent variable.
3. Moderate variable. This is a secondary or special type of independent variable chosen by
the researcher to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationship between the
independent and dependent
variables.
4. Control variable. This is a variable controlled by the researcher in which the effects can be
neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable.
5.Intervening variable. This is a variable which interferes with the independent and dependent
variables, but its effects can either strengthen or weaken the independent and dependent variables.

Components of the Research Process

The basic components of the research process are (1) Problem Identification (2) Formulation of
hypothesis , (3) Hypotheses, (5) Review of Related Literature, (6) Research Design, (7) Data Collection, (8)
Data Processing and Statistical Treatment, (9) Analysis and Interpretation, and (10) Summary,
Conclusions, and Recommendations.
Figure 2 presents the schematic diagram of the research process.

Problem Identification

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Assumptions

Hypotheses

METHODOLOGY Review of Related Literature

What the are the four major research designs?

1. Historical Method Research Design
2. Descriptive Method
3. Experimental MethodData Collection
4. Case Study Method
Data Processing and Statistical Treatment

Analysis And Interpretation

1. Historical Method
History is a branch of knowledge concerned with the past events, especially those involving
human affairs. Any integrated narrative or descriptive of past events or facts written in a spirit or critical
inquiry for the whole truth.
Historical Research is a systematic critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events using critical
method in the understanding and interpretation of facts which are applicable to the current issues and
problems.

Uses of Historical Methods

Historical method has search the past for solutions to contemporary problems and needs
It gives people a sense of continuity of the past to the present.
By chronicling events of enduring worth which confers upon the individual persons’ consciousness of
unity and feeling of the importance of human achievement.

Major Steps of Historical Research

1. Collection of Data
2. Criticism of the data collected
3. Presentation of the facts in readable form

Sources of Historical Research

1. Primary Sources – documents and remains
2. Secondary Sources – materials such as histories of education, bibliographies, encyclopedia and other
sources.

2. Descriptive Method

• The study focuses at the present condition.

• The purpose is to find new truth.

Descriptive studies are of large value in providing facts on which scientific judgment is based.

What are the types of descriptive research?

1. Descriptive survey
This approach is appropriate whenever the objects of any class vary among themselves
and one is instead knowledge the extent to which different conditions obtain among these
objects. In descriptive survey it is necessary to determine the psychological and social aspects of
research by way of application or implementation of evidence to recognize facts and influence.

2. Descriptive Normative Survey

The term normative is sometimes used because surveys are frequently made to ascertain
the normal or typical condition or practice, or to compare local test results with a state or normal
norm
 3. Descriptive Status
This approach to problem – solving seeks to answer questions to the real facts relating to
existing conditions.
A techniques or quantitative description which determines the prevailing conditions in a group of
case chosen for study.
Stress current conditions with an implication of the idea that things will change.

4. Descriptive Analysis
This is method of determining and describing the nature of a thing by separating it into its
parts or several components.

5. Descriptive Classification
This method is employed in natural science objects. An example is the collection pf plants
and then these are classified.

6. Descriptive Evaluative
This method is design to appraise carefully the worthiness of the current study.

7. Descriptive Comparative
It is a comparative survey where the research considers at least two entities and establishes a
formal procedure for obtaining criterion data on the basis of which he can compare and conclude
which of the two is better

8.Correlational Survey
This is designed to determine the relationship f two variables. An example is the relationship of
shelf life of a product with marketability.

9. Longitudinal Survey
This study is designed to determine performance of a product in the market every month of
December. This study involves much time allotted for investigation of the same subjects at two or
more points in time

2. Experimental Method
It is a problem solving, approaching that the study is described in the future or what will be when
certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated.
To conduct experiments means to try in order to see what happens.
An experiment represents directed observation guided by the purpose of the study and by
understanding of the conditions.

What are the types of experimental designs?

1. Single Group Design

This is a design, which involves single treatment with two or more levels.

2. Parallel Group Design

 This is a design which involves with two or more groups are used at the same time with only one
single variable (control group) is manipulated or changed

3. Counter Balanced Design

This design falls on the quasi-experimental design and called rotation design.
It involves an exchange of two or more treatments taken by the subjects during the experiments.
The arrangement employed in this design is the Latin square in which the variable in a form of
square occurs once in each row or column.

4. Pretest Posttest Group Design

This design involves the experimental group and the control which are carefully selected through
randomization procedures.

