0% found this document useful (0 votes)
233 views42 pages

Teaching

Download as docx, pdf, or txt
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1/ 42

Republic Act No.

10533

AN ACT ENHANCING THE PHILIPPINE BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM BY STRENGTHENING ITS CURRICULUM
AND INCREASING THE NUMBER OF YEARS FOR BASIC EDUCATION, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR
AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress assembled:

SECTION 1. Short Title. — This Act shall be known as the “Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013”.

SEC. 2. Declaration of Policy. — The State shall establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate,
and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people, the country and society-at-
large.

Likewise, it is hereby declared the policy of the State that every graduate of basic education shall be an
empowered individual who has learned, through a program that is rooted on sound educational
principles and geared towards excellence, the foundations for learning throughout life, the competence
to engage in work and be productive, the ability to coexist in fruitful harmony with local and global
communities, the capability to engage in autonomous, creative, and critical thinking, and the capacity
and willingness to transform others and one’s self.

For this purpose, the State shall create a functional basic education system that will develop productive
and responsible citizens equipped with the essential competencies, skills and values for both life-long
learning and employment. In order to achieve this, the State shall:

(a) Give every student an opportunity to receive quality education that is globally competitive based on
a pedagogically sound curriculum that is at par with international standards;

(b) Broaden the goals of high school education for college preparation, vocational and technical career
opportunities as well as creative arts, sports and entrepreneurial employment in a rapidly changing and
increasingly globalized environment; and

(c) Make education learner-oriented and responsive to the needs, cognitive and cultural capacity, the
circumstances and diversity of learners, schools and communities through the appropriate languages of
teaching and learning, including mother tongue as a learning resource.

SEC. 3. Basic Education. — Basic education is intended to meet basic learning needs which provides the
foundation on which subsequent learning can be based. It encompasses kindergarten, elementary and
secondary education as well as alternative learning systems for out-of-school learners and those with
special needs.

SEC. 4. Enhanced Basic Education Program. — The enhanced basic education program encompasses at
least one (1) year of kindergarten education, six (6) years of elementary education, and six (6) years of
secondary education, in that sequence. Secondary education includes four (4) years of junior high school
and two (2) years of senior high school education.
Kindergarten education shall mean one (1) year of preparatory education for children at least five (5)
years old as a prerequisite for Grade I.

Elementary education refers to the second stage of compulsory basic education which is composed of
six (6) years. The entrant age to this level is typically six (6) years old.

Secondary education refers to the third stage of compulsory basic education. It consists of four (4) years
of junior high school education and two (2) years of senior high school education. The entrant age to the
junior and senior high school levels are typically twelve (12) and sixteen (16) years old, respectively.

Basic education shall be delivered in languages understood by the learners as the language plays a
strategic role in shaping the formative years of learners.

For kindergarten and the first three (3) years of elementary education, instruction, teaching materials
and assessment shall be in the regional or native language of the learners. The Department of Education
(DepED) shall formulate a mother language transition program from Grade 4 to Grade 6 so that Filipino
and English shall be gradually introduced as languages of instruction until such time when these two (2)
languages can become the primary languages of instruction at the secondary level.

For purposes of this Act, mother language or first Language (LI) refers to language or languages first
learned by a child, which he/she identifies with, is identified as a native language user of by others,
which he/she knows best, or uses most. This includes Filipino sign language used by individuals with
pertinent disabilities. The regional or native language refers to the traditional speech variety or variety
of Filipino sign language existing in a region, area or place.

SEC. 5. Curriculum Development. — The DepED shall formulate the design and details of the enhanced
basic education curriculum. It shall work with the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) to craft
harmonized basic and tertiary curricula for the global competitiveness of Filipino graduates. To ensure
college readiness and to avoid remedial and duplication of basic education subjects, the DepED shall
coordinate with the CHED and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA).

To achieve an effective enhanced basic education curriculum, the DepED shall undertake consultations
with other national government agencies and other stakeholders including, but not limited to, the
Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE), the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC), the
private and public schools associations, the national student organizations, the national teacher
organizations, the parents-teachers associations and the chambers of commerce on matters affecting
the concerned stakeholders.

The DepED shall adhere to the following standards and principles in developing the enhanced basic
education curriculum:

(a) The curriculum shall be learner-centered, inclusive and developmentally appropriate;

(b) The curriculum shall be relevant, responsive and research-based;


(c) The curriculum shall be culture-sensitive;

(d) The curriculum shall be contextualized and global;

(e) The curriculum shall use pedagogical approaches that are constructivist, inquiry-based, reflective,
collaborative and integrative;

(f) The curriculum shall adhere to the principles and framework of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual
Education (MTB-MLE) which starts from where the learners are and from what they already knew
proceeding from the known to the unknown; instructional materials and capable teachers to implement
the MTB-MLE curriculum shall be available;

(g) The curriculum shall use the spiral progression approach to ensure mastery of knowledge and skills
after each level; and

(h) The curriculum shall be flexible enough to enable and allow schools to localize, indigenize and
enhance the same based on their respective educational and social contexts. The production and
development of locally produced teaching materials shall be encouraged and approval of these
materials shall devolve to the regional and division education units.

SEC. 6. Curriculum Consultative Committee. — There shall be created a curriculum consultative


committee chaired by the DepED Secretary or his/her duly authorized representative and with members
composed of, but not limited to, a representative each from the CHED, the TESDA, the DOLE, the PRC,
the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), and a representative from the business chambers
such as the Information Technology – Business Process Outsourcing (IT-BPO) industry association. The
consultative committee shall oversee the review and evaluation on the implementation of the basic
education curriculum and may recommend to the DepED the formulation of necessary refinements in
the curriculum.

SEC. 7. Teacher Education and Training. — To ensure that the enhanced basic education program meets
the demand for quality teachers and school leaders, the DepED and the CHED, in collaboration with
relevant partners in government, academe, industry, and nongovernmental organizations, shall conduct
teacher education and training programs, as specified:

(a) In-service Training on Content and Pedagogy — Current DepED teachers shall be retrained to meet
the content and performance standards of the new K to 12 curriculum.

The DepED shall ensure that private education institutions shall be given the opportunity to avail of such
training.

(b) Training of New Teachers. — New graduates of the current Teacher Education curriculum shall
undergo additional training, upon hiring, to upgrade their skills to the content standards of the new
curriculum. Furthermore, the CHED, in coordination with the DepED and relevant stakeholders, shall
ensure that the Teacher Education curriculum offered in these Teacher Education Institutes (TEIs) will
meet necessary quality standards for new teachers. Duly recognized organizations acting as TEIs, in
coordination with the DepED, the CHED, and other relevant stakeholders, shall ensure that the
curriculum of these organizations meet the necessary quality standards for trained teachers.

(c) Training of School Leadership. — Superintendents, principals, subject area coordinators and other
instructional school leaders shall likewise undergo workshops and training to enhance their skills on
their role as academic, administrative and community leaders.

Henceforth, such professional development programs as those stated above shall be initiated and
conducted regularly throughout the school year to ensure constant upgrading of teacher skills.

SEC. 8. Hiring of Graduates of Science, Mathematics, Statistics, Engineering and Other Specialists in
Subjects With a Shortage of Qualified Applicants, Technical-Vocational Courses and Higher Education
Institution Faculty. — Notwithstanding the provisions of Sections 26, 27 and 28 of Republic Act No.
7836, otherwise known as the “Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994”, the DepED and
private education institutions shall hire, as may be relevant to the particular subject:

(a) Graduates of science, mathematics, statistics, engineering, music and other degree courses with
shortages in qualified Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET) applicants to teach in their specialized
subjects in the elementary and secondary education. Qualified LET applicants shall also include
graduates admitted by foundations duly recognized for their expertise in the education sector and who
satisfactorily complete the requirements set by these organizations: Provided, That they pass the LET
within five (5) years after their date of hiring: Provided, further, That if such graduates are willing to
teach on part-time basis, the provisions of LET shall no longer be required;

(b) Graduates of technical-vocational courses to teach in their specialized subjects in the secondary
education: Provided, That these graduates possess the necessary certification issued by the
TESDA: Provided, further, That they undergo appropriate in-service training to be administered by the
DepED or higher education institutions (HEIs) at the expense of the DepED;

(c) Faculty of HEIs be allowed to teach in their general education or subject specialties in the secondary
education: Provided, That the faculty must be a holder of a relevant Bachelor’s degree, and must have
satisfactorily served as a full-time HEI faculty;

(d) The DepED and private education institutions may hire practitioners, with expertise in the specialized
learning areas offered by the Basic Education Curriculum, to teach in the secondary level; Provided, That
they teach on part-time basis only. For this purpose, the DepED, in coordination with the appropriate
government agencies, shall determine the necessary qualification standards in hiring these experts.

SEC. 9. Career Guidance and Counselling Advocacy. — To properly guide the students in choosing the
career tracks that they intend to pursue, the DepED, in coordination with the DOLE, the TESDA and the
CHED, shall regularly conduct career advocacy activities for secondary level students. Notwithstanding
the provisions of Section 27 of Republic Act No. 9258, otherwise known as the “Guidance and
Counselling Act of 2004”, career and employment guidance counsellors, who are not registered and
licensed guidance counsellors, shall be allowed to conduct career advocacy activities to secondary level
students of the school where they are currently employed; Provided,That they undergo a training
program to be developed or accredited by the DepED.

SEC. 10. Expansion of E-GASTPE Beneficiaries. — The benefits accorded by Republic Act No. 8545, or the
“Expanded Government Assistance to Students and Teachers in Private Education Act”, shall be
extended to qualified students enrolled under the enhanced basic education.

The DepED shall engage the services of private education institutions and non-DepED schools offering
senior high school through the programs under Republic Act No. 8545, and other financial arrangements
formulated by the DepED and the Department of Budget and Management (DBM) based on the
principles of public-private partnership.

SEC. 11. Appropriations. — The Secretary of Education shall include in the Department’s program the
operationalization of the enhanced basic education program, the initial funding of which shall be
charged against the current appropriations of the DepED. Thereafter, the amount necessary for the
continued implementation of the enhanced basic education program shall be included in the annual
General Appropriations Act.

SEC. 12. Transitory Provisions. — The DepED, the CHED and the TESDA shall formulate the appropriate
strategies and mechanisms needed to ensure smooth transition from the existing ten (10) years basic
education cycle to the enhanced basic education (K to 12) cycle. The strategies may cover changes in
physical infrastructure, manpower, organizational and structural concerns, bridging models linking grade
10 competencies and the entry requirements of new tertiary curricula, and partnerships between the
government and other entities. Modeling for senior high school may be implemented in selected schools
to simulate the transition process and provide concrete data for the transition plan.

