B.TECH.

, I YEAR, I SEMESTER, SESSION 2017-18

Physics Lab-I (14B17PH171)

JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF ENGINNERING & TECHNOLOGY

AB ROAD, RAGHOGARH, GUNA (M.P.)
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Title: Physics Lab- I
Course Code: 14B17PH171
Credit: 01
Objectives
This one semester course is aimed at introducing the fundamental principles of physics to students
through demonstrating its applicability in predicting electrical, magnetic, optical, and thermal properties
of solid state materials. This course also aims to provide experimental realization of some of the very
important devices & principles.

Learning outcomes:

After going through this course students shall acquire conceptual understanding of few important
devices and principals of Physics. They will also inculcate the ability to work independently.

List of Experiments

1. To study the variation of magnetic field along the axis of Helmholtz Galvanometer
and to determine its reduction factor.
2. To determine the resistance per unit length of a Carey Foster’s bridge and to
obtain the specific resistance of a given wire.
3. To determine the wavelengths of spectral lines Red, Green and Violet of mercury
using plane transmission grating.
4. To determine the specific rotation of cane sugar solution using Biquartz
polarimeter.
5. To observe Newton’s rings and to determine the wavelength of sodium light.
6. To study Hall effect in a P type semiconductor.
a. To determine Hall voltage and Hall coefficient
b. Number of charge carriers per unit volume
c. Hall angle and mobility.
7. To study the Photo-Electric effect and to determine the value of the Planck’s
constant.
8. To study the variation of resistivity of a semiconductor with temperature and to
determine the band gap using Four-Probe method
9. To study hysteresis loop of a ferromagnetic material and to calculate its retentivity
and coercivity
10. To determine the wavelength of sodium light with the help of Fresnel’s biprism.
Reference Books:
1. Concepts of Modern Physics, A. Beiser, McGraw Hill
2. Engg. Physics, Gaur R. K. & Gupta S. L., Dhanpat Rai Publishers.
3. Optics, A. Ghatak, Tata McGraw Hill
4. Semiconductor Physics And Devices, Donald A. Neamen, McGraw-Hill Education; 4
edition.
 JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF ENGG. & TECHNOLOGY, GUNA
B.TECH., I YEAR, I SEMESTER, SESSION 2017-18
Physics Lab-I (14B17PH171)

Lab Evaluation Scheme

P-1: 15 Marks Practical test-1 (As Per schedule)

P-2: 15 Marks Final Exam (Includes performing one
experiment and via-voce).
15 Marks Attendance Discipline
15 Marks Laboratory Record
40Marks Quantity & quality of experiments
performed, Learning laboratory skills and
handelling laboratory
equipments/instruments, gadgets,
components, materials and software etc.
Total: 100 Marks (1Credit)
Note: Practical notebook will be evaluated every week in scheduled lab. Students have to come
prepared for viva.
 Experiment No 1
Objective-
To plot a graph showing the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a
Helmholtz galvanometer and calculate the reduction factor ‘K’, horizontal component of earth’s
magnetic field ‘BH’ and the radius of coil ‘r’ from graph.
Apparatus required-
Helmholtz galvanometer, variable power supply, an ammeter, commutator and connecting wires

Apparatus Description
Helmholtz galvanometer-A Helmholtz galvanometer, like other galvanometers, is an instrument
which can be used to measure dc current in the circuit .It is an improved form of the tangent galvanometer.
It consists of two identical coils placed coaxially at a distance equal to the radius of the either coil.
The two coils are of the same radius on the same direction. The field at any point on the axis of
the coil is equal to the sum of the magnetic field due to the individual coil.
In the side of each coil, four terminals are provided. First of which
is internally connected with the starting end of the coil, second is connected with the end of the
5th turn, third with the end of the 50th turn and fourth with the 500th turns. With the help of these
terminals, equal number of turns of each coil can be connected in series to allow the same current
to flow in the same direction

Theory-
According to Biot-Savart law-
A current conducting circular loop of wire (coil) and having a radius r, the magnetic field ‘B’ at
a point on the axis at a distance x from the center of the coil is given by
μo Ir2 (4π×10−7 )Ir2
B= 3 → 3
2(r2 +x2 ) ⁄2 2(r2 +x2 ) ⁄2
 (2π×10−7 )Ir2
B= 3
(r2 +x2 ) ⁄2
Where I is the current passing through the coil.
For a coil consisting of n turns of wire and having a mean radius r, the magnetic field ‘B’
is given by
(2π×10−7 )nir2
B= 3
(r2 +x2 ) ⁄2
The rate of variation is given by
dB −5⁄
= -3x [(2πnIr 2 10−7 )(r 2 + x 2 ) 2]
dx
d2 B −5⁄ −7⁄
= -6πnI𝑟 2 10−7 [(r 2 + x 2 ) 2 - 5𝑥 2 (r 2 + x 2 ) 2]
dx2
d2 𝐁 dB
From which x = ±r/2, if dx2 = 0 or dx = constant
If there are two identical coils having the same axis and caring the same current in the direction
with their centers r cm. apart, the rate of increase of field due to one coil at the midpoint between
the coils is equal to the rate of decrease of field due to the other at the same point. Therefore, if
one moves away along the axis from the midpoint, any diminution in the intensity of the field
due to one coil is compensated by the increase in the field due to the other so that the field
between the coils is practically uniform.
The field at the midpoint is given by
(2π×10−7 )nIr2 32𝜋𝑛𝐼
B=2× 3⁄ = × 10−7
2 2
(r +x ) 2 𝑟 √ 125
If the coils are in magnetic meridian, B will be perpendicular to B H. If the needle shows the
deflection θ,
32πnI
× 10−7 = BH tan θ
r√125
32πnI
Or BH = × 10−7
tan θr√125
32πnK
Or BH = × 10−7 (K = I / tan θ)
r√125

where K is a constant for the galvanometer at a particular place called the reduction factor of the
galvanometer.