5. Complete Randomized Design

This design in which a group of test plants or animals is studied only once but subsequent
treatment is applied to determine the cause of change.
There is no control in this design but the subjects will undergo randomization procedures

3. Case Study Method

It is a problem solving technique that the study is described from the past, present and future. It
is an intensive investigation of a particular individual , institutions,, community or any group
considered as a unit which includes the development , adjustment, remedial, or corrective
procedures that suitable for diagnosis of the cause of maladjustment or favorable development

The Case Study

1. Recognition and determination of the status of the
phenomenon to be investigated.
2. Collection of data relative to the factors or circumstances associated with the given phenomenon.
3.Diagnosis or identification of casual factors as a basis for remedial or development treatment.
4.Application of remedial or adjustment measures.
5. Subsequent follow-up to determine the effectiveness of the corrective or development measures
applied.

SAMPLING

Sampling is the process of choosing adequate and representative elements from the population.
By studying the sample, 1) the researcher is able to draw insights and conclusions for the entire
population.
In data gathering, sampling has many advantages over census or total enumeration. Aside from
being able to generalize the findings for the entire population, 2) the researcher is also able to save in
terms of time, efforts, and cost, 3) Sampling makes the scope of the study manageable because of the
small number of respondents to be covered, and increase the likelihood of obtaining more reliable and
accurate result.
One major problem that can be encountered is that the sample drawn is not the representative of
the population from which it is drawn.
 For reliability, samples, however must meet the criteria of adequacy and representative ness.
Adequacy refers to the sample size (n), while representative ness pertains to the possession of the
homogenous characteristics of the sample as specified characteristics of the population.

As a process, sampling involves this steps:

Sampling designs are commonly classified into probability and nonprobability sampling.
Probability sampling gives each element of the population a known and equal chance to be included as a
sample, while nonprobability sampling does not provide this predetermined chance. Probability is used
when inferences about the population are required, as in thesis, dissertation or other academic
researches. Nonprobability sampling is usually adopted when immediate information feedback is
needed, as in marketing research studies, such as product launching.

SAMPLING DESIGN
Whether a research design is descriptive or experimental, sampling is necessary, if the population
of the study is too large where the 4 M’s (Man, Money, Material and Machinery) resources of the
investigator are limited. And it is advantageous for him to use sample survey rather than the total
population.
However, the use of the total population is advisable if the number of subjects under study is less
than 100.
Sampling may be defined as the method of getting a representative portion of a population. The
term, population, is the aggregate or total of objects, persons, families, species or orders of plants or of
animals.
Advantages of Sampling
The following are the advantages of sampling:
1. It saves time, money and effort. The researcher can save time, money and effort because the
number of subjects involved is small. There are only a small number to be collected,
 tabulated, presented, analyzed and interpreted, but the use of sample gives a comprehensive
information of the results of the study.
2. It is more effective. Sampling is more effective if every individual of the population without
bias has an equal chance of being included in the sample and data are scientifically collected,
analyzed and interpreted.
3. It is faster and cheaper. Since sample is only a “drop in bucket,” the collection, tabulation,
presentation, analysis and interpretation of data are rapid and less expensive because of the
small number of subjects.
4. It is more accurate. Fewer errors are made due to the small size of data involved in collection,
tabulation, presentation, analysis and interpretation.
5. It gives more comprehensive information. Since there is a thorough investigation of the study
due to a small sample, the results give more comprehensive information because all members
of the population have an equal chance of being included in the sample.

Limitations of Sampling
If sampling design has its strength, it also has its weaknesses. The following are advantages of
sampling design:
1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed subclassifications because of a small
number of subjects.
2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the results may be misleading.
3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is lacking, the results could
be erroneous.
4. The characteristic to be observed may occur rarely in a population, e.g., teachers over 30
years of teaching experience.
5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare.