To manage the initial implementation of the enhanced basic education program and mitigate the
expected multi-year low enrolment turnout for HEIs and Technical Vocational Institutions (TVIs) starting
School Year 2016-2017, the DepED shall engage in partnerships with HEIs and TVIs for the utilization of
the latter’s human and physical resources. Moreover, the DepED, the CHED, the TESDA, the TVIs and the
HEIs shall coordinate closely with one another to implement strategies that ensure the academic,
physical, financial, and human resource capabilities of HEIs and TVIs to provide educational and training
services for graduates of the enhanced basic education program to ensure that they are not adversely
affected. The faculty of HEIs and TVIs allowed to teach students of secondary education under Section 8
hereof, shall be given priority in hiring for the duration of the transition period. For this purpose, the
transition period shall be provided for in the implementing rules and regulations (IRR).

SEC. 13. Joint Congressional Oversight Committee on the Enhanced Basic Educational Program (K to 12
Program). — There is hereby created a Joint Oversight Committee to oversee, monitor and evaluate the
implementation of this Act.

The Oversight Committee shall be composed of five (5) members each from the Senate and from the
House of Representatives, including Chairs of the Committees on Education, Arts and Culture, and
Finance of both Houses. The membership of the Committee for every House shall have at least two (2)
opposition or minority members.

SEC. 14. Mandatory Evaluation and Review. — By the end of School Year 2014-2015, the DepED shall
conduct a mandatory review and submit a midterm report to Congress as to the status of
implementation of the K to 12 program in terms of closing the following current shortages: (a) teachers;
(b) classrooms; (c) textbooks; (d) seats; (e) toilets; and (f) other shortages that should be addressed.

The DepED shall include among others, in this midterm report, the following key metrics of access to
and quality of basic education: (a) participation rate; (b) retention rate; (c) National Achievement Test
results; (d) completion rate; (e) teachers’ welfare and training profiles; (f) adequacy of funding
requirements; and (g) other learning facilities including, but not limited to, computer and science
laboratories, libraries and library hubs, and sports, music and arts.

SEC. 15. Commitment to International Benchmarks. — The DepED shall endeavor to increase the per
capita spending on education towards the immediate attainment of international benchmarks.

SEC. 16. Implementing Rules and Regulations. — Within ninety (90) days after the effectivity of this Act,
the DepED Secretary, the CHED Chairperson and the TESDA Director-General shall promulgate the rules
and regulations needed for the implementation of this Act.

SEC. 17. Separability Clause. — If any provision of this Act is held invalid or unconstitutional, the same
shall not affect the validity and effectivity of the other provisions hereof.

SEC. 18. Repealing Clause. — Pertinent provisions of Batas Pambansa Blg. 232 or the “Education Act of
1982”, Republic Act No. 9155 or the “Governance of Basic Education.

Act of 2001″, Republic Act No. 9258, Republic Act No. 7836, and all other laws, decrees, executive orders
and rules and regulations contrary to or inconsistent with the provisions of this Act are hereby repealed
or modified accordingly.

SEC. 19. Effectivity Clause. — This Act shall take effect fifteen (15) days after its publication in the Official
Gazette or in two (2) newspapers of general circulation.
DO 42, S. 2016 – POLICY GUIDELINES ON DAILY LESSON PREPARATION FOR THE K TO 12 BASIC
EDUCATION PROGRAM

June 17, 2016

DO 42, s. 2016

Policy Guidelines on Daily Lesson Preparation for the K to 12 Basic Education Program

To: Undersecretaries
Assistant Secretaries
Bureau and Service Directors
Regional Directors
Schools Division Superintendents
Public and Private Elementary and Secondary Schools Heads
All Others Concerned

1. In line with the implementation of Republic Act (RA) No. 10533 or the Enhanced Basic Education Act
of 2013, the Department of Education (DepEd) issues the enclosed Policy Guidelines on Daily Lesson
Preparation for the K to 12 Basic Education Program.

2. Planning lessons is fundamental to ensuring the delivery of teaching and learning in schools. These
guidelines aim to support teachers in organizing and managing their classes and lessons effectively and
efficiently and ensure the achievement of learning outcomes.

3. Furthermore, these guidelines affirm the role of the K to 12 teacher as a facilitator of learning.
Preparing for lessons through the Daily Lesson Log (DLL) or Detailed Lesson Plan (DLP) and provides
teachers with an opportunity for reflection on what learners need to learn, how learners learn, and how
best to facilitate the learning process. These guidelines also aim to empower teachers to carry out
quality instruction that recognizes the diversity of learners inside the classroom, is committed to
learners’ success, allows the use of varied instructional and formative assessment strategies including
the use of information and communications technologies (ICTs), and enables the teacher to guide,
mentor, and support learners in developing and assessing their learning across the curriculum.

4. These guidelines will remain in force and in effect unless sooner repealed, amended, or rescinded. All
issuances inconsistent with this Order are hereby rescinded.

5. Immediate dissemination of and strict compliance with this Order is directed.

(Sgd) BR. ARMIN A. LUISTRO FSC


Secretary
DO 8, S. 2015 – POLICY GUIDELINES ON CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT FOR THE K TO 12 BASIC EDUCATION
PROGRAM

April 1, 2015

DO 8, s. 2015

Policy Guidelines on Classroom Assessment for the K to 12 Basic Education Program

To: Undersecretaries
Assistant Secretaries
Bureau Directors
Directors of Services, Centers and Heads of Units
Regional Directors
Schools Division Superintendents
Heads, Public Elementary and Secondary Schools
All Others Concerned

In line with the implementation of the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 (Republic Act No. 10533),
the Department of Education is adopting the enclosed Policy Guidelines on Classroom Assessment for
the K to 12 Basic Education Program.

Classroom Assessment is an integral part of curriculum implementation. It allows the teachers to track
and measure learners’ progress and to adjust instruction accordingly. Classroom assessment informs the
learners, as well as their parents and guardians, of their progress.

Effective School Year (SY) 2015-2016, the Policy Guidelines on Classroom Assessment for the K to 12
Basic Education Program shall be implemented in public elementary and secondary schools nationwide.

Non-DepEd schools are urged to implement these policy guidelines as well. Non-DepEd schools are
permitted to modify these policy guidelines according to their school’s Philosophy, Vision, and Mission
with the approval of the appropriate DepEd Regional Office.

Special programs may further issue supplementary guidelines in relation to the program’s specific
assessment concerns.

These guidelines will remain in force and in effect for the duration of the program, unless sooner
repealed, amended, or rescinded. All existing Orders and Memoranda that are inconsistent with this
Order are rescinded.

Immediate dissemination of and strict compliance with this Order is directed.

(Sgd.) BR. ARMIN A. LUISTRO FSC


Secretary
Principles, pedagogy, and strategies for classroom management vary from teacher to teacher. However
different, all teaching methodology is deeply rooted in traditional styles. Teachers adapt their teaching
methods based on educational philosophy, classroom demographics, subject areas, and the schools at
which they teach.

During various stages of childhood and development, a student’s success in the classroom is largely
dependent upon his or her own motivation, interest, persistence, and ability to understand and manage
his or her emotions.

BACKGROUND

Principles, pedagogy, and strategies for classroom management vary from teacher to teacher. However
different, all teaching methodology is deeply rooted in traditional styles. Teachers adapt their teaching
methods based on educational philosophy, classroom demographics, subject areas, and the schools at
which they teach.

During various stages of childhood and development, a student’s success in the classroom is largely
dependent upon his or her own motivation, interest, persistence, and ability to understand and manage
his or her emotions.

CATEGORIES OF TEACHING METHODS

It is generally understood that the first step necessary in determining which teaching methods are best
for you is identifying your own strengths and weaknesses.

Teacher-Centered Approach vs. Student-Centered Approach

The teacher-centered approach views the teacher as the active party in the teacher-student learning
relationship, as the teacher passes information to students, who passively receive it. Students are then
assessed in various ways, such as through testing and performing different kinds of tasks. The teacher is
the expert and authority of the classroom and teaches directly to the students.

On the other hand, in the student-centered approach, the teacher and student are seen as equals when
it comes to the responsibility of teaching and learning. The teacher facilitates the learning and
understanding of the material. Measures of student learning aren’t only formal tests but also more
informal assessments, such as group projects, student portfolios, and seminar-style participation.
Teaching and assessment are closely tied together as a metric of success in a student-centered
classroom where cooperation is delegated.

High-Tech Material Use vs. Low-Tech Material Use


The classroom has drastically evolved throughout the past several decades because of technological
advances. The high-tech method to teaching takes advantage of the abundance of digital resources
available to aid students in their educational progression.

Teachers encourage children to use tablets, computers, and the web to further their studies and
completion of assignments. Teachers have much more access to obtain assignments from their students
and to learn new ideas for their curriculum. Many teachers even use gamification software for their
students to learn new critical thinking skills.

Digital education enables teachers and students to be located anywhere in the world, and it sometimes
removes the element of having a physical classroom altogether. Online coursework is one of the many
high-tech teaching methods.

A downside of high-tech methods, as opposed to low-tech, is the way that students get used to having
technology to bolster their learning. For instance, young kids who learn to write with an automatic spell-
checker aren’t as keen to spelling and ultimately may have weaker writing skills than children who learn
to read and write in a low-tech classroom.

Though there are many advantages to utilizing technology in the classroom, many teachers opt to stick
to traditional approaches to education. There are many studies that show a low-tech teaching
classroom a student’s ability to learn.

Students also have a stronger memory if they take hand-written notes rather than typing them out on
an online program.

If technology isn’t as heavily emphasized in a classroom, kinesthetic learners may have a higher
likelihood to thrive, since there is more flexibility for movement and interaction during learning
exercises. Teachers should not only allow but encourage students to speak and move around the room.

Expeditionary learning, also known as “learning by doing,” provides students with hands-on experience
and will enable them to better apply what they learn at school to the real world, as opposed to learning
a lesson online and in the virtual realm.

Teaching to 10th-12th

Because this is the last stop for students before beginning their post-high school
graduate careers, it is critical that teachers strategize for success in their classrooms.
As the previously mentioned teaching methods can be applied to high school,
particularly the differentiation approach, individual strategies that you apply to your
educational setting may reap more rewards and see your students succeed.
One of the most important tactics to apply as a teacher of 10th- through 12th-graders is
to be enthusiastic about what you are teaching. If you aren’t engaged in what you’re
talking about, teenagers will not be either. Their attention spans are also shortening, so
having lesson plans and lectures on the lighter side will be in your favor as a high
school teacher.
Class discussion, also known as the Socratic seminar method, allows students this age
to thrive by being given the opportunity to express their own opinions and thoughts. It
also gives them their first dose of public speaking, something they may encounter much
more frequently in a university setting. Collaborative work, reading and writing
assessments, and problem-solving are all great strategies to implement in your teaching
in order to have an engaged classroom of teenagers.
Constructivist teaching methods
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

Constructivist teaching is based on constructivist learning theory. Constructivist teaching is based


on the belief that learning occurs as learners are actively involved in a process of meaning
and knowledge construction as opposed to passively receiving information. Learners are the makers
of meaning and knowledge.