Procedure
The magnetic meridian is an equivalent imaginary line connecting the magnetic south
and north poles and can be taken as the horizontal component of magnetic force lines
along the surface of the earth. Therefore, coil will be parallel to the magnetic meridian.

1. Place the magnetometer compass box on the sliding bench so that its magnetic needle is
at the centre of the coil. By rotating the whole apparatus in the horizontal plane, set the
coil in the magnetic meridian roughly. In this case the coil, needle and its image all lie in
the same vertical plane. Rotate the compass box till the pointer ends read 0 – 0 on the
circular scale.
 2. To set the coil exactly in the magnetic meridian set up the electrical connections as
shown in fig. Apply the current in one direction with the help of commutator and note
down the deflection of the needle. Now reverse the direction of the current and again note
down the deflection. If the deflections are equal then the coil is in magnetic meridian.
Otherwise turn the apparatus a little,
3. Using rheostat Rh adjust the current such that the deflection of nearly 450 produced in the
compass needle placed at the centre of the two coils. Read both the ends of the pointer.
Reverse the direction of the current and again read both the ends of the mean deflection at
x =0.
4. The current is noted from the ammeter.
5. The magnetometer box is slowly moved over the bench and kept the distance
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,12,14,16,18& 20 cm. on east side from the center. The deflection for
both the sides of the pointer is noted at these points of direct as well as reverse currents.
The procedure is repeated for west arm.
6. Plot graph taking distances along X-axis and tan θ along Y- axis.
7. Mark the points of inflections on the curve. The distance between the two points will be
the radius of coil

Observations-
Number of turns in the coil = ….
Current in ampere = ….amp

S.No. distance along Deflection of needle

the axis from East arm West arm
center (x) in Direct Reverse Direct Reverse Mean
Mean θ tan θ tan θ
cm. θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ
1. 0 cm. (center)
2. 1 cm.
3. 2 cm.
4. 3 cm.
5. 4 cm.
6. 5 cm.
7. 6 cm.
8. 7 cm.
9. 8 cm.
10. 10 cm.
11. 12 cm.
12. 14 cm.
13. 16 cm.
14. 18 cm.
15. 20 cm.

Calculation-

𝐼 𝐼
K= or (In Amperes)
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 tan 45

32πnK
BH = × 10−7 ….Tesla.
r√125

Result-
Radius of the coil from the graph is ………………..m.
The reduction factor ‘K’of Helmholtz galvanometer for ……turns is ……..Ampere.
Horizontal component ‘BH’of earth’s magnetic field in the lab ........ Tesla.
Standard value of BH = 0.353 × 10−4 Tesla. (For Gwalior,M.P.)

Precautions-
1. The coil should be carefully adjusted in the magnetic meridian.
2. The current passed in the coil should be of such a value as to produce a deflection of nearly
450.
3. Parallax should be removed while reading the position of the pointer. Both ends of the pointer
should be read.
 Experiment No. 2
Objective-
To determine the resistance per unit length of a Carey foster’s bridge wire and to find the
specific resistance of the material of a given wire.

Apparatus required-
Carey Foster bridge, thick copper strip or multi core copper wire, fractional resistance box or
decimal resistance box or decade resistance box, laclanche cell or battery eliminator,
galvanometer , unknown resistance , one way key , connecting wires & jockey.

Theory- The Carey Foster bridge is a bridge circuit used to measure low resistances, or to
measure small differences between two large resistances. It works on the principle of
Whetstone’s bridge.
Resistance per unit length of the bridge wire is given by
𝑋
σ=𝑙 ohm/cm.
2 −𝑙1
Where
l1 = balancing length on the bridge wire measured from the left end when known resistance X is
connected in left gap of the bridge and zero resistance(Copper strip or multi core copper
wire) is connected in right gap of the bridge.
l2 = balancing length of the bridge wire measured from the left end on interchanging the
positions of X and Zero resistance.

The Carey-Foster Bridge is a modified version of meter Bridge. The circuit can be seen above
(Fig.-1).The only difference is that, we include two equal resistances in the two arms which in
Meter Bridge are shorted.
 As shown in fig.1, two resistances X and Y to be compared are connected in the outer gap of the
bridge in series of the bridge wire. These two resistances together with the bridge wire form the
two arms of the Wheatstone bridge. One composed of X plus a length of the bridge wire up to
the balance point and the second composed of Y plus the rest of the bridge wire. The remaining
two arms formed by two nearly equal resistances P and Q, which are connected in the inner gaps
of the bridge. If 𝑙1′ be the reading on the scale of the position of the null point, we have, from
usual Wheatstone bridge principle