4.2.1 Probability Sampling

1. Random sampling allows each element in the population an equal chance of being chosen as a
respondent.

2.Systematic sampling makes use of a constant number in the selection of a sample.. This constant
number is a constant number (k) is derived from dividing the total population (N) by the computed
sample size (n). The formula is k=N. similar to random sampling. This sampling is used when the
population is heterogeneous. The availability of the list of the population frame is necessary to apply this
technique.
3. Stratified sampling. In this type of sampling, the population is divided into subgroup/strata helps in
the selection of respondents when there are already identifiable subgroups or strata of elements
within the population which are of interest to the researcher. Once the stratification is made, the final
respondents can then be selected either by random or systematic sampling using proportionate
number of elements. Stratifying the population based on variables such as gender, age, income level,
size of company, nature of business, ownership of firm, establishes the homogeneity within each
subgroup so that clear differences between groups are determined.
4. Cluster sampling involves the grouping or division of the elements of the population into
heterogeneous groups. Then some of these groups are randomly selected and all the elements of the
cluster are studied. It should be noted that each cluster sample is composed of respondents with
 different perspectives and interests. This way of selecting is deemed less costly. Some normally
occurring clusters in business research are cluster of managers, customers, suppliers, stock brokers,
investors, accountants, and advertiser.
5. Area sampling pertains to the grouping of the population into geographical divisions before selecting
the respondents. This sampling can be done if there exists a clear delineation of communities where
the respondents can be found. Common sampling areas are villages, subdivisions, cities, and
municipalities.
6. Double sampling means getting a smaller sample from the initial large sample. This design is
sometimes called sample within the sample. Double sampling is usually done when the researcher
intends to gather more in-depth and focused data on the topic of investigation. The initial larger sample
provides preliminary information which helps in determining the second sample set to be drawn from
the same sample group.

7. Multi- Stage sampling is a cluster sampling done in several stages. The type is usually used in
nationwide survey, where each region, province, city, municipality, or baranggay is subdivided and
selected, before the actual respondents are chosen.
8.Quota sampling is selecting the predetermined required number from the population regardless of
how they are chosen. This design is usually done in opinion or poll surveys. An example is shown below.
Quota sampling is used through the following steps:
8.1 Stratification of the population.
Based on previous studies made, the following are the percentage distribution among different
income levels in the municipality: low income (60%), middle income (30%), and high incomer (10%).
There are also known areas (barangays and villages) where households of particular income
segments can be found.
8.2 Predetermining of quota. Based on budget considerations, only 100 respondents could be
interviewed-60 from low-income, 30 from middle-income, and 10 from high-income households.
8.3 Selection of samples. Interviews were then conducted among: (a) the first 60 respondents from
low-income households available for interview and found in the low-income barangay; (b0 the
first 30 available respondents from middle-income households from the middle income villages,
and and (c) first 10 available respondents from high-income households found in high income
villages.
9. Judgment sampling involves the selection of respondents considered to be in the best position, or
most knowledgeable, to give the needed information. Some data about the company are known only
to key informants, such as the controller, managers, or owners of the firm.
10. Convenience sampling allows the researcher to gather data from respondents who are conveniently
available to provide the necessary information. The design is used to get information fast.

11. Accidental sampling implies that information is collected from respondents who, by chance or
circumstance, are met by the researcher in the process of data gathering.
12.Snowball sampling means choosing initial samples. These samples will then refer other respondents
from whom the same information may be obtained.
13. Purposive sampling involves the selection of key informants based on a predetermined set of criteria.
These are people considered to be the most appropriate source of data in terms of the objectives of the
study.
Validity, Reliability and Usability of Research Instrument

The qualities of a good research instrument are:

1. Validity
2. Reliability
3. Usability
Validity
It is the degree to which a measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure.
The validity of a measuring instrument:
 Soundness
 Effectiveness
 Application

Kind of validity
1. Content Validity
It is the extent to which the content is truly representative of the content of the course.

2. Concurrent Validity
It is the degree in which the test agrees or correlates with a criterion set up as an acceptable
measure.

3. Predictive Validity
This is determined by showing how well predictions are made from the test are confirmed by the
valid information gathered.
4. Construct Validity
It is the extent to which the test measures a theoretical construct or trait.
Examples are intelligence and mechanical aptitude tests

Reliability
It is the extent to which a test is dependable, self-consistent and stable.

Methods of estimating the Reliability of Good Research Instrument

1. Test-retest Method
2. Parallel-forms Method
3. Split-half Method
4. Internal-consistency Method

1. Test-retest Method
The same research instrument is administered twice to the same group of subjects and the
correlation coefficient is determined.
2. Parallel-forms Method
 Parallel or equivalent forms of a test may be administered to the group of subjects, and the
paired observations correlated.
“In estimating reliability by the administration of parallel or equivalent forms of a test criteria
parallelism is required.”
3. Split-half Method
It is administered once, but the test items are divided into two halves. The common procedure is
to divide a test into odd and even items.