Contents

 1History
 2Constructivist teaching strategies
o 2.1Characteristics
o 2.2Examples of activities
o 2.3Role of teachers
o 2.4Constructivist learning environments (CLEs)
o 2.5Assessment
 3An example of a lesson taught with a Constructivist background
 4Constructivism for adults
 5Arguments against constructivist teaching techniques
 6Specific approaches
o 6.1Constructionism
o 6.2Guided instruction
o 6.3Problem-based learning
 6.3.1Inquiry-based learning
 6.3.2Anchored instruction
o 6.4Cooperative learning
 6.4.1Reciprocal Peer Teaching
 6.4.2Jigsaw
 7See also
 8References
 9External links

History[edit]
Constructivist approach teaching methods are based on constructivist learning theory. Along
with John Dewey, Jean Piagetresearched childhood development and education. Both Dewey and
Piaget were very influential in the development of informal education. Dewey's idea of influential
education suggests that education must engage with and enlarge experience and the exploration of
thinking and reflection associated with the role of educators. Piaget's role in the constructivist
teaching suggests that we learn by expanding our knowledge by experiences which are generated
through play from infancy to adulthood which are necessary for learning. Their theories are now
encompassed in the broader movement of progressive education. Constructivist learning theory
says that all knowledge is constructed from a base of prior knowledge. Children are not a blank slate
and knowledge cannot be imparted without the child making sense of it according to his or her
current conceptions. Therefore, children learn best when they are allowed to construct a personal
understanding based on experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.[1]

Constructivist teaching strategies[edit]


Characteristics[edit]
One of the primary goals of using constructivist teaching is that students learn how to learn by giving
them the training to take initiative for their own learning experiences.
According to Audrey Gray[who?], the characteristics of a constructivist classroom are as follows:

 the learners are actively involved


 the environment is democratic
 the activities are interactive and student-centered
 the teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to be responsible
and autonomous
Examples of activities[edit]
Furthermore, in the constructivist classroom, students work primarily in groups and learning and
knowledge are interactive and dynamic. There is a great focus and emphasis on social and
communication skills, as well as collaboration and exchange of ideas.[1] This is contrary to the
traditional classroom in which students work primarily alone, learning is achieved through repetition,
and the subjects are strictly adhered to and are guided by a textbook. Some activities encouraged in
constructivist classrooms are:

 Experimentation: Students individually perform an experiment and then come together as a


class to discuss the results.
 Research projects: Students research a topic and can present their findings to the class.
 Field trips: This allows students to put the concepts and ideas discussed in class in a real-world
context. Field trips would often be followed by class discussions.
 Films: These provide visual context and thus bring another sense into the learning experience.
 Class discussions: This technique is used in all of the methods described above. It is one of
the most important distinctions of constructivist teaching methods.[2]
 Campus wikis: These provide learners with a platform for curating helpful learning resources. [3]
Constructivist approaches can also be used in online learning. For example, tools such as
discussion forums, wikis and blogs can enable learners to actively construct knowledge. A contrast
between the traditional classroom and the constructivist classroom is illustrated below:
The Traditional Classroom

 Begins with parts of the whole–Emphasizes basic skills


 Strict adherence to fixed curriculum
 Textbooks and workbooks
 Instructor gives/students receive
 Instructor assumes directive, authoritative role
 Assessment via testing / correct answers
 Knowledge is inert
 Students work individually
The constructivist Classroom
 Begin with the whole – expanding to parts
 Pursuit of student questions / interests
 Primary Sources / manipulative materials
 Learning is interaction – building on what students already know
 Instructor interacts / negotiates with students
 Assessment via student works, observations, points of view, tests. Process is as important as
product
 Knowledge is dynamic / change with experiences
 Students work in groups Source : Thirteen Ed Online (2004)
Because existing knowledge schemata are explicitly acknowledged as a starting point for new
learning, constructivist approaches tend to validate individual and cultural differences and diversity.[4]
Role of teachers[edit]
In the constructivist classroom, the teacher's role is to prompt and facilitate discussion. Thus, the
teacher's main focus should be on guiding students by asking questions that will lead them to
develop their own conclusions on the subject. Parker J. Palmer (1997) suggests that good teachers
join self, subject, and students in the fabric of life because they teach from an integral and undivided
self, they manifest in their own lives, and evoke in their students, a capacity for connectedness".
David Jonassen identified three major roles for facilitators to support students in constructivist
learning environments:

 Modeling
 Coaching
 Scaffolding[5]
A brief description of the Jonassen major roles are:
Modeling – Jonassen describes Modeling as the most commonly used instructional strategy in
CLEs. Two types of modeling exist: behavioural modeling of the overt performance and cognitive
modeling of the covert cognitive processes. Behavioural modeling in Constructivist Learning
Environments demonstrates how to perform the activities identified in the activity structure. Cognitive
modeling articulates the reasoning (reflection-in-action) that learners should use while engaged in
the activities.
Coaching – For Jonassen the role of coach is complex and inexact. She acknowledges that a good
coach motivates learners, analyzes their performance, provides feedback and advice on the
performance and how to learn about how to perform, and provokes reflection and articulation of what
was learned. Moreover, she posits that coaching may be solicited by the learner. Students seeking
help might press a "How am I Doing?" button. Or coaching may be unsolicited, when the coach
observes the performance and provides encouragement, diagnosis, directions, and feedback.
Coaching naturally and necessarily involves responses that are situated in the learner's task
performance (Laffey, Tupper, Musser, & Wedman, 1997).
Scaffolding - Scaffolding is a more systemic approach to supporting the learner, focusing on the
task, the environment, the teacher, and the learner. Scaffolding provides temporary frameworks to
support learning and student performance beyond their capacities. The concept of scaffolding
represents any kind of support for cognitive activity that is provided by an adult when the child and
adult are performing the task together (Wood & Middleton, 1975).
Constructivist learning environments (CLEs)[edit]
Jonassen has proposed a model for developing constructivist learning environments (CLEs) around
a specific learning goal. This goal may take one of several forms, from least to most complex:
 Question or issue
 Case study
 Long-term Project
 Problem (multiple cases and projects integrated at the curriculum level)
Jonassen recommends making the learning goals engaging and relevant but not overly structured.
In CLEs, learning is driven by the problem to be solved; students learn content and theory in order to
solve the problem. This is different from traditional objectivist teaching where the theory would be
presented first and problems would be used afterwards to practice theory.
Depending on students' prior experiences, related cases and scaffolding may be necessary for
support. Instructors also need to provide an authentic context for tasks, plus information resources,
cognitive tools, and collaborative tools.[5]
Assessment[edit]
Traditionally, assessment in the classrooms is based on testing. In this style, it is important for the
student to produce the correct answers. However, in constructivist teaching, the process of gaining
knowledge is viewed as being just as important as the product. Thus, assessment is based not only
on tests, but also on observation of the student, the student's work, and the student's points of
view.[1] Some assessment strategies include:

 Oral discussions. The teacher presents students with a "focus" question and allows an open
discussion on the topic.
 KWL(H) Chart (What we know, What we want to know, What we have learned, How we know it).
This technique can be used throughout the course of study for a particular topic, but is also a
good assessment technique as it shows the teacher the progress of the student throughout the
course of study.
 Mind Mapping. In this activity, students list and categorize the concepts and ideas relating to a
topic.
 Hands-on activities. These encourage students to manipulate their environments or a particular
learning tool. Teachers can use a checklist and observation to assess student success with the
particular material.
 Pre-testing. This allows a teacher to determine what knowledge students bring to a new topic
and thus will be helpful in directing the course of study.[2]

An example of a lesson taught with a Constructivist


background[edit]
A good example of a lesson being taught in a constructivist way, with the teacher mediating learning
rather than directly teaching the class is shown by the example of Faraday's candle. There are
various forms of this lesson, but all are developed from the Christmas lectures Faraday gave on the
functioning of candles. In open constructivist lessons using these lectures as a basis, students are
encouraged to discover for themselves how candles work. They do this first by making simple
observations, from which they later build ideas and hypotheses which they then go on to test. The
teacher acts to encourage this learning. If successful, students can use this lesson to understand the
components of combustion, an important chemistry topic.[6]

Constructivism for adults[edit]


Constructivist philosophy has a long history of application in education programs for young children,
but is used less frequently in adult learning environments. As humans develop, there are qualitative
changes in their ability to think logically about experiences, but the processes by which learning
occurs, cognitive adaptation and social mediation, are believed to be continuous or remain the same
throughout the life.[7] At the heart of constructivist philosophy is the belief that knowledge is not given
but gained through real experiences that have purpose and meaning to the learner, and the
exchange of perspectives about the experience with others[8] (Piaget & Inhelder,
1969; Vygotsky,1978).
Learning environments for adults based on constructivist philosophy include opportunities for
students to make meaningful connections between new material and previous experience, through
discovery. One of the simplest ways to do this is asking open-ended questions. Open-ended
questions such as "Tell me about a time when... ." or "How might this information be useful to you?"
cause learners to think about how new information may relate to their own experience. Student
responses to such questions are opportunities for experiencing the perspectives of others. For these
questions to be effective it is critical that instructors focus on teaching content that is useful for
participants. The importance of using these types of strategies with adults contributes to
what[9] Bain(2004 p. 4) noted as critical learning environments where instructors "embed" the skills
they are teaching in "authentic tasks that will arouse curiosity, challenge students to rethink
assumptions and examine their mental modes of reality". Mezirow J. (1997) who asserts that
learners need to practice in recognizing frames of reference and using their imaginations to redefine
problems from different perspectives. (pg. 10) I made the connection by also adding the point that "to
promote discovery learning, the educator often reframes learner questions in terms of the learner's
current level of understanding. Learning contracts, group projects, role play, case studies, and
simulations are classroom methods associated with transformative education." Such approaches
emphasize that learning is not an "all or nothing" process but that students learn the new information
that is presented to them by building upon knowledge that they already possess. It is therefore
important that teachers constantly assess the knowledge their students have gained to make sure
that the students' perceptions of the new knowledge are what the teacher had intended. Teachers
will find that since the students build upon already existing knowledge, when they are called upon to
retrieve the new information, they may make errors. It is known as reconstruction error when we fill
in the gaps of our understanding with logical, though incorrect, thoughts. Teachers need to catch
and try to correct these errors, though it is inevitable that some reconstruction error will continue to
occur because of our innate retrieval limitations.
In most pedagogies based on constructivism, the teacher's role is not only to observe and assess
but to also engage with the students while they are completing activities, wondering aloud and
posing questions to the students for promotion of reasoning (DeVries et al., 2002). (ex: I wonder why
the water does not spill over the edge of the full cup?) Teachers also intervene when there are
conflicts that arise; however, they simply facilitate the students' resolutions and self-regulation, with
an emphasis on the conflict being the students' and that they must figure things out for themselves.
For example, promotion of literacy is accomplished by integrating the need to read and write
throughout individual activities within print-rich classrooms. The teacher, after reading a story,
encourages the students to write or draw stories of their own, or by having the students reenact a
story that they may know well, both activities encourage the students to conceive themselves as
reader and writers.