𝑃 𝑋 + 𝜎(𝑙1′ + 𝛼)
=
𝑄 𝑌 + 𝜎(100 − 𝑙1′ + 𝛽)
Add 1 to each side

𝑃 𝑋 + 𝑌 + 𝜎(100 + 𝛼 + 𝛽)
+1= 𝐸𝑞. 1
𝑄 𝑌 + 𝜎(100 − 𝑙1′ + 𝛽)
Where  and  is units of the length of the bridge wire are the end corrections at the left and
right ends of the bridge wire respectively and  is the resistance per unit length of the bridge
wire. If now X and Y are interchanged and 𝑙2′ be the reading on the scale of the position of the
new null point, we have

𝑃 𝑌 + 𝜎(𝑙2′ + 𝛼)
=
𝑄 𝑋 + 𝜎(100 − 𝑙2′ + 𝛽)
Add 1 to each side
𝑃 𝑋 + 𝑌 + 𝜎(100 + 𝛼 + 𝛽)
+1= 𝐸𝑞. 2
𝑄 𝑋 + 𝜎(100 − 𝑙2′ + 𝛽)

Equations 1 and 2 have the same left-hand side and the same numerator on the right-hand side,
meaning the denominator on the right-hand side must also be equal

𝑌 + 𝜎(100 − 𝑙1′ + 𝛽) = 𝑋 + 𝜎(100 − 𝑙2′ + 𝛽)

→ 𝑋 − 𝑌 = 𝜎(𝑙2′ − 𝑙1′ ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑌 = 𝑋 − 𝜎(𝑙2′ − 𝑙1′ )

Unknown resistance of the given wire

Y = X – σ (𝑙2′ - 𝑙1′ )
Where
X = known resistance (Decade resistance).
Y = Unknown resistance wire.
Let L be the length of the wire and ‘A’ is the cross-section area (𝜋 r2) of the wire. Then the
resistivity  is related to Y by
𝜌. 𝐿
Y= 𝐴

𝑌. 𝐴
ρ= ohm.cm
𝐿

Procedure-

(i.) Determination of null point

1. Set up the electrical circuit as shown in fig. 2 i.e. connect a insulated multi core copper
wire / copper strip in the left gap and the right gap of Carey Foster’s bridge. The two
fixed lower terminals of rheostat are connected to A and C and the sliding contact B to a
jockey through the galvanometer. Leclanche cell with key is also included between A and
C.
2. Adjust the jockey in the middle (50 cm) of the Carey Foster’s bridge wire and then set
the null point( Zero deflection in the galvanometer) by adjusting rheostat so that
resistance P and Q may be nearly equal.

(ii) Determination of  the resistance per unit length of a Carey Foster’s bridge wire.
1. In the same electrical circuit replace the connecting wire of left gap by a decade
resistance.
2. Introduce some resistance in the decade resistance box in left gap and determine null
point by sliding jockey. Note the distance of the null point l1 from left end.
Note- first obtain the l1 for all the resistances provided in the decade resistance box.
3. Now the position of decade resistance box and copper strip are interchanged, i.e. Decade
resistance box is introduced in the right gap while copper strip in left gap. Again the
balance point is obtained in the same resistance in the decade resistance box. The
distance of the null point l2 from left end is noted.
4. Calculate the value of  (resistance per unit length of a Carey Foster’s bridge wire)
 separately for each set using the formula
𝑋
σ= 𝑙 −𝑙 ohm/cm.
2 1

Observations-
Table for determination of σ the resistance per unit length of bridge wire-

Balancing length when

Sr. Resistance X resistance X is in (l2-l1) X
 
No. (ohms) Left gap Right gap (cm) (l 2  l1 )
(l1) (cm) (l2) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Calculate the mean value of σ.

(iii) Determination of unknown resistance

1. Use a decade resistance box for X having resistance comparable to unknown resistance Y
connected in other gap.
2. Introduce some resistance in the decade resistance box in left gap and determine null
point by sliding jockey. Note the distance of the null point 𝑙1′ from left end.
Note- first obtain the 𝑙1′ for all the resistances provided in the decade resistance box.
5. Interchange the positions of decade resistance box and unknown resistance wire. Again
the null point is obtained in the same resistance in the decade resistance box. The distance
of the null point 𝑙2′ from left end is noted.
3. Calculate the resistance of the unknown resistance wire with the help of the formula

Y = X – σ (𝑙2′ - 𝑙1′ )

Observations-
 Table for determination of Y unknown resistance if X is known-

Balancing length when resistance X is in Unknown resistance

Resistance
Sr. No. Y = X – σ (𝑙2′ - 𝑙1′ )
X (ohms) Left gap (𝑙1′ ) (cm) Right gap (𝑙2′ ) (cm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Calculate the mean value of Y.

(iv) Determination of radius of the wire & length

Determine the radius of unknown resistance wire using screw gauge.