4. Internal-consistency Method
It is used with psychological tests which consist of dichotomously scored items. The examinee either
passes or fails in an item. A rating of 1 is assigned for a pass and 0 for a failure.

Usability
It is the degree to which the research instrument can be satisfactorily used by teachers, researchers,
supervisors and school managers without undue expenditure of time, money, and effort.
It can also mean practicability.

Factors that determine Usability

1. Ease of administration
2. Ease of scoring
3. Ease of interpretation and application
4. Low cost
5. Proper mechanical make-up

What are the methods of data collection?

1. Primary data collection- it involves the gathering of data from the respondents through the use
of different techniques such as survey, observation, tests and scales and experimentation.
Other techniques of collecting primary data are the following:

1.1Delphi method – is a qualitative process of acquiring information on issues. It involves forecasting or

projecting trends or outcomes. Eg. Prospects of the banking industry
1.2Projective method – the use of standardized psychological tests such as inkblots, sentence completion
and thematic apperception to probe deeper into the minds, behavior and attitudes of respondents.
1.3Unobtrusive method – uses other data sources aside from individuals. For instance the time record is
a source of information on employee attendance.

2. Secondary data collection – it involves the acquisition of data from second hand sources like
census reports, financial statements, annual reports, brochures, catalogues and other documents
and reports.

Conducting A Survey
Survey is the most common method used to gather opinions, current conditions, preferences, health
care needs, attitudes or any information that might be useful in any research undertaking. The survey is
the most common way of gathering data.
Survey Research
Survey research studies large and small populations (or sample universe) by selecting and studying
samples chosen from the population.
Survey research is the collection of information from a fraction or a sample of a population to arrive
at generalizations about the population.
The survey is a fact-finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation. It is used to collect
demographic data about people’s behavior, practices, intentions, beliefs, attitudes, opinions, judgments
interests, perceptions and the like. Then, such data are analyzed, organized and interpreted (Calderon,
1993).

What are the types of survey?

Surveys can be conveniently classified by the methods in which they obtain information: personal
interview, panel, telephone, mail questionnaire and e-mail.
1. Personal Interview
This is a face-to-face meeting of individuals interacting purposely together to get information
regarding the research topic (Rivera, 1999). Another definition advanced is that personal interview is a
method of obtaining information or gathering data from people that is a carefully planned, person-to-
person, question-to-answer session type (Pablo, 2003).
2. Panel
In a panel survey, respondents are selected and interviewed, and then re-interviewed, and then re-
interviewed and the results studied at a later time. The panel technique enables the researchers to study
changes in behaviors and attitudes of a particular group or sample at various times.
3. Telephone surveys
The telephone survey has little to recommended beyond speed and low cost. When the interviewers
are unknown to the respondents, they are limited by a possible nonresponse, uncooperativeness and
reluctance of the respondents to answer more than simple, superficial questions. Yet, telephoning can
sometimes be useful in obtaining information essential to a study, especially when the study is limited by
time constraints
4. The Mail Questionnaire
The mail questionnaire is another type of survey wherein a questionnaire is mailed to the
respondents. The questionnaire is accompanied by a cover letter that states the reason or purpose why
the survey is being undertaken and the acknowledgement. A postage paid self-addressed envelope is
given to facilitate the return of the survey questionnaire.
5. Survey by electronic mail (e-mail)
With computers, surveys facilitated through the e-mail are now possible. The questionnaire, with its
purpose and objective, is sent to the e-mail address of sample respondents. The researchers should make
sure that the directions are clear to elicit the needed data.

How to conduct survey?

The following are steps to be done before conducting a survey:
1. Start with the objectives of the survey. The general and specific problems that are to be solved are as
carefully and as completely stated as possible.
2. List each step to be taken.
3. End with a final report.
What are the steps in conducting a survey research?
1. Identify the need for the research.
2. Formulate the objectives of the research.
3. Determine the information to be gathered.
4. Identify the method of data collection to be used.
5. Design a sample. Select the respondents to be included in the study.
6. Design the data collection form. Pretest its validity and reliability.
7. Revise and finalize the questionnaire.
8. Collect data. Administer the questionnaire.
9. Analyze the data through statistical means.
10. Write the results.
11. Submit the research paper.
There are other types of survey techniques or approaches. The purpose of the survey would
determine the survey technique or approach to use. Some example are poll survey, market survey,
community survey, census and school survey.