Arguments against constructivist teaching techniques[edit]


Main article: Constructivism (learning theory)

Critics have voiced the following arguments against constructivist based teaching instruction:

 A group of cognitive scientists has also questioned the central claims of constructivism, saying
that they are either misleading or contradict known findings.[10]
 One possible deterrent for this teaching method is that, due to the emphasis on group work, the
ideas of the more active students may dominate the group's conclusions.[1]
While proponents of constructivism argue that constructivist students perform better than their peers
when tested on higher-order reasoning, the critics of constructivism argue that this teaching
technique forces students to "reinvent the wheel". Supporters counter that "Students do not reinvent
the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand how it turns, how it functions."[1] Proponents argue that
students—especially elementary school-aged children—are naturally curious about the world, and
giving them the tools to explore it in a guided manner will serve to give them a stronger
understanding of it.[1]
Mayer (2004)[11] developed a literature review spanning fifty years and concluded "The research in
this brief review shows that the formula constructivism = hands-on activity is a formula for
educational disaster." His argument is that active learning is often suggested by those subscribing to
this philosophy. In developing this instruction these educators produce materials that require
learning to be behaviorally active and not be "cognitively active".[11] That is, although they are
engaged in activity, they may not be learning (Sweller, 1988). Mayer recommends using guided
discovery, a mix of direct instruction and hands-on activity, rather than pure discovery: "In many
ways, guided discovery appears to offer the best method for promoting constructivist learning."[11]
Kirchner et al. (2006) agree with the basic premise of constructivism, that learners construct
knowledge, but are concerned with the instructional design recommendations of this theoretical
framework. "The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences
suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow." (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark, 2006, p. 78).
Specifically, they say instructors often design unguided instruction that relies on the learner to
"discover or construct essential information for themselves" (Kirchner et al., 2006, p75).
For this reason they state that it "is easy to agree with Mayer's (2004)[11] recommendation that we
"move educational reform efforts from the fuzzy and nonproductive world of ideology—which
sometimes hides under the various banners of constructivism—to the sharp and productive world of
theory-based research on how people learn" (p. 18). Finally Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) cite
Mayer[11] to conclude fifty years of empirical results do not support unguided instruction.

Specific approaches[edit]
Specific approaches to education that are based on constructivism include the following:
Constructionism[edit]
An approach to learning based on the constructivist learning ideologies presented by Jean Piaget
(Harel & Papert, 1991). In this approach, the individual is consciously engaged in the construction of
a product (Li, Cheng, & Liu, 2013). The utilization of constructionism in educational settings has
been shown to promote higher-order thinking skills such as problem-solving and critical thinking (Li
et al., 2013).
Guided instruction[edit]
A learning approach in which the educator uses strategically placed prompts, cues, questions, direct
explanations, and modeling to guide student thinking and facilitate an increased responsibility for the
completion of a task (Fisher & Frey, 2010).
Problem-based learning[edit]
A structured educational approach which consists of large and small group discussions (Schmidt &
Loyens, 2007). Problem-based learning begins with an educator presenting a series of carefully
constructed problems or issues to small groups of students (Schmidt & Loyens, 2007). The problems
or issues typically pertain to phenomena or events to which students possess limited prior
knowledge (Schmidt & Loyens, 2007). The first component of problem-based learning is to discuss
prior knowledge and ask questions related to the specific problems or issues (Schmidt & Loyens,
2007). Following the class discussion, there is typically time in which students individually research
or reflect on the newly acquired information and/or seek out areas requiring further exploration
(Schmidt & Loyens, 2007). After a pre-determined amount of time (as outlined by the educator),
students will meet in the same small groups that were composed prior to the class discussion
(Schmidt & Loyens, 2007). In the first meeting, groups will spend between one and three hours
further discussing the problems or issues from class in addition to presenting any new information
collected during individual research (Schmidt & Loyens, 2007). Following the first meeting, students
will independently reflect on the group discussion, specifically in comparing thoughts regarding the
problems or issues in question (Schmidt & Loyens, 2007). Typically, groups will meet a second time
to critically analyse individual and group thoughts and discussions and will attempt to synthesize the
information in order to draw conclusions about the given problem or issue (Schmidt & Loyens, 2007).
Within the educational setting, problem-based learning has enabled students to actively construct
individual understandings of a topic using both prior and newly acquired knowledge (Schmidt &
Loyens, 2007). Moreover, students also develop self-directed and group learning skills which
ultimately facilitates the comprehension of the problems or issues (Schmidt & Loyens, 2007).
Inquiry-based learning[edit]
An educational approach associated with problem-based learning in which the student learns
through investigating issues or scenarios (Hakverdi-Can & Sonmez, 2012). In this approach,
students pose and answer questions individually and/or collaboratively in order to draw conclusions
regarding the specific issues or scenarios (Hakverdi-Can & Sonmez, 2012). Within the educational
setting, inquiry-based learning has been beneficial in developing student inquiry, investigation, and
collaboration skills, in turn, increasing overall comprehension of the issue or scenario (Hakverdi-Can
& Sonmez, 2012).
Effective essential questions include student thought and research, connect to student's reality and
can be solved in different ways (Crane, 2009). There are no incorrect answers to essential
questions, rather answers reveal student understanding(Crane, 2009).
Anchored instruction[edit]
An educational approach associated with problem-based learning in which the educator introduces
an 'anchor' or theme in which students will be able to explore (Kariuki & Duran, 2004). The 'anchor'
acts as a focal point for the entire task, allowing students to identify, define, and explore problems
while exploring the topic from a variety of different perspectives (Kariuki & Duran, 2004).
Cooperative learning[edit]
A variety of educational approaches focusing on individuals working together to achieve a specific
learning outcome (Hsiung, 2012).
Reciprocal Peer Teaching[edit]
A cooperative learning approach wherein students alternate roles as teacher and learner (Krych,
March, Bryan, Peake, Wojciech, & Carmichael, 2005). The utilization of Reciprocal Peer Teaching
(RPT) in educational settings has been effective in the development of teamwork, leadership, and
communication skills in addition to improving students' understanding of course content (Krych et al.,
2005).
Jigsaw[edit]
Main article: Jigsaw (teaching technique)

A highly structured cooperative learning approach which is implemented in four stages: introduction,
focused exploration, reporting and re-shaping, and integration and evaluation. In the introduction
stage, the class is divided into heterogeneous 'home' groups consisting of between three and seven
students (Karacop & Doymus, 2013). Upon establishing the 'home' groups, the teacher will discuss
the subtopics pertaining to the subject matter (Karacop & Doymus, 2013). In the focused exploration
stage, each student within all 'home' groups selects one of the subtopics (Karacop & Doymus,
2013). Students from each 'home' group that have selected the same subtopic will form a 'jigsaw'
group (Karacop & Doymus, 2013). It is in the 'jigsaw' group that students will explore the material
pertaining to the subtopic and will prepare for teaching it to their 'home' group, the reporting and re-
shaping stage (Karacop & Doymus, 2013). The approach concludes in the fourth stage, integration
and evaluation, wherein each of the 'home' groups combine the learning of each subtopic together to
create the completed piece of work (Karacop & Doymus, 2013).

What are cooperative and collaborative learning?


Collaborative learning is a method of teaching and learning in which students team together to explore
a significant question or create a meaningful project. A group of students discussing a lecture or
students from different schools working together over the Internet on a shared assignment are both
examples of collaborative learning.

Cooperative learning, which will be the primary focus of this workshop, is a specific
kind of collaborative learning. In cooperative learning, students work together in small
groups on a structured activity. They are individually accountable for their work, and
the work of the group as a whole is also assessed. Cooperative groups work face-to-
face and learn to work as a team.

In small groups, students can share strengths and also develop their weaker skills.
They develop their interpersonal skills. They learn to deal with conflict. When cooperative groups are
guided by clear objectives, students engage in numerous activities that improve their understanding of
subjects explored.

In order to create an environment in which cooperative learning can take place, three things are
necessary. First, students need to feel safe, but also challenged. Second, groups need to be small
enough that everyone can contribute. Third, the task students work together on must be clearly
defined. The cooperative and collaborative learning techniques presented here should help make this
possible for teachers.

Also, in cooperative learning small groups provide a place where:

 learners actively participate;


 teachers become learners at times, and learners sometimes teach;
 respect is given to every member;
 projects and questions interest and challenge students;
 diversity is celebrated, and all contributions are valued;
 students learn skills for resolving conflicts when they arise;
 members draw upon their past experience and knowledge;
 goals are clearly identified and used as a guide;
 research tools such as Internet access are made available;
 students are invested in their own learning.

For more detailed descriptions of cooperative and collaborative learning, check out the books, articles,
and Web sites listed on our Resources page.
How do cooperative and collaborative learning differ from
the traditional approach?
Cooperative and collaborative learning differ from traditional teaching approaches because students
work together rather than compete with each other individually.

Collaborative learning can take place any time students work together -- for
example, when they help each other with homework. Cooperative learning takes
place when students work together in the same place on a structured project in a
small group. Mixed-skill groups can be especially helpful to students in developing
their social abilities.

The skills needed to work together in groups are quite distinct from those used to succeed in writing a
paper on one's own or completing most homework or "seatwork" assignments. In a world where being
a "team player" is often a key part of business success, cooperative learning is a very useful and
relevant tool.

Because it is just one of a set of tools, however, it can easily be integrated into a class that uses
multiple approaches. For some assignments individual work may be most efficient, while for others
cooperative groups work best.

Research suggests that cooperative and collaborative learning bring positive results such as deeper
understanding of content, increased overall achievement in grades, improved self-esteem, and higher
motivation to remain on task. Cooperative learning helps students become actively and constructively
involved in content, to take ownership of their own learning, and to resolve group conflicts and
improve teamwork skills.