Observations-
Least count of screw gauge = …..cm
Zero error = ±………cm

Table for Determination of radius of the wire-

Main scale Reading Circular scale Reading Total Reading
(A) (B) (A+B) = D

D
Radius of wire = 2 cm
Obtain the length of unknown resistance wire………..cm

Calculations:
1. The resistance per unit length of a bridge wire is calculated with the help of formula
𝑋
σ = 𝑙 −𝑙 ohm /cm
2 1
2. The resistance of the unknown resistance is calculated by

Y = X – σ (𝑙2′ - 𝑙1′ ) ohm

3. Calculate the specific resistance of wire using the formula

𝑌.𝐴
ρ= ohm.cm
𝐿
Result:
(i) Resistance per unit length of a Carey Foster’s bridge wire = ……ohm /cm.
(ii) Specific resistance of given wire = ….. ohm .cm.
 Precautions:
(i) The connections must be neat and tight. Small and thick wires should be used.
(ii) Pressed jockey should not be moved on wire otherwise it will spoil the uniformity
of the diameter of bridge wire. It should be pressed gently and momentarily to
avoid heating.
(iii) The difference between X and Y should not be more than the resistance of bridge
wire otherwise balance point will not be obtained.

Experiment No. 3
Objective-
To determine the wavelength of spectral lines Red, Green and Violet of mercury using plane
transmission grating.
Apparatus used-
Diffraction grating, spectrometer, mercury lamp, sprit level and reading lens.
Formula used-
The wavelength  of any spectral line can be calculated by the formula
d sin θ = nλ
𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝜆= 𝑛
Where,
θ = Angle of diffraction,
n = order of the spectrum
 d = grating element

Adjustments-
(A) Before using the spectrometer, the following adjustments are made.
1. The slit is illuminated by a light source and the slit and the collimator are suitably
adjusted to receive a narrow, vertical image of the slit.
2. The telescope is turned to receive the direct ray, so that the vertical slit coincides with the
vertical crosswire.
(B) Grating should be made normal to the axis of collimator.
 Collimator and telescope are arranged in a line and the image of the slit is focused on
the vertical cross wire. The reading is noted on one of the verniers.
 The telescope is now rotated by 900. And note the reading.
 Mount the grating on the prism table and rotate the prism table so that the reflected
image of slit is seen on the vertical cross wire. In this case scale will not move.
 Turn the prism table from the position through 450 or 1350, as appropriate. In this
position grating is normal to the incident beam.
Procedure -The spectrum obtained in a grating is shown in figure 2.
1. Now move the telescope to the left hand side, spectrum appears (violet to red) in
telescope (Ist order).
2. Set the cross-wire of telescope on violet line and note the readings of both the scaleV1 &
V2.
 3. Move the telescope now to green & red line and note the readings of both the scale.
4. Now move the telescope to the right hand side, same spectrum appears (violet to red) in
telescope (Ist order).
5. Similarly take the readings for violet, green & red line.
6. Place all the readings in the observation table. Difference of each scale for particular
color is twice the angle of diffraction θ.
7. You will find II order too but you have to perform only for first order spectrum

Observations
 Number of lines over grating per inch(N) = ……
 Least count of the spectrometer………
 Reading of the spectrometer for the direct image ....……..
 Reading of the circular scale when reflected image is obtained on the cross wire………
 Reading after rotating the prism table through 45o or 135o ………………………
Table
Kind Left hand side reading Right hand side reading 2θ=
Order of Color
of )a( ) b( meanθ
spectrum of light (a~b)
vernier MS VS Total MS VS Total

V1
Violet
V2
First
order
V1
Green
V2

Red V1
 V2

Calculations:
Where N is the number of lines on grating (N= 15000 lines in our case)
Grating element d = 2.54/N = ……per cm.
The wavelength of various spectral lines in the first order (n=1) can be calculated
by
 = d Sin / 1
= d Sin
2.54
= sin 𝜃 =
15 000
Result:
The wavelengths are given in the table
Colour of spectral  observed standard  In Å % error
line
Violet 4385
Green 4916
Red or 6908 6234

Precautions
1. Image should be sharp and properly focused.
2. Grating should be placed for normal incidence, and should not alter during measurements.

Experiment no. 4

Objective-
To determine the specific rotation of cane sugar solution-using Bi-quartz Polarimeter.

Apparatus Required-
Bi-quartz Polarimeter, light source, Polarimeter tube, measuring flask and some sugar.

Theory-
Specific rotation ‘S ‘ is a fundamental property of optically active substances ( chiral substances)
that is expressed as the angle to which the material causes polarized light to rotate at a particular
temperature, wavelength, and concentration.

The specific rotation is given by

𝜃⤫𝑉
S = 𝑙 ⤫ 𝑚………..………..o/dm,/gm./cm3
 Where θ = Angular rotation in degree
V = Volume of water in c.c.
m = Sugar dissolved in gm.
l = Length of tube in decimeter

Figure-1
Procedure-
1. The polarimeter tube is first filled with distilled water. The air bubble that appears is
taken at the bulged center of the tube. The tube is then placed in the hollow pipe type
arrangement of the apparatus.
2. The light source is switched on. On looking through the eyepiece, two halves of unequal
intensity and color are observed. The analyzer at the eyepiece is rotated clockwise (From
zero main scale reading) till the two halves appear equally bright (almost light pink
color). This reading is noted by the main scale & vernier scale provided at the eyepiece.
Now Rotate the analyzer anticlockwise to obtain the equal intensity position (light pink
color).Again this reading is noted by the main scale & vernier scale.
3. Now the sugar solution of known strength is prepared in distilled water (say 5 gm sugar
in 50 c.c. water). The tube is filled with this solution and repeat the procedure Sr.No-2.
4. Similarly, repeat the procedure for different strength of the solution (5 gm sugar in 75 c.c.
water & 5 gm sugar in 100 c.c. water).
5. Note all the readings in the observation table.