Computer-Assisted Survey
College students are very much aware that knowledge is now limitless. Students are thus honed to
gather, analyze and interpret data or they can contribute to existing body of knowledge. Equipping our
freshmen students with the rudiments of computer operation will help them generate and later share
knowledge. Now, even surveys can be accessed through the computer.

One of the big problems is computer-assisted interviews aside from the cost and maintenance of the
technology is the organization of the computer program Whereas the face-to-face interviewer can
nimbly adjust the paper instrument to accommodate a variety of responses and problems, a computer
screen full or written alternatives (called branching and skipping) can be a little messy. Every complication
increases the risk of data loss.

Interview
Webster (1986) defines the interview as a meeting in which information is obtained from the
interviewee. It is a face-to-face meeting of individuals interacting together purposely to get information
regarding a research topic. The interview is an important survey instrument where the interviewer
questions a select group of respondents to gather important data needed for the study. Interviews may
be classified according to purpose, according to format and according to style.

What are the types of interview?

According to Purpose
Treece, et. al. (1973) classifies the interview according to purpose as follows:

Standard Interview
This is otherwise known as the formal interview.This interview uses substantially uniform and
well-established questions without variation from the interview schedule. This interview is conducted in
the same way as the other types of interview.
 A. Nonstandardized Interview
This is also known as the informal interview. This interview involves the use of a set of questions
organized by the interviewer according to a specific pattern of questions and the method appropriate to
the situation or condition. The interviewer is given the liberty to organize the interview questions and
the manner of asking the interviewees.

B. Semistandardized Interview
This interview is the combination of the standardized and the nonstandardized interviews with
the questions asked by the interviewer regarding the stated specific problems of the study.

Nondirective Interview
This type of interview gives liberty to the interviewees to talk freely on the questions asked or the
topic given by the interviewer.

C. Focused Interview
This type is also called indepth interview and is similar to the informal interview. In this type, the
interviewer focuses on asking questions on specific topics that are to be investigated in-depth.

According to Format
Interview classified according to format are (Manuel, 1976):
1. Standardized or Structural Interview
2. Semistandardized or Semistructural Interview
3. Unstructured or Nonstandardized Interview

According to Style
There are tow types of interview according to style, namely: formal and informal interviews.

Formal Interview
In this type of interview, the interviewer follows a standard set of questions.
The interview schedule and the interview guide mentioned in this type are the interview tools
used in research.
The interview schedule is an instrument made up of questions similar to that of the questionnaire
accomplished by the researcher/interviewer during the conduct of the interview, while the interview
guide is made up of an idea, concept or general information the will guide the researcher in the conduct
of the interview.

Important Points to Consider in the Conduct of an Interview

1. Preparing for the Interview. This involves working out an interview guide, an interview schedule
and identifying possible strategies to utilize in the conduct of the interview.
 2. Knowing the appropriate place and time for the interview. This includes selecting an ideal,
comfortable place and suitable time to conduct the interview.

3. Developing rapport. The interviewer should develop harmonious, friendly and cordial atmosphere
with the interviewee at the start of the interview.

4. Sustaining the interview. The interviewer should learn to carry on the conversation smoothly until
the end of the interview. If needed, some key words provided by the interviewer could help sustain the
interview.

5. Recording the Interview. During the actual interview, portable tape recorder could be used to
accurately document the interview. This will present misquoting or misinterpreting any statement made
by the interviewee.

6. Closing the interview. If the interviewer feel the conversation should stop, the interview should
end with the expression of deep gratitude and appreciation for the time, effort and generosity of the
interviewee in providing information relevant to the study.

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Analysis of data and interpretation of results are difficult tasks for the researcher, especially if he is
not expert in diagnosing the correct statistical tools to answer the research problems/objectives.
Analysis should be done first before interpretation. An analysis is useless without interpretation
while interpretation is impossible without analysis. In analyzing the data, statistical techniques are used
to give meaning to the data gathered from the subjects. A set of raw data per se is meaningless but has
meaning once it is interpreted. For instance, a correlation value of 0.95is meaningful only if it is verbally
interpreted as having a high relationship. Generally speaking, analyzing and interpreting the raw data
should go hand in order to give meaningful results. Interpretation is important to have a clearer meaning
of the research findings.