How have cooperative and collaborative learning developed


since they became popular?
Over the past twenty-five years, the use of small-group learning has greatly
increased. Informal collaborative projects have grown into structured, cooperative
group work. Cooperative learning became especially popular in the early 1980s and
has matured and evolved since.

One evolving aspect of cooperative and collaborative learning involves how the
educational community approaches the composition of the small groups. Debates still
occur on this topic. Researchers disagree mainly about whether to group students according to their
ability, or to mix them so that stronger students can help the weaker ones learn and themselves learn
from the experience of tutoring.

Some researchers, such as Mills 1 and Durden (1992), suggest that gifted students are held back when
grouped with weaker students. More researchers support diversity in small groups,
however. Radencich and McKay (1995) conclude that grouping by ability does not usually benefit
overall achievement and can lead to inequalities of achievement. With good arguments on both sides,
most teachers make choices based on their objectives.

1.

Or, they simply alternate. Sometimes they group according to the strengths
or interests of students, and other times they mix it up so that students can
learn to work with different types of people.
Just as experts differ on the make-up of groups, they also debate about the
most effective size for small groups. According to Slavin 2(1987), having two
or three members per group produces higher achievement than groups with
four or more members. Antil et al. (1997) conclude that most teachers prefer
pairs and small groups of three and four. Elbaum et al. (1997) suggest that we
have dialogues with students about their preferences for group composition
and expected outcomes. And Fidler (1999) discusses the value of reflecting in
order to correct errors we make in group assignments. Through many
mistakes, Fidler learned how to refine the composition of his groups.

2.

As we work through some examples of cooperative learning, you will learn


how to devise groups that work best for particular assignments.

Most recently, new technologies have added an exciting


new dimension to collaborative and cooperative learning.
With the Internet, collaboration can occur without regard
to distance or time barriers: e-mails can be sent at
students' or teachers' convenience to practically anywhere
around the world, and the recipient can reply when he or
she has time. Students can work together to create Web
pages or find and share data gleaned from the Net. There
is software that can be used with school computer Science teacher Janet
Torkel at Brooklyn's P.S.
networks to allow students in different classrooms to work 200 discusses how
together simultaneously or a group of students to collaboration between
teachers helps her
collaborate on projects like desktop publishing. students learn better.
Seeing teachers working
For more on using technology with cooperative and together helps reinforce
the students' own
collaborative learning, see the topic "How can technology collaborative work.
be used with cooperative and collaborative learning?" in
the "Exploration"section of this workshop.

What are the benefits of cooperative and collaborative


learning?
Benefits from small-group learning in a collaborative environment include:

Celebration of diversity. Students learn to work with all types of people. During
small-group interactions, they find many opportunities to reflect upon and reply
to the diverse responses fellow learners bring to the questions raised. Small
groups also allow students to add their perspectives to an issue based on their
cultural differences. This exchange inevitably helps students to better understand
other cultures and points of view.
Acknowledgment of individual differences. When questions are raised, different
students will have a variety of responses. Each of these can help the group
create a product that reflects a wide range of perspectives and is thus more
complete and comprehensive.
Interpersonal development. Students learn to relate to their peers and other
learners as they work together in group enterprises. This can be especially
helpful for students who have difficulty with social skills. They can benefit from
structured interactions with others.
Actively involving students in learning. Each member has opportunities to
contribute in small groups. Students are apt to take more ownership of their
material and to think critically about related issues when they work as a team.
More opportunities for personal feedback. Because there are more exchanges
among students in small groups, your students receive more personal feedback
about their ideas and responses. This feedback is often not possible in large-
group instruction, in which one or two students exchange ideas and the rest of
the class listens.

Beneficial, cooperative-learning situations are not easy to


set up. In many situations, particularly those in which
people must work together on a problem, conflicts
prevent learning. As a result, cooperative learning
requires teaching kids to work well with others by
resolving these inevitable conflicts. In the next section,
we will present specific techniques for dealing with group
conflicts.
Part 1 of 2 Part 2 of 2

What are some critical


perspectives?
In Part 1 of this video clip, Kathryn Mitchell Pierce,
Critics of small-group learning often point to problems who teaches grades one through three in Clayton,
Missouri, talks about adjusting the make-up of
related to vague objectives and poor expectations for cooperative groups. In Part 2, she discusses how
accountability. Small-group work, some claim, is an even shy students can blossom when assigned to
avoidance of teaching. According to these critics, dividing the right kind of group.
the class into small groups allows the teacher to escape
responsibility.

Vicki Randall (1999), who has taught elementary, high-school, and college-level students, cautions
against abuse and overuse of group work. According to Randall, the many benefits of cooperative
learning sometimes blind us to its drawbacks. She identifies the following practices as common
weaknesses:

 Making members of the group responsible for each other's learning. This can
place too great a burden on some students. In mixed-ability groups, the
result is often that stronger students are left to teach weaker students and do
most of the work.
 Encouraging only lower-level thinking and ignoring the strategies necessary
for the inclusion of critical or higher-level thought. In small groups, there is
sometimes only enough time to focus on the task at its most basic level.

You can find information about this and other critical works we cite on our Resources page.
Some critics cite the mix of students as a source of potential difficulties, although they disagree on
which types of groups are problematic. Other dissenters highlight the overuse of cooperative groups to
the detriment of students who benefit more from learning alone. Yet others recommend that we
negotiate more with students to determine how they learn best and apply these ideas to the way we
structure classes.

Recommendations from advocates of cooperative learning to address issues that critics raise include:

making sure to identify clear questions at the outset and to show how
. these questions relate to students' interests and abilities and the
teaching goals;

resolving small-group conflicts as soon as they arise and showing


. students how to prevent trouble in future;

creating rubrics 1 at the beginning of any assignment and using these


. for guiding the learning process and for assessing final work;

. helping students reflect on their progress on a regular basis;

expecting excellence from all students and letting them know that
. you believe in them and their ability to produce excellent work.

1.

Another possible problem with cooperative learning involves racial and gender inequities. Research
(Cohen 1986; Sadker et al. 1991; Linn and Burbules 1993) shows that in science, and perhaps in
other areas of the curriculum as well, group learning may be LESS equitable for girls than autonomous
learning. Group learning may reinforce stereotypes, biases, and views of science and math as a male
domain. Male students may discredit females, and the classroom may become a microcosm of the "old
boy" network that has frequently discouraged women and minorities from participating in certain
curricular activities. Specifically, according to Sadker et al. (1991):

The different and contradictory findings of the relatively few studies analyzing cross-gender
performance in cooperative learning organizations suggest that, by itself, the implementation of
cooperative learning groups does not necessarily lead to a more equitable and effective learning
environment for females and minorities.

Group formations that avoid diversity -- e.g., all female or all racial-minorities -- may be useful in
these situations, but these groups also have drawbacks of their own.

How can I use cooperative and collaborative learning in


conjunction with other educational techniques?
Since cooperative-learning techniques revolve around the use of a particular tool -- small groups --
they can be used with almost any other educational strategy.
Many of the other teaching techniques detailed in previous workshops include small-group
learning activities. The cooperative-learning techniques described here will help you and
your students make the best use of these small-group activities.

Some types of cooperative learning (like those demonstrated in this workshop) have been
developed in concert with the theory of multiple intelligences, so they work very readily
with this strategy. In small groups, students can share their strengths and weaknesses and
use the group activities to develop a variety of their intelligences.

Cooperative activities involve the construction of new ideas based on personal and shared foundations
of past experiences and understandings -- so they naturally apply some of the principles
of constructivism. Learners also investigate significant, real-world problems through good explorative
questions, and as a result these groups can easily be used for an inquiry-based approach.

They can also help students meet national, state, or local standards. Cooperative and collaborative
activities can have many different objectives, ranging from mastery of basic skills to higher-order
thinking. Because the specifics of a cooperative-learning project depend on the objectives of the
particular teacher, the teacher can easily orient the project toward meeting these standards.

What is integrated teaching?

“An integrated approach allows learners to explore, gather, process, refine and present information about
topics they want to investigate without the constraints imposed by traditional subject barriers” (Pigdon and
Woolley, 1992). An integrated approach allows students to engage in purposeful, relevant learning.

Integrated learning encourages students to see the interconnectedness and interrelationships between
the curriculum areas. Rather than focusing on learning in isolated curriculum areas, an integrated
program is based on skill development around a particular theme that is relevant to the children in the
class.

“In an integrated curriculum unit all activities contain opportunities for students to learn more about the
content” (Pigdon and Woolley, 1992). Smith and Ellery (1997) agree with this, saying that children can
develop a deeper understanding of content through a range of purposeful activities.

Integral to the model of integrated learning is the inquiry approach. Students are active learners who
research, interpret, communicate, and process learning to both others and themselves. Inquiry
approaches allow for students to construct meaning using their prior knowledge on a subject, and new
knowledge gained during the learning process.

Why an integrated language unit?

Children learn language is a vast range of contexts – both social and educational (Pigdon and Woolley,
1992). Language is used to communicate ideas throughout every curriculum area using at least one of
the three strands: Oral, Written, or Verbal.

How will integrated teaching and learning impact on NESB students?

Integrated teaching and learning provides many benefits for NESB children.

 Children are grouped according to learning needs or cooperative learning.


 Effective integrated programs provide opportunities for experience-based learning.
 Students are able to use their prior experiences to construct learning.
 A range of shared experiences scaffold NESB children into learning, giving every child in the
class knowledge to base their learning on.
 Because integrated units are child-centered, they provide opportunities for cross-cultural sharing.
 Opportunities for children to display competence are given rather than relying on a written or oral
test.

Integrative learning
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

Integrative learning is a learning theory describing a movement toward integrated lessons helping
students make connections across curricula. This higher education concept is distinct from the
elementary and high school "integrated curriculum" movement.

Contents

 1Term and concept


 2Integrated medical curriculum
 3K-12 outcomes
 4See also
 5References
 6Bibliography
 7External links

Term and concept[edit]


Integrative Learning comes in many varieties: connecting skills and knowledge from multiple sources
and experiences; applying skills and practices in various settings; utilizing diverse and even
contradictory points of view; and, understanding issues and positions contextually."
...making connections within a major, between fields, between curriculum, cocurriculum, or between
academic knowledge and practice."[1]
Integrated studies involve bringing together traditionally separate subjects so that students can
grasp a more authentic understanding. Veronica Boix Mansilla, cofounder of the Interdisciplinary
Studies Project at Project Zero, explains "when [students] can bring together concepts, methods, or
languages from two or more disciplines or established areas of expertise in order to explain a
phenomenon, solve a problem, create a product, or raise a new question" they are demonstrating
interdisciplinary understanding. For over a decade, Project Zero researchers at the Harvard
Graduate School of Education have been studying interdisciplinary work across a range of settings.
They have found interdisciplinary understanding to be crucial for modern-thinking students.[2]
Edutopia highlighted Central York High School as a "School That Works" because of its successful
integrated studies approach. For example, an AP government teacher and art teacher collaborated
to create a joint project that asked students to create a sculpture based on the principles presented
by the AP government class.[3] AP government teacher Dayna Laur states that, "Integrated studies
projects [aim to] create a connectedness between disciplines that otherwise might seem unrelated to
many students. Deliberately searching for ways in which you can mingle standards and content is
imperative if you want to create truly authentic experiences because, in the world outside of the
classroom, content is not stand-alone."[4][5]

Concept map describing activities offered by universities to encourage integrative learning.