Note- Dilute the solution by adding 25 ml water for next concentration every time.

Observations-
Room temperature = ……oC
Length of the polarimeter tube = 8 Inch.
Mass of sugar dissolved = …. gm.
Least count of polarimeter = …….
 Analyzer reading with Analyzer reading with sugar solution
pure water Concentra
Mean Anti-
Anticlockwi 
-tion Clockwise Mean
Clockwise a
X Y clockwise
se 2 or
b
X' Y'  = (a-b)
Tot Tot solution Tot Tota 2 In degree
M.s. V.s. al M.s. V.s. al gm/c.c M.s V.s. al M.s V.s. l
X y X' Y’
... … ... ... .... ... ... 5⁄ ... ... … ... ... ... ... 𝜽𝟏 = ...
50
5⁄ ... ... ... ... .., ... ... 𝜽𝟐 = ...
75
5⁄ ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 𝜽𝟑 = ...
100

Calculations-
Put the values in formula and calculate the value of S for different values of 𝜃
𝜃 × 𝑉
S1 = 𝑙 1× 𝑚 1 ………..o/dm,/gm./cm3
1

𝜃 × 𝑉2
S2 = 𝑙2× ……..o/dm,/gm./cm3
𝑚2

𝜃 × 𝑉3
S3 = 𝑙 3× .………..o/dm,/gm./cm3
𝑚3

Mean S = (S1+S2+S3) / 3 ……..o/dm,/gm./cm3

Result-

The specific rotation of sugar solution ‘S’ is ……degree per unit concentration per dm

Standard value of ‘S’ for sugar is -66.5o per unit concentration per dm at room tepreature.

Percentage error-
Standard value−Observed value
Percentage error = x 100%
Standard value

Precautions-
1. Polarimeter tube should be cleaned thoroughly before use.
2. Distilled water should be used.
3. Air bubble should be brought in central bulge portion of the glass tube before starting the
experiment.
4. The two glass ends of the tube should be cleaned for every set of observation.
 Experiment no. 5
Objective – To observe Newton’s ring and to determine the wavelength of sodium light.

Apparatus required- Plano-convex lens, Sodium lamp, Travelling microscope, optical

arrangement.

Formula used – The wavelength of light is given by the formula

2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 −𝐷𝑛2
𝜆 = 4𝑝𝑅

Where

Dn+p – Diameter of (n+p)th ring.

 Dn - Diameter of nth ring.
p - An integer number (of the ring).
R - Radius of curvature of the Plano-convex lens.

Procedure-

1. Before starting the experiment glass plate G1 and G2 and the Plano convex lens should be
thoroughly cleaned.
2. Put the Plano-convex lens (convex portion down) on the plane glass plate and set it as
shown in fig-1.
3. Set the microscope near to the centre of Plano-convex lens, focus it on rings by moving
the microscope in the vertical plane using pinion arrangement till the rings are seen quit
bright and distinct. Clamp the microscope in the vertical plane.
4. According to the theory the centre of the interference fringes should be dark but
sometimes the centre appears white. This is due to the presence of dust particles between
Plano convex lens and plane glass plate. In this case the lens and plane glass plate should
be cleaned again.
5. First fix the crosswire on the centre of the rings. Now, move the crosswire in a horizontal
direction to one side of the rings pattern by using the screw attached for this purpose. Fix
the crosswire on any ring (count the number) and note the position in the vernier
attached. Now keep on moving the crosswire and take observations for different rings.
Move on to the other side by passing the centre and take the positions of the same rings.
Observations should be taken by moving the crosswire in only one direction to avoid
pitch error. This is shown in fig 2. Now use this data to obtain the diameters of the
different rings.
 Fig.-2
1. The radius of curvature can be determine by using a spherometer.In this case
𝑙2 ℎ
𝑅 = 6ℎ + 2
Where; l is the distance between the two legs of spherometer as shown fig 3.
h is the difference of the readings of the spherometer when it is place on lens
as well as when laced on plane surface.

Fig 3

Observations:
Value of one division of the main scale = …….. cm.
Number of division on vernier scale = ……..
Least count of microscope = ………cm.

Table for determination diameter D

Micrometer reading
Diameter
Left end Right end
(D)= (D)2
S.No. M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total
(a~b) cm
reading reading (a)cm reading reading (b) cm
11
9
7
5
3
1
 Table for determination of R
Spherometer reading
Mean
S.No. Zero reading of plane surface (a) Reading on lens (b) h = (b-a)
h
M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total
1.

2.

Distance between two legs of spherometer L= ……… cm

Calculations
The wave length of sodium light
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 −𝐷𝑛2
𝜆 = 4𝑝𝑅

= …………Å
Radius of curvature of the lens
𝐿2 ℎ
𝑅 = 6ℎ + 2

= ……. Cm.

The value of (D2n+p – D2n) can also be obtained using a graph as shown in fig 4 .The graph is
plot between the square of diameter of the ring along Y- axis and the corresponding number of
ring along X- axis.

Fig 4
Result:.
The mean wavelength λ of sodium light = …….. Å
Standard mean wave length (5890 + 5896) / 2 = 5893 Å
Standard value−Observed value
Percentage error = ⤫ 100%
Standard value
Sources of error and precautions:
1. Glass plate and lens should be cleaned thoroughly.
2. Before measuring the diameter of rings the range of microscope should be properly
adjusted.
3. Light should be properly focused on lens arrangement.