Data Analysis
Data analysis may be defined as an examination of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality,
attribute, trait, pattern, trend, relationship among others so as to answer research questions which
involve statistical techniques and procedures.
The bases in analyzing research data are specific problems/ objectives, hypotheses, measuring
instruments and statistical tools.
There are 10 types of data analysis.
(1) Univariate analysis,
(2) bivariate analysis,
(3) multivariate analysis,
(4) normative analysis,
(5) status analysis,
(6) descriptive analysis,
(7) classification analysis,
(8) evaluative analysis,
(9) comparative analysis,
 (10) cost effective analysis.
After preparation of data, these may now be subjected to the type of analysis identified by the
researcher in the proposed research methodology. If the data only require qualitative analysis,
descriptive tools such as content analysis and descriptive statistics can be used. Content analysis is a
systematic process of ascertaining the qualitative meaning of information which can be used for
interpreting the outcome of a set of observations or responses. Content analysis is usually applied on
open-ended questions related to processes, procedures, systems, perceptions, and feelings about
courses of action on varied problems.
Once the data had been prepared, the researcher or data tabulator/encoder may now manually
record or enter the data directly to the computer file. From these tabulated or encoded data, a data set
file can be generated (refer to Appendix G for a sample of data set). At this stage, data adjustment may
be done to enhance to quality for analysis. Statistical adjustments commonly done include creating
dummy variables to respecify nominal variables, collapsing large or few variables, transforming scales
into comparable levels, or assigning weights for some underrepresented sample cases.

WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

1. PREPARING
- Identify the purpose/ the aims of the research question
- Identify the audience – lecturer/ supervisor/ contemporary/ organization management/ staff. The
amount of the background included will vary depending on the knowledge of the “audience”.
2. COLLECTING AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION
There are two main sources of information depending on the research task:
1. Reading – theory and other research
2. Research – experiments, data collection – questionnaires, surveys, observation, interviews.
Organize and collect the information in a logical order. Make sure you record the bibliographic
information of your reading as you go along.
3. PLANNING
Before writing the report, prepare a detailed plan in outline form. Consider the ffg.
a. Logical organization – information in a report must be organized logically. Communicate the
main ideas followed by supporting details and examples. Start with the more important or
significant information and move on to the least important information.
b. Headings – use headings and suitable sub headings to clearly show the different sections. In
longer reports, the sections should be numbered.
4. WRITING THE REPORT
1. Draft the report from your detailed plan.
2. Do not worry too much about the final form and language, but rather on presenting the ideas
coherently and logically.
3. Redraft and edit. Check that sections contain the required information and use suitable
headings, check ideas flow in a logical order and remove any unnecessary information.
4. Write in an academic style and tone.
- Use a formal objective style
- Generally avoid personal pronouns; however, some reports based on your field experience
or work placement can be reflective, the first person can be used. For example, “I
observed”.
 The guidelines to be considered in the preparation of the research output are as follows.