Integrated medical curriculum[edit]


In many American medical schools, an integrated curriculum refers to a non-compartmentalized
approach to basic science learning. As opposed to traditional medical curriculum, which separate
subjects such as embryology, physiology, pathologyand anatomy, integrated curricula alternate
lectures on these subjects over the course of the first two years. (Jonas 1989) The course of study is
instead organized around organ systems (such as "Cardiovascular" or "Gastrointestinal"). Another
major component of the integrated medical curriculum is problem-based learning.

K-12 outcomes[edit]
Interdisciplinary curricula has been shown by several studies to support students’ engagement and
learning. Specifically integrating science with reading comprehension and writing lessons has been
shown to improve students’ understanding in both science and English language arts.[6]

Inquiry-based learning
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

Inquiry-based learning (also enquiry-based learning in British English)[1] is a form of active


learning that starts by posing questions, problems or scenarios—rather than simply presenting
established facts or portraying a smooth path to knowledge. The process is often assisted by
a facilitator. Inquirers will identify and research issues and questions to develop their knowledge or
solutions. Inquiry-based learning includes problem-based learning, and is generally used in small
scale investigations and projects, as well as research.[2] The inquiry-based instruction is principally
very closely related to the development and practice of thinking skills.[3]

Contents

 1History
 2Characteristics
o 2.1Levels
o 2.2Open/true inquiry learning
o 2.3Inquisitive learning
 3Inquiry-based science education
o 3.1History of science education
 4In other disciplines/programs
o 4.1Ontario's kindergarten program
 5Misconceptions about inquiry
 6Neuroscience complexity
 7Notes for educators
o 7.1Necessity for teacher training
 8Criticism
 9Additional scholarly research literature
 10See also
 11References and further reading
 12External links

History[edit]
Inquiry-based learning is primarily a pedagogical method, developed during the discovery
learning movement of the 1960s as a response to traditional forms of instruction—where people
were required to memorize information from instructional materials,[4] such as direct
instruction and rote learning. The philosophy of inquiry based learning finds its antecedents
in constructivist learning theories, such as the work of Piaget, Dewey, Vygotsky, and Freire among
others,[5][6][7] and can be considered a constructivist philosophy. Generating information and making
meaning of it based on personal or societal experience is referred to as constructivism.[8] Dewey's
experiential learning pedagogy (that is, learning through experiences) comprises the learner actively
participating in personal or authentic experiences to make meaning from it.[9][10] Inquiry can be
conducted through experiential learning because inquiry values the same concepts, which include
engaging with the content/material in questioning, as well as investigating and collaborating to make
meaning. Vygotsky approached constructivism as learning from an experience that is influenced by
society and the facilitator. The meaning constructed from an experience can be concluded as an
individual or within a group.[8][9]
In the 1960s Joseph Schwab called for inquiry to be divided into four distinct levels.[11] This was later
formalized by Marshall Herron in 1971, who developed the Herron Scale to evaluate the amount of
inquiry within a particular lab exercise.[12] Since then, there have been a number of revisions
proposed and inquiry can take various forms. There is a spectrum of inquiry-based teaching
methods available.[13]
Characteristics[edit]
Specific learning processes that people engage in during inquiry-learning include:[14]

 Creating questions of their own


 Obtaining supporting evidence to answer the question(s)
 Explaining the evidence collected
 Connecting the explanation to the knowledge obtained from the investigative process
 Creating an argument and justification for the explanation
Inquiry learning involves developing questions, making observations, doing research to find out what
information is already recorded, developing methods for experiments, developing instruments for
data collection, collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, outlining possible explanations and
creating predictions for future study.[15]
Levels[edit]
There are many different explanations for inquiry teaching and learning and the various levels of
inquiry that can exist within those contexts. The article titled The Many Levels of Inquiry by Heather
Banchi and Randy Bell (2008)[15] clearly outlines four levels of inquiry.
Level 1: Confirmation Inquiry
The teacher has taught a particular science theme or topic. The teacher then develops questions
and a procedure that guides students through an activity where the results are already known. This
method is great to reinforce concepts taught and to introduce students into learning to follow
procedures, collect and record data correctly and to confirm and deepen understandings.
Level 2: Structured Inquiry
The teacher provides the initial question and an outline of the procedure. Students are to formulate
explanations of their findings through evaluating and analyzing the data that they collect.
Level 3: Guided Inquiry
The teacher provides only the research question for the students. The students are responsible for
designing and following their own procedures to test that question and then communicate their
results and findings.
Level 4: Open/True Inquiry
Students formulate their own research question(s), design and follow through with a developed
procedure, and communicate their findings and results. This type of inquiry is often seen in science
fair contexts where students drive their own investigative questions.
Banchi and Bell (2008) explain that teachers should begin their inquiry instruction at the lower levels
and work their way to open inquiry in order to effectively develop students' inquiry skills. Open
inquiry activities are only successful if students are motivated by intrinsic interests and if they are
equipped with the skills to conduct their own research study.[16]
Open/true inquiry learning[edit]
An important aspect of inquiry-based learning (and science) is the use of open learning, as evidence
suggests that only utilizing lower level inquiry is not enough to develop critical and scientific thinking
to the full potential.[17][18][19] Open learning has no prescribed target or result that people have to
achieve. There is an emphasis on the individual manipulating information and creating meaning from
a set of given materials or circumstances.[20] In many conventional and structured learning
environments, people are told what the outcome is expected to be, and then they are simply
expected to 'confirm' or show evidence that this is the case.
Open learning has many benefits.[19] It means students do not simply perform experiments in a
routine like fashion, but actually think about the results they collect and what they mean. With
traditional non-open lessons there is a tendency for students to say that the experiment 'went wrong'
when they collect results contrary to what they are told to expect. In open learning there are no
wrong results, and students have to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the results they
collect themselves and decide their value.
Open learning has been developed by a number of science educators including the American John
Dewey and the German Martin Wagenschein.[citation needed] Wagenschein's ideas particularly
complement both open learning and inquiry-based learning in teaching work. He emphasized that
students should not be taught bald facts, but should understand and explain what they are learning.
His most famous example of this was when he asked physics students to tell him what the speed of
a falling object was. Nearly all students would produce an equation, but no students could explain
what this equation meant.[citation needed] Wagenschien used this example to show the importance of
understanding over knowledge.[21]
Inquisitive learning[edit]
Sociologist of education Phillip Brown defined inquisitive learning as learning that is intrinsically
motivated (e.g. by curiosity and interest in knowledge for its own sake), as opposed to acquisitive
learning that is extrinsically motivated (e.g. by acquiring high scores on examinations to earn
credentials).[22][23][24] However, occasionally the term inquisitive learning is simply used as a synonym
for inquiry-based learning.[25][26]

Inquiry-based science education[edit]


History of science education[edit]
Inquiry learning has been used as a teaching and learning tool for thousands of years, however, the
use of inquiry within public education has a much briefer history.[27] Ancient Greek and
Roman educational philosophies focused much more on the art of agricultural and domestic skills for
the middle class and oratory for the wealthy upper class. It was not until the Enlightenment, or the
Age of Reason, during the late 17th and 18th century that the subject of Science was considered a
respectable academic body of knowledge.[28] Up until the 1900s the study of science within education
had a primary focus on memorizing and organizing facts. Unfortunately, there is still evidence that
some students are still receiving this type of science instruction today.
John Dewey, a well-known philosopher of education at the beginning of the 20th century, was the
first to criticize the fact that science education was not taught in a way to develop young scientific
thinkers. Dewey proposed that science should be taught as a process and way of thinking – not as a
subject with facts to be memorized.[27] While Dewey was the first to draw attention to this issue, much
of the reform within science education followed the lifelong work and efforts of Joseph Schwab.
Joseph Schwab was an educator who proposed that science did not need to be a process for
identifying stable truths about the world that we live in, but rather science could be a flexible and
multi-directional inquiry driven process of thinking and learning. Schwab believed that science in the
classroom should more closely reflect the work of practicing scientists. Schwab developed three
levels of open inquiry that align with the breakdown of inquiry processes that we see today.[29]

1. Students are provided with questions, methods and materials and are challenged to discover
relationships between variables
2. Students are provided with a question, however, the method for research is up to the
students to develop
3. Phenomena are proposed but students must develop their own questions and method for
research to discover relationships among variables
Today, we know that students at all levels of education can successfully experience and develop
deeper level thinking skills through scientific inquiry.[30] The graduated levels of scientific inquiry
outlined by Schwab demonstrate that students need to develop thinking skills and strategies prior to
being exposed to higher levels of inquiry.[29] Effectively, these skills need to be scaffolded by the
teacher or instructor until students are able to develop questions, methods, and conclusions on their
own.[31]A catalyst for reform within North American science education was the 1957 launch
of Sputnik, the Soviet Union satellite. This historical scientific breakthrough caused a great deal of
concern around the science and technology education the American students were receiving. In
1958 the U.S. congress developed and passed the National Defense Education Act in order to
provide math and science teachers with adequate teaching materials.[15]
America's National Science Education Standards (NSES) (1996)[30] outlines six important aspects
pivotal to inquiry learning in science education.

1. Students should be able to recognize that science is more than memorizing and knowing
facts.
2. Students should have the opportunity to develop new knowledge that builds on their prior
knowledge and scientific ideas.
3. Students will develop new knowledge by restructuring their previous understandings of
scientific concepts and adding new information learned.
4. Learning is influenced by students' social environment whereby they have an opportunity to
learn from each other.
5. Students will take control of their learning.
6. The extent to which students are able to learn with deep understanding will influence how
transferable their new knowledge is to real life contexts.