Experiment No 6
Objective-
To study Hall effect in a P type semiconductor.
a. To determine Hall voltage and Hall coefficient
b. Number of charge carriers per unit volume
c. Hall angle and mobility.

Apparatus used-
Hall effect board, A semiconductor crystal (rectangular shape of ~0.5 mm thickness),
Electromagnet, constant current power supply (0-4 A), digital gauss meter with gauss
probe.
Basic principle & formula used-
When a substrate of conductor (metal / semiconductor) carrying a current (say Ix) is
placed in a transverse (perpendicular) magnetic field (say Hz), an electric field (Ey) is
produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both the current (Ix) and the
magnetic field (Hz). This phenomenon is known as ‘Hall effect’ and the generated voltage
corresponding to developed electric field (Ey) is called Hall voltage (VH) .
 A specimen rectangular slab of solid in which Hall effect is to be studied is shown as
ABCDA’B’C’D’ in Figure (1) with length AB, breath BC, and thickness AA’ as l, b, d
in respectively x, y, z directions . If Ix is the current density in x- direction and Hz is
applied magnetic field in z- direction, then Hall field EH (i.e. Ey) developed in y-
direction is proportional to Ix and Hz and is given by:
EH = RH Ix Hz
Hall voltage; VH, is measured with the help of mili-voltmeter (as given in procedure).Hall
𝑏
coefficient; RH = tan θ (𝐻 ) 104 meter3/Coulomb
𝑧
1
Number of charge carriers per unit volume; n = 𝑅
ℎ 𝑒
𝑉𝐻 𝐼𝑥
Hall angle; Φ = ( 𝑉 ).( 𝑏 ) Radians
𝑥
Φ
Mobility; mμ = 𝐻
𝑧

Figure-1
Procedure-

Measurement of magnetic field

1. Use digital Gauss meter for measurement of the magnetic field.

2. Put ON/OFF switches to ON position and adjusts the reading of the meter to zero by
‘zero adjustment pot’.
3. Put the Gauss probe between poles of the electro-magnet; now connect the constant
current power supply to electro-magnet.
4. Switch ON the power supply and vary the current
5. Note down the readings of magnetic field by Gauss meter at corresponding value in
table -1.

Measurement of Hall voltage for constant magnetic fields

1. Connect the widthwise contacts of the Hall probe to the terminal marked ‘voltage’
and lengthwise contacts to the terminal marked ‘current’ of the Hall effect set-up
board.
2. Put the switch marked ON/OFF of Hall Board to ON position.
 3. Put the meter selector switch towards (0-20 mA) current side and adjust current (not
exceeding 5 mA) by current adjust pot.
4. Now put the meter selector switch toward (0-200 mV) Voltage side. There may be
some voltage reading even outside the magnetic field. This is due to imperfect
alignment of the four contacts of Hall probe and is generally known as ‘Zero field
potential’ (or Vx).
5. Now place the hall probe in a constant magnetic field and note the voltage reading as
a (Vx+VH)
6. The difference between with magnetic field voltage (Vx+VH) and without magnetic
field voltage Vx will give you the value of hall voltage VH.

Observations:

Physical dimensions of the crystal

Length; lx = 4 mm, Width; b = 3 mm, Thickness; d = 0.5 mm.

Table -1: Measurement of magnetic field

Note-don’t take constant current more than 2.5 Amp.

S.No. Current (in Amperes) Magnetic field( in gauss) Hz
1. 1 Ampere
2. 1.5 Ampere
3. 2 Ampere
4. 2.5 Ampere

Table -2: Measurement of Hall voltage for constant magnetic fields

Constant current to produce magnetic field = ------- Amp

Sr. Magnetic Current, Ix Voltage, Voltage, Hall VH/ Ix

No. field (mA) Vx (volt) Vx+VH(volt) Voltage, (Slope from
(constant) without With VH (volt) graph)
magnetic field magnetic field
1 .5 mA
2 1 mA
3 1.5 mA
4 2 mA
5 2.5 mA

Calculations-
1.A graph is plotted in VH and IH as shown in fig 2.
 2.From its slope; tan θ = VH/ Ix is found.
Then Hall coefficient is; RH = tan θ (b/Hz) 104 meter3/Coulomb
= ------ meter3/Coulomb
3. The number of charge carriers per unit volume n = 1/RH.e
4. Hall angle, Φ = (VH/Vx).(Ix/b) =…….. Radian
5. Mobility, mμ = Φ/Hz
Result-

Precautions-
(1) Hall voltage developed is very small and should be measured accurately with the help
Of a mili-voltmeter
(2) Current through the crystal should be strictly within the permissible limits.
(3) Do not change the distance between the poles of electromagnet

Specification of crystal in our lab-

1. Hall coefficient : 25 ⤫ 103 cm3 coulomb-1
2. Carrier mobility : (25±1) ⤫102 cm2Volt-1sec-1
3. Carrier density : 2.5 ⤫ 1014 cm-3
4. Resistivity : 10 ohm.cm

Experiment No 7

Objective- To study the Photo-Electric effect and to determine the value of the Planck’s
constant.
Apparatus Required-Planck’s constant experimental unit consisting of a vacuum photo
tube, light source, color filters, regulated voltage power supply, voltmeter, ammeter etc.