1.Purpose. Type. Length, and nature of data being presented should be relevant to the purpose of the
researcher. It must be clear whether the purpose of the research is to inform, or to critique a previously
done investigation about an issue, or to propose policies or strategies. It must be ensured that the
problem of the paper is properly addressed from the beginning to end.
2.Target Reader-End-User. Contents and presentation of data should be pertinent to the needs of the
target reader or end-user. Sometimes, even the format, length, and the style of writing are specified by
the end-user, particularly the schools when these are part of their requirements in a thesis/
dissertation course. Funding agencies, like the Commission on Higher Education, Department of
Science and Technology Philippine Council for Agriculture and Forestry Research and Development,
and Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Agricultural Research specify their preferred formats, length
of report, and the accompanying appendices.
3.Clarity. Using specific, measurable, and descriptive words will help in illustrating statements and
ideas. Logical data organization and sound interpretation add clarity to the report. Do not make
conclusions and recommendations not warranted by data on hand.
4. Appropriate Words. Concepts or variables or words with flawed meaning, given a particular situation
or context, should be avoided. Avoid the use of jargon. The language of the written report must be
familiar to the reader or is commonly used in day-by-day business in the field of the end-user. Technical
terms, if cannot be avoided, must be defined operationally. Words which appeal to emotions, biases,
and moral judgement must be avoided.
5. Style
The written composition should be consistent. Correct grammar, right spelling, proper punctuation, short
and simple sentences, and use of the active voice should be observed. It is appropriate to use the past
tense when referring to steps or procedures already completed or to data of a previous research.
However, it is correct to use the present tense when presenting proofs or interpreting tables or graphs
immediately under discussion.
Technical writing in research also requires that the report be written in the third person. Therefore, the
use of “I, we, and our” should be avoided.
6. Graphic Aids. One way of effectively sending the message of the report is to use graphic aids such as
tables, graphs, maps, and diagrams properly. These graphic aids can be used as an integral or
supplemental part of the text.
Graphs/Charts. These are visual forms of presenting the data. Symbols such as lines, bars, pictures, and
circles are used to capture the essence of the data. Each graph/chart should include:
7. Body contains the entire set of data being discussed in the text.
8. Legends to explain the symbols used in the body.
9. Sources to indicate if data came from a secondary source.
10. Acknowledgment and Citation. There are instances in the report when the source(s) of information
should be carefully cited and acknowledgment. Acknowledgment is necessary when quoting more than a
few lines for publication from copyrighted sources. In this case, permission is usually sought, either from
the author or publisher. On the other hand, if paraphrasing and/or borrowing of ideas have been done, it
is common practice to acknowledge the source(s) either by the use of endnotes, footnotes, and direct
citation in the text or in the bibliography.
11. Format. Although research formats can vary depending on the need of the end-user, the format that
follows tries to include all the possible contents of any research report. The researcher may adjust
one’s report by using the following model:
12. Title Page. The title must be brief, straightforward, and must capture the essence of the
investigation. This page must also indicate the name of the researcher and the date the report is
being submitted.
13. Table of Contents. The topics covered in the report must be indicated in sequence with the
responding page where they are found.
14 Abstract/Executive Summary. The abstract is usually written in not more than 150-500 words or one
to two pages. The contents are written in the past tense. Some examples are presented in the
following pages.
15.Conclusion. This portion must be able to directly state the answers to the research problem and
hypothesis of the study. This is written coherently and concisely.
16. Recommendations. This part requires the presentation of suggestions or courses of action relevant
to the findings of the study which the end-user can adopt. Aside from relevance, recommendations
should be made in terms of cost, application, and time elements on the part of the end-user or
future researchers. Therefore, each suggestion should be explained concisely.
17. Bibliography. This portion contains a complete list references used in the study. The format
recommended by the APA Manual of 1994 is suggested. The bibliography of this book provides
examples.

Presentation of Research Results

The main key to the successful presentation is to repeat your ‘story’ four times: in the title,
abstract, introduction (or chapter 1) and in the text. That is, make readable and as complete as possible
versions of your work using the order of 10, 100, 1000 and 10.000 words. Because you have four
different types of readers. Among those who will ever notice your work, I estimate that 80% will see only
title, 15% will read the abstract, 4% will read also introduction, and the surviving 1% will read the whole
paper. This is assuming you did your job properly, otherwise you will have 0% in the last group.

Title
Choose a title that enables the expert to figure out the essence of the basic idea(s) and the main
contribution(s). Wrong title may bring you wrong referees or examiners, and may not attract busy
colleagues to your work when seeing it on your web page or on a search engine that may not even catch
your work (which decreases your visibility). If you are solving problem X using method Y, you have
probably searched Internet for both X and Y. Others do the same, so let your work be observed easily.

Abstract
State clearly what problem has been studied and/or what is the goal of the thesis/paper. Give a
brief statement on existing solutions and their drawbacks. List major contributions of the thesis. State
briefly assumptions and limitations. The abstract should also include major idea(s), the type (e.g.
performance, complexity) and result of analysis done.
The abstract is written for researchers that are familiar with the research area, and can grasp your
contribution easily. Most of them have worked on the same or related problem. Clear abstract is the key
to having your work properly credited in other people’s work, since again colleagues may be too busy to
figure it themselves, and are more likely to ignore it then to spend time doing the work you were
supposed to do. Examiners will also have a friendly start with your text. Misleading abstracts are
unfortunately quite common practice in the research literature. Avoid excessive explanations that should
be part of introduction. First answer above questions, then see whether you have space to say anything
else.
This structure is also suitable for performance evaluation type of articles. In a performance
evaluation article, the problem is to determine the best protocol under various conditions. Existing
performance evaluations are existing solutions etc. Survey type of articles have different presentation
style. A survey should describe all relevant solutions, classify them according to assumptions made and
some properties (that is, present a taxonomy), and draw some conclusions.