In other disciplines/programs[edit]
Science naturally lends itself to investigation and collection of data, but it is applicable in other
subject areas where people are developing critical thinking and investigation skills. In history, for
example, Robert Bain in his article in How Students Learn, describes how to "problematize"
history.[32] Bain's idea is to first organize a learning curriculum around central concepts. Next, people
studying the curriculum are given a question and primary sources such as eye witness historical
accounts, and the task for inquiry is to create an interpretation of history that will answer the central
question. It is held that through the inquiry people will develop skills and factual knowledge that
supports their answers to a question. They will form an hypothesis, collect and consider information
and revisit their hypothesis as they evaluate their data.
Ontario's kindergarten program[edit]
After Charles Pascal's report in 2009, the Canadian province of Ontario's Ministry of Education
decided to implement a full day kindergarten program that focuses on inquiry and play-based
learning, called The Early Learning Kindergarten Program.[33]As of September 2014, all primary
schools in Ontario started the program. The curriculum document[34] outlines the philosophy,
definitions, process and core learning concepts for the program. Bronfenbrenner's ecological model,
Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, Piaget's child development theory and Dewey's
experiential learning are the heart of the program's design. As research shows, children learn best
through play, whether it is independently or in a group. Three forms of play are noted in the
curriculum document, pretend or "pretense" play, socio-dramatic play and constructive play. Through
play and authentic experiences, children interact with their environment (people and/or objects) and
question things; thus leading to inquiry learning. A chart on page 15 clearly outlines the process of
inquiry for young children, including initial engagement, exploration, investigation, and
communication.[34] The new program supports holistic approach to learning. For further details,
please see the curriculum document.[34]
Since the program is extremely new, there is limited research on its success and areas of
improvement. One government research report was released with the initial groups of children in the
new kindergarten program. The Final Report: Evaluation of the Implementation of the Ontario Full-
Day Early-Learning Kindergarten Program from Vanderlee, Youmans, Peters, and Eastabrook
(2012) conclude with primary research that high-need children improved more compared to children
who did not attend Ontario's new kindergarten program.[35] As with inquiry-based learning in all
divisions and subject areas, longitudinal research is needed to examine the full extent of this
teaching/learning method.

Misconceptions about inquiry[edit]


There are several common misconceptions regarding inquiry-based science, the first being that
inquiry science is simply instruction that teaches students to follow the scientific method. Many
teachers had the opportunity to work within the constraints of the scientific method as students
themselves and figure inquiry learning must be the same. Inquiry science is not just about solving
problems in six simple steps but much more broadly focused on the intellectual problem-solving
skills developed throughout a scientific process.[30] Additionally, not every hands-on lesson can be
considered inquiry.
Some educators believe that there is only one true method of inquiry, which would be described as
the level four: Open Inquiry. While open inquiry may be the most authentic form of inquiry, there are
many skills and a level of conceptual understanding that the students must have developed before
they can be successful at this high level of inquiry.[31] While inquiry-based science is considered to be
a teaching strategy that fosters higher order thinking in students, it should be one of several methods
used. A multifaceted approach to science keeps students engaged and learning.
Not every student is going to learn the same amount from an inquiry lesson; students must be
invested in the topic of study to authentically reach the set learning goals. Teachers must be
prepared to ask students questions to probe their thinking processes in order to assess accurately.
Inquiry-science requires a lot of time, effort, and expertise, however, the benefits outweigh the cost
when true authentic learning can take place[citation needed].

Neuroscience complexity[edit]
The literature states that inquiry requires multiple cognitive processes and variables, such as
causality and co-occurrence that enrich with age and experience.[36][37] Kuhn, et al. (2000) used
explicit training workshops to teach children in grades six to eight in the United States how to inquire
through a quantitative study. By completing an inquiry-based task at the end of the study, the
participants demonstrated enhanced mental models by applying different inquiry strategies.[36] In a
similar study, Kuhan and Pease (2008) completed a longitudinal quantitative study following a set of
American children from grades four to six to investigate the effectiveness of scaffolding strategies for
inquiry. Results demonstrated that children benefitted from the scaffolding because they
outperformed the grade seven control group on an inquiry task.[37] Understanding the neuroscience of
inquiry learning the scaffolding process related to it should be reinforced for Ontario's primary
teachers as part of their training.

Notes for educators[edit]


Inquiry-based learning is fundamental for the development of higher order thinking skills. According
to Bloom's Taxonomy, the ability to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information or new
understandings indicates a high level of thinking.[38] Teachers should be encouraging divergent
thinking and allowing students the freedom to ask their own questions and to learn the effective
strategies for discovering the answers. The higher order thinking skills that students have the
opportunity to develop during inquiry activities will assist in the critical thinking skills that they will be
able to transfer to other subjects.
As shown in the section above on the neuroscience of inquiry learning, it is significant to scaffold
students to teach them how to inquire and inquire through the four levels. It cannot be assumed that
they know how to inquire without foundational skills. Scaffolding the students at a younger age will
result in enriched inquiring learning later.[36][37]
Inquiry-based learning can be done in multiple formats, including:

 Field-work
 Case studies
 Investigations
 Individual and group projects
 Research projects
Remember to keep in mind...[39]

 Teacher is Facilitator in IBL environment


 Place needs of students and their ideas at the center
 Don't wait for the perfect question, pose multiple open-ended questions.
 Work towards common goal of understanding
 Remain faithful to the students' line of inquiry
 Teach directly on a need-to-know basis
 Encourage students to demonstrate learning using a range of media
Necessity for teacher training[edit]
There is a necessity for professional collaboration when executing a new inquiry program (Chu,
2009; Twigg, 2010). The teacher training and process of using inquiry learning should be a joint
mission to ensure the maximal amount of resources are used and that the teachers are producing
the best learning scenarios. The scholarly literature supports this notion. Twigg's (2010) education
professionals who participated in her experiment emphasized year round professional development
sessions, such as workshops, weekly meetings and observations, to ensure inquiry is being
implemented in the class correctly.[10] Another example is Chu's (2009) study, where the participants
appreciated the professional collaboration of educators, information technicians and librarians to
provide more resources and expertise for preparing the structure and resources for the inquiry
project.[40] To establish a professional collaboration and researched training methods, administration
support is required for funding.

Criticism[edit]
Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)[41] review of literature found that although constructivists often
cite each other's work, empirical evidence is not often cited. Nonetheless the constructivist
movement gained great momentum in the 1990s, because many educators began to write about this
philosophy of learning.
Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn cite several studies supporting the success of the
constructivist problem-based and inquiry learning methods. For example, they describe a project
called GenScope, an inquiry-based science software application. Students using the GenScope
software showed significant gains over the control groups, with the largest gains shown in students
from basic courses.[42]
In contrast, Hmelo-Silver et al. also cite a large study by Geier on the effectiveness of inquiry-based
science for middle school students, as demonstrated by their performance on high-stakes
standardized tests. The improvement was 14% for the first cohort of students and 13% for the
second cohort. This study also found that inquiry-based teaching methods greatly reduced the
achievement gap for African-American students.[42]
In a 2006 article, the Thomas B. Fordham Institute's president, Chester E. Finn Jr., was quoted as
saying "But like so many things in education, it gets carried to excess... [the approach is] fine to
some degree.".[43] The organization ran a study in 2005 concluding that the emphasis states put on
inquiry-based learning is too great.[44]
Richard E. Mayer from the University of California, Santa Barbara, wrote in 2004 that there was
sufficient research evidence to make any reasonable person skeptical about the benefits of
discovery learning—practiced under the guise of cognitive constructivism or social constructivism—
as a preferred instructional method. He reviewed research on discovery of problem-solving rules
culminating in the 1960s, discovery of conservation strategies culminating in the 1970s, and
discovery of LOGO programming strategies culminating in the 1980s. In each case, guided
discovery was more effective than pure discovery in helping students learn and transfer.[45]
It should be cautioned that inquiry-based learning takes a lot of planning before implementation. It is
not something that can be put into place in the classroom quickly. Measurements must be put in
place for how students knowledge and performance will be measured and how standards will be
incorporated. The teacher's responsibility during inquiry exercises is to support and facilitate student
learning (Bell et al., 769–770). A common mistake teachers make is lacking the vision to see where
students' weaknesses lie. According to Bain, teachers cannot assume that students will hold the
same assumptions and thinking processes as a professional within that discipline (p. 201).
While some see inquiry-based teaching as increasingly mainstream, it can be perceived as in
conflict with standardized testing common in standards-based assessment systems which
emphasise the measurement of student knowledge, and meeting of pre-defined criteria, for example
the shift towards "fact" in changes to the National Assessment of Educational Progress as a result of
the American No Child Left Behind program.[citation needed]
Programs such as the International Baccalaureate (IB) Primary Years Program can be criticized for
their claims to be an inquiry based learning program.[citation needed] While there are different types of
inquiry (as stated above) the rigid structure of this style of inquiry based learning program almost
completely rules out any real inquiry based learning in the lower grades. Each "unit of inquiry" is
given to the students, structured to guide them and does not allow students to choose the path or
topic of their inquiry. Each unit is carefully planned to connect to the topics the students are required
to be learning in school and does not leave room for open inquiry in topics that the students pick.
Some may feel that until the inquiry learning process is open inquiry then it is not true inquiry based
learning at all. Instead of opportunities to learn through open and student-led inquiry, the IB program
is viewed by some to simply be an extra set of learning requirements for the students to
complete.[citation needed]

Additional scholarly research literature[edit]


Chu (2009) used a mixed method design to examine the outcome of an inquiry project completed by
students in Hong Kong with the assistance of multiple educators. Chu's (2009) results show that the
children were more motivated and academically successful compared to the control group.[40]
Cindy Hmelo-Silver reviewed a number of reports on a variety studies into problem based learning.[46]
Edelson, Gordin and Pea describe five significant challenges to implementing inquiry-based learning
and present strategies for addressing them through the design of technology and curriculum. They
present a design history covering four generations of software and curriculum to show how these
challenges arise in classrooms and how the design strategies respond to them.[47]

Reflective teaching means looking at what you do in the classroom, thinking about
why you do it, and thinking about if it works - a process of self-observation and
self-evaluation.

By collecting information about what goes on in our classroom, and by analysing and
evaluating this information, we identify and explore our own practices and underlying
beliefs. This may then lead to changes and improvements in our teaching.

Reflective teaching is therefore a means of professional development which begins in


our classroom.

 Why it is important

 Beginning the process of reflection


o Teacher diary
o Peer observation
o Recording lessons
o Student feedback

 What to do next
o Think
o Talk
o Read
o Ask

 Conclusion

Why it is important
Many teachers already think about their teaching and talk to colleagues about it too.
You might think or tell someone that "My lesson went well" or "My students didn't seem
to understand" or "My students were so badly behaved today."

However, without more time spent focussing on or discussing what has happened, we
may tend to jump to conclusions about why things are happening. We may only notice
reactions of the louder students. Reflective teaching therefore implies a more
systematic process of collecting, recording and analysing our thoughts and
observations, as well as those of our students, and then going on to making changes.