Formula Used- The value of plank’s constant is given by

𝑒 (𝑣2 −𝑣1 )𝜆1 𝜆2

ℎ=
𝑐(𝜆1 −𝜆2 )

Where,
e = Charge on electron (1.6× 10-19 Coulomb)
V2 = Stopping potential corresponding to wavelength 2
V1 = Stopping potential corresponding to wavelength 1
𝜆1 𝜆2 = Wavelength of light in meters
C = Velocity of light in vacuum (3 × 1010 meters)
h = Plank’s constant (Joule. Sec.)

Theory-
Photoelectric effect- If light is incident on a certain metal, the electrons are emmited.These
electrons are known as photo electrons and the metal is known as photo-metal. The emission of
electrons by the action of light (Photo) is called photoelectric effect.

Photocell-.The photo metal as cathode and another electrode as anode enclosed in a glass bulb is
known as photocell. The experimental electrons are emitted by photo metal by the action of light
and attract by the anode. Thus a current known as photocurrent flows in the circuit. If the gas is
filled in the bulb, the cell is known as gas filled type. If vacuum is there, it is known as vacuum
type.
Einstein Equation- Einstein explained photoelectric effect by quantum theory of light. If light of
photon energy, ho is incident on the photo-metal, it is used
1. In doing work to takeout the electron from the orbit
2. In imparting the kinetic energy to the electron.
The first part of the energy required depends upon the photo-metal used and represented by a
constant we known as work function.
Therefore we have
 hυ = wo + ½ mV2
Where h is the plank’s constant
υ is the frequency of incident radiation
m is the mass of electron
V is the velocity of electron
Above equation is known as Einstein photo-electric equation which gives the following
information about the photo- electric effect.
1. There should be a minimum frequency called the threshold frequency at which photo
energy
hυ = wo
The photo-electric effect ceases below this frequency.
2. The number of electron emitted by the photo-metal is directly proportional to the
intensity because the intensity is directly related to the number of photons.
3. The kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the
incident beam.
Stopping potential- A minimum positive cathode potential at a particular frequency to stop
the faster emitted electrons is known as stopping potential. Thus stopping potential is directly
proportional to the frequency of the incident radiation.

Procedure-
1. Switch on the Plank’s constant set-up and adjust the zero in the nanometer (photo current
meter) keeping the anode potential zero. Put the red, green and blue filter respectively
between the photocell and source of light.
2. Switch on the bulb, place one of the filters and note the photo current at zero anode
potential.
3. Apply a small negative potential on the anode say 0.05mv with the help of knob provided
in the supply and note the corresponding photo-current in the table.
4. Increase the negative anode potential in steps says 0.1, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30……….. and
note the corresponding photo-current for same filter till it become approximately zero.
This potential will be the stopping potential for that filter or wavelength of light.
5. Repeat the experiment for different light filters.
6. Plot a graph between negative anode potential (on X-axis) and the corresponding photo
current (on Y-axis) for different filters or wavelengths of light.
7. Find the stopping potential for different filters or wavelength from graph.
8. Calculate the value of plank’s constant for each wavelength and calculate the mean value.
Observations-

Negative anode potential in Corresponding photocurrent in nA

S.No.
Volts Red filter Yellow filter Blue filter
1. .05
2. .10
3. .15
4. .20
5. .25
6. .30
.
 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
. Till stopping potential

Calculations-
From the graph the stopping potential for each filter are
For Red V1 = ….Volt
For Yellow V2 = ….Volt
For Blue V3 = ….Volt
Calculate the value of plank’s constant by putting the values of stopping potentials and its
corresponding wavelength and the values of other constants in following equation-
𝑒 (𝑣2 −𝑣1 )𝜆1 𝜆2
ℎ=
𝑐(𝜆1 −𝜆2 )
Also calculate the mean value of plank’s constant ‘h’.
Result-
The observed value of plank’s constant ‘h’……………Joule-sec.
The standard value of plank’s constant ‘h’ is 6.625 × 10-34 Joule-sec.
Precautions-
1. The experiment should be performed at least with three filters.
2. The observations should be taken at small interval of anode potential.
3. The stopping potential should be measured by the graph to avoid error exist due to the
nonlinearity of the meter.

Experiment No 8

Objective-
To study the variation of resistivity of a semiconductor with temperature and to determine the
energy band gap using four probe method.
Apparatus required-
Thermometer. Four Probe Set-up[Probe arrangement, Sample (Germanium or silicon), Oven
for the variation of Temperature A constant current generator (current range 0 to 10 mA),
voltmeter (range 200mV), Power supply for oven],
Formula used-

The resistivity of the semiconductor crystal given by

𝜌
𝜌 = 𝐹(𝑤𝑜⁄
𝑠)
𝑉⤫2𝜋𝑠
Where 𝜌𝑜 = 𝐼
f (W/S) is the correction factor and this obtained from table for the appropriate value of (W/S) . W is
the thickness of the crystal, S is the distance between probe, V and I are the voltage and current
across and through the crystal chip. The energy band gap Eg of semiconductor crystal is given by
𝜌
𝐸𝑔 = 2𝐾 ⤫ 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 [𝑙𝑛 1 ] eV
⁄𝑇

Where K is Boltzmann constant = 8.6 ⤫ 10-5 eV / deg

and T temperature in Kelvin .