Chapter 1 (Introduction)
The introduction of the paper, or Chapter 1 of the thesis, should give the summary of the article. It
should contain separate sections on the following items:
i) Introduction (basic facts needed to tune the reader to the thesis or paper);
ii) Problem statement (precise definition and importance); avoid very technical/definitions and
statements (present them in later text) and instead give good intuition for your involved definitions or
facts.

iii) Existing solutions and their criticism (limit only to those directly relevant to the contribution of the
thesis; give a motivation for doing research on the topic);
iv) Contributions (proposed solutions; why they are expected to be better; essence of the idea(s) used in
proposed solutions);
v) Conditions, assumptions and limitations of the research done;

Literature review
Chapter 2 or section 2 should give a full literature review. It should collect all known results
relevant to the problem stated, whether or not they are used in proposed contributions. No additional
literature review shall be added in later chapters. Discuss advantages and drawbacks of known solutions
that are relevant to your problem, and also discuss the relevance of each reviewed item to your topic and
your solutions.

Methodology

“Methodology” implies more than simply the methods you intend to use to collect data. It is often
necessary to include a consideration of the concepts and theories which underlie the methods. For
instance, if you intend to highlight a specific feature of a sociological theory or test an algorithm for some
aspect of information retrieval, or test the validity of a particular system, you have to show that you
understand the underlying concepts of the methodology.

When you describe your methods it is necessary to state how you have addressed the research questions
and/or hypotheses. The methods should be described in enough detail for the study to be replicated, or at
least repeated in a similar way in another situation. Every stage should be explained and justified with
clear reasons for the choice of your particular methods and materials.
 There are many different ways to approach the research that fulfils the requirements of a
dissertation. These may vary both within and between disciplines. It is important to consider the
expectations and possibilities concerning research in your own field. You can do this by talking to your
tutors and looking at dissertations written by former students on your course.

The methodology indicates the methods and procedures to be done. This part contains the
research design, locale or location of the study, data gathering techniques and statistical tools to be
used.

Results and Discussion

The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe the significance of your findings in light
of what was already known about the research problem being investigated, and to explain any new
understanding or fresh insights about the problem after you've taken the findings into consideration. The
discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or hypotheses you
posed and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction; the
discussion should always explain how your study has moved the reader's understanding of the research
problem forward from where you left them at the end of the introduction.

Importance of a Good Discussion

This section is often considered the most important part of a research paper because it most
effectively demonstrates your ability as a researcher to think critically about an issue, to develop creative
solutions to problems based on the findings, and to formulate a deeper, more profound understanding of
the research problem you are studying.

The discussion section is where you explore the underlying meaning of your research, its possible
implications in other areas of study, and the possible improvements that can be made in order to further
develop the concerns of your research.

This is the section where you need to present the importance of your study and how it may be able to
contribute to and/or fill existing gaps in the field. If appropriate, the discussion section is also where you
state how the findings from your study revealed new gaps in the literature that had not been previously
exposed or adequately described.

This part of the paper is not strictly governed by objective reporting of information but, rather, it is where
you can engage in creative thinking about issues through evidence-based interpretation of findings. This is
where you infuse your results with meaning.

Conclusion
The conclusion indicates what had been achieved with this research. The ownership of some other
possible solutions, not fully explored, or subject of your forthcoming different article, can be protected by
outlining them briefly in the conclusion section, sometimes with reference to upcoming article.
Summary of a Research Report
 SECTION PURPOSE
1. Title Page Title of report
Student name/student number
Course /subject
Date Due
2. Table of contents Shows the sections of the report
3. Executive summary Gives a summary of the whole report
or abstract Outlines- purpose, research method, findings, main conclusions and recommendations
4. Introduction Outlines context, background and purpose
Defines terms and sets limits of the research
The reader/ audience can easily identify what, how, why
(Mainly uses past tense and can be written later although presented first)
5. Methodology Explains how research was done and outlines how the data was collected
6. Results/Findings Presents findings of the research
(maybe combined) Facts only-no interpretation
Uses graphics form (e.g. tables and graphs)
7. Discussions Presents an interpretation and evaluation of the results
Analyzes results – draws together different aspects of the findings, findings of other studies and
refers to literature
8. Conclusion Brief statement of what was found
9. Recommendations Suggest suitable changes/solutions
10. Appendix Attachments of additional information (e.g. surveys, questionnaires, glossary, etc.)
11. References All references used