 If a lesson went well we can describe it and think about why it was successful.
 If the students didn't understand a language point we introduced we need to think
about what we did and why it may have been unclear.

 If students are misbehaving - what were they doing, when and why?

Beginning the process of reflection


You may begin a process of reflection in response to a particular problem that has
arisen with one or your classes, or simply as a way of finding out more about your
teaching. You may decide to focus on a particular class of students, or to look at a
feature of your teaching - for example how you deal with incidents of misbehaviour or
how you can encourage your students to speak more English in class.

The first step is to gather information about what happens in the class. Here are some
different ways of doing this.

Teacher diary
This is the easiest way to begin a process of reflection since it is purely personal. After
each lesson you write in a notebook about what happened. You may also describe your
own reactions and feelings and those you observed on the part of the students. You are
likely to begin to pose questions about what you have observed. Diary writing does
require a certain discipline in taking the time to do it on a regular basis.

Here are some suggestions for areas to focus on to help you start your diary.

Download diary suggestions 51k

Peer observation
Invite a colleague to come into your class to collect information about your lesson. This
may be with a simple observation task or through note taking. This will relate back to
the area you have identified to reflect upon. For example, you might ask your colleague
to focus on which students contribute most in the lesson, what different patterns of
interaction occur or how you deal with errors.

Recording lessons
Video or audio recordings of lessons can provide very useful information for reflection.
You may do things in class you are not aware of or there may be things happening in
the class that as the teacher you do not normally see.

 Audio recordings can be useful for considering aspects of teacher talk.


o How much do you talk?
o What about?
o Are instructions and explanations clear?
o How much time do you allocate to student talk?
o How do you respond to student talk?
 Video recordings can be useful in showing you aspects of your own behaviour.
o Where do you stand?
o Who do you speak to?
o How do you come across to the students?

Student feedback
You can also ask your students what they think about what goes on in the classroom.
Their opinions and perceptions can add a different and valuable perspective. This can
be done with simple questionnaires or learning diaries for example.

What to do next
Once you have some information recorded about what goes on in your classroom, what
do you do?

 Think
You may have noticed patterns occurring in your teaching through your observation.
You may also have noticed things that you were previously unaware of. You may have
been surprised by some of your students' feedback. You may already have ideas for
changes to implement.

 Talk
Just by talking about what you have discovered - to a supportive colleague or even a
friend - you may be able to come up with some ideas for how to do things differently.
o If you have colleagues who also wish to develop their teaching using reflection as a
tool, you can meet to discuss issues. Discussion can be based around scenarios from
your own classes.
o Using a list of statements about teaching beliefs (for example, pairwork is a valuable
activity in the language class or lexis is more important than grammar) you can discuss
which ones you agree or disagree with, and which ones are reflected in your own
teaching giving evidence from your self-observation.
 Read
You may decide that you need to find out more about a certain area. There are plenty
of websites for teachers of English now where you can find useful teaching ideas, or
more academic articles. There are also magazines for teachers where you can find
articles on a wide range of topics. Or if you have access to a library or bookshop, there
are plenty of books for English language teachers.

 Ask
Pose questions to websites or magazines to get ideas from other teachers. Or if you
have a local teachers' association or other opportunities for in-service training, ask for a
session on an area that interests you.

Conclusion
Reflective teaching is a cyclical process, because once you start to implement changes,
then the reflective and evaluative cycle begins again.
 What are you doing?

 Why are you doing it?

 How effective is it?

 How are the students responding?

 How can you do it better?

As a result of your reflection you may decide to do something in a different way, or you
may just decide that what you are doing is the best way. And that is what professional
development is all about.

11 mar What Is Reflective Teaching


And Why Is It Important?
POSTED AT 10:49H IN REFLECTIONS ABOUT EDUCATION, TEACHER DEVELOPMENT BY ROSELI

SERRA 1 COMMENT

“Teachers are the busiest professionals on Earth”. “Teachers never stop working”.

How many times have you heard statements like those above? I bet many times.

And how many times have you stopped to reflect upon your teaching practice? Have you ever done
it? How? What was the last time you’ve been observed? What was the last time you observed a
friend?

You may think: Why so many questions? What does it all have to do with reflective teaching?

I’ve noticed that a lot has been discussed about critical thinking regarding our students learning
process. What about reflecting on our teaching process? Have we reflected on it?

Reflective teaching is a personal tool that teachers can use to observe and evaluate the way they
behave in their classroom. It can be both a private process as well as one that you discuss with
colleagues. When you collect information regarding what went on in your classroom and take the
time to analyse it from a distance, you can identify more than just what worked and what didn’t. You
will be able to look at the underlying principles and beliefs that define the way that you work. This
kind of self-awareness is a powerful ally for a teacher, especially when so much of what and how
they teach can change in the moment.
Reflective teaching is about more than just summarizing what happened in the classroom. If you
spend all your time discussing the events of the lesson, it’s possible to jump to abrupt conclusions
about why things happened as they did.

Reflective teaching is a quieter and more systemic approach to looking at what happened. It requires
patience, and careful observation of the entire lesson’s experience.

According to Jack Richards, reflection or “critical reflection, refers to an activity or process in which
an experience is recalled, considered, and evaluated, usually in relation to a broader purpose. It is a
response to past experience and involves conscious recall and examination of the experience as a
basis for evaluation and decision-making and as a source for planning and action. (Richard 1990)

Bartlett (1990) points out that becoming a reflective teacher involves moving beyond a primary
concern with instructional techniques and “how to” questions and asking “what” and “why” questions
that regard instructions and managerial techniques not as ends in themselves, but as part of broader
educational purposes. Asking “what and why” questions give us a certain power over our teaching.
We could claim that the degree of autonomy and responsibility we have in our work as teachers is
determined by the level of control we can exercise over our actions. In reflecting on the above kind
of questions, we begin to exercise control and open up the possibility of transforming our everyday
classroom life. (Bartlett, 1990. 267)

The process of reflective teaching supports the development and maintenance of professional
expertise. We can conceptualise successive levels of expertise in teaching – those that student-
teachers may attain at the beginning, middle and end of their courses; those of the new teacher after
their induction to full-time school life; and those of the experienced, expert teacher. Given the nature
of teaching, professional development and learning should never stop.

How does reflection take place?

Many different approaches can be employed if one wishes to become a critically reflective teacher,
including observation of oneself and others, team teaching, and exploring one’s view of teaching
through writing.

Approaches to Critical reflection:


Peer Observation – Peer observation can provide opportunities for teachers to view each other’s
teaching in order to expose them to different teaching styles and to provide opportunities for critical
reflection on their own teaching. Some suggestions for peer observation:
1. Each participant would both observe and be observed – Teachers would work in pairs and
take turns observing each other’s classes.
2. Pre-observation orientation session – Prior to each observation, the two teachers would meet
to discuss the nature of the class to be observed, the kind of material being taught, the teachers’
approach to teaching, the kinds of students in the class, typical patterns of interaction and class
participation, and any problems that might be expected. The teacher being observed would also
assign the observer a goal for the observation and a task to accomplish. The task would involve
collecting information about some aspect of the lesson, but would not include any evaluation of the
lesson. Observation procedures or instruments to be used would be agreed upon during this session
and a schedule for the observations arranged.
3. The observation -The observer would then visit his or her partner’s class and complete the
observation using the procedures that both partners had agreed on.
4. Post-observation: The two teachers would meet as soon as possible after the lesson. The
observer would report on the information that had been collected and discuss it with the teacher
(Richards and Lockhart, 1991).
Benefits:
The teachers identify a variety of different aspects of their lessons for their partners to observe and
collect information on. These include organization of the lesson, teacher’s time management,
students’ performance on tasks, time-on-task, teacher questions and student responses, student
performance during pair work, classroom interaction, class performance during a new teaching
activity, and students’ use of the first language or English during group work.

The teachers gain a number of insights about their own teaching from their colleague’s observations
and that they would like to use peer observation on a regular basis. They may also obtain new
insights into aspects of their teaching.

Written accounts of experiences


Another useful way of engaging in the reflective process is through the use of written accounts of
experiences. (Powell 1985) and their potential is increasingly being recognized in teacher education.
A number of different approaches can be used.

Self-Reports – Self-reporting involves completing an inventory or check list in which the teacher
indicates which teaching practices were used within a lesson or within a specified time period and
how often they were employed (Pak, 1985).
Self-reporting allows teachers to make a regular assessment of what they are doing in the
classroom. They can check to see to what extent their assumptions about their own teaching are
reflected in their actual teaching practices.

Journal Writing
A procedure which is becoming more widely acknowledged as a valuable tool for developing critical
reflection is the journal or diary. The goals of journal writing are:

1. To provide a record of the significant learning experiences that have taken place

2. To help the participant come into touch and keep in touch with the self-development process that
is taking place for them

3. To provide the participants with an opportunity to express, in a personal and dynamic way, their
self-development

4. To foster a creative interaction

• between the participant and the self-development process that is taking lace

• between the participant and other participants who are also in the process of self-development

• between the participant and the facilitator whose role it is to foster such development (Powell,
1985, Bailey, 1990)

Recording Lessons
For many aspects of teaching, audio or video recording of lessons can also provide a basis for
reflection. While there are many useful insights to be gained from diaries and self-reports, they
cannot capture the moment to moment processes of teaching. Many things happen simultaneously
in a classroom, and some aspects of a lesson cannot be recalled. It would be of little value for
example, to attempt to recall the proportion of Yes-No Questions to WH-Questions a teacher used
during a lesson, or to estimate the degree to which teacher time was shared among higher and
lower ability students. Many significant classroom events may not have been observed by the
teacher, let alone remembered, hence the need to supplement diaries or self-reports with recordings
of actual lessons.

Conclusion:
A reflective approach to teaching involves changes in the way we usually perceive teaching and our
role in the process of teaching. Teachers who explore their own teaching through critical reflection
develop changes in attitudes and awareness which they believe can benefit their professional growth
as teachers, as well as improve the kind of support they provide their students. Like other forms of
self-inquiry, reflective teaching is not without its risks, since journal writing, self-reporting or making
recordings of lessons can be time-consuming. However teachers engaged in reflective analysis of
their own teaching report that it is a valuable tool for self-evaluation and professional growth.
Reflective teaching suggests that experience alone is insufficient for professional growth, but that
experience coupled with reflection can be a powerful impetus for teacher development.

You might find, as you progress, that there is an area of knowledge you need to know more about.
So never be afraid to ask for help or advice. There’s nothing wrong with asking, “How can I do it
better?” Doing this is not a sign of being an underwhelming teacher; in fact it’s quite the opposite: It
shows you are brave and professional.

Enjoy your teaching!

You might also like