Theory: The Four Probe Method is one of the standard and most widely used methods for the
measurement of resistivity of semiconductors. The experimental arrangement is illustrated. In its
useful form, the four probes are collinear. The error due to contact resistance, which is especially
serious in the electrical measurement on semiconductors, is avoided by the use of two extra
contacts (probes) between the current contacts. In this arrangement the contact resistance may all
be high compare to the sample resistance, but as long as the resistance of the sample and contact
resistances are small compared with the effective resistance of the voltage measuring device
(potentiometer, electrometer or electronic voltmeter),the measured value will remain unaffected.
Because of pressure contacts, the arrangement is also especially useful for quick measurement on
different samples or sampling different parts of the same sample.

Description of the experimental setup

1. Probes Arrangement
It has four individually spring loaded probes. The probes are collinear and equally spaced. The
probes are mounted in a Teflon bush, which ensure a good electrical insulation between the probes.
A Teflon spacer near the tips is also provided to keep the probes at equal distance. The whole –
arrangement is mounted on a suitable stand and leads are provided for the voltage measurement.
2. Sample
Germanium crystal in the form of a chip
3. Oven
It is a small oven for the variation of temperature of the crystal from the room temperature to about
200°C (max.)
4. Four Probe Set-up
The set-up consists of three units in the same cabinet.

Procedure:
1. Fix the thermometer in the oven through the hole.
2. Switch on the four probe set up. Change the display selector knob on the current side (for current
display) adjust the current to a desired value (say 2 mA) .Change the knob on the voltage side.
3. Switch on the power to the oven and heating will start. Allow it to attain 1200C. Rate of heating
may be selected with the help of a switch low or high.
5. Measure the voltage from digital panel meter in voltage measuring mode and temperature
degree Celsius in thermometer. (All readings should be taken in decreasing temperature).

Observations:
(i) Distance between probes (s) = 2 mm
(ii) Thickness of the crystal chip (w) = 0.5 mm.
(iii) Current (I) =…………..mA (constant).
𝑉 ⤫2𝜋𝑠
(iv) 𝜌𝑜 = =……..ohm.cm.
𝐼

Table-1

S. Voltage Resistivity
Temperature 1/T × 103
No. V,  = o/F (w/s) ln 
(in volts) ohm.cm.
0C K
 1. 120 … …
2. 118 … …
3. 116 … …
4. … … …
. … … …
. … … …

45. Room
Temp
Find (W/s) and then corresponding to this values choose the value of the function f(W/s) from
the following table.

Value of the Germanium crystal chip with non conducting base.Table-2

W/s F(W/s)
0.1 13.863
0.141 9.704
.200 6.931
.333 4.159
.500 2.780
1.00 1.504
1.414 1.223
2.000 1.094
3.333 1.0228
5.000 1.0070
10.000 1.00045
Note- If any (W/s) value is not found in the table then plots a graph in these (W/s) and
f (w/s) values. From graph the desired values of f (W/s) corresponding to any value
of (W/s) can be found out.
Calculations:
After choosing f (w/s), calculate the value of resistivity, , for various values of 0 i.e. for
various values of V Which correspond to various values of temperature and tabulate as follows.

Finally plot a graph between (1/T ⤫ 103) and log 𝑖𝑛 𝜌 as shown in fig (2). Find the slope of the
curve

𝐴𝐵 ln 𝜌
Slope = = 1
𝐵𝐶 ( ⁄𝑇 )⤫1000

So the energy band gap of semiconductor is given by

𝐸𝑔 = 2k ⤫ Slope
 𝐴𝐵
= 2𝐾 ⤫ ⤫ 1000
𝐵𝐶

𝐴𝐵
= 2 8.6  10-5 ⤫ ⤫ 1000
𝐵𝐶

𝐴𝐵
= 0.396 ⤫ eV.
𝐵𝐶

Result-
Energy band of semiconductor (……)is 𝐸𝑔 =………..eV.
Standard result; 𝐸𝑔 =………eV.( for germanium 𝐸𝑔 = 0.7eV)
Percentage error; =…………………..

Source error and precaution

The resistivity of the material should be uniform in this area of measurement.
(i) The surface on which the probes rest should be flat with no surface leakage.

Experiment No 9
Objective: To study the hysteresis loop of ferromagnetic material and to determine the
corecivity and the retentivity of given materials.
Apparatus used: CRO, solenoid, hysteresis lop kit and sample rods (fe, Ni, steel), pick up coil

Figure 1: Hysteresis plot to observe 𝑒𝑥 and 𝑒𝑦

Specification & Formula used:

For Ni: Length of sample = 39 mm

Diameter of sample = 1.17 mm

𝐴
Hence for; area ratio (𝐴𝑠 )= 0.4,
𝑐
Demagnetization factor (N) = 0
and magnetic field 200 Gauss
𝑒𝑥 = 64 mm
= 7.0 V (for intercept)

𝐺𝑜 (rms) =200/64 gauss/mm (for corecivity)

𝐺𝑜 (rms) =200/7.0 gauss/volt (for Retentivity)

Formula for corecivity:

 1
𝑒𝑥 = 2 ⤫ loop width (mm),
𝑒𝑥
H = 𝐺𝑜 [ 𝐴𝑠 ]
{( ⁄𝐴 )−𝑁}
𝑐
Formula for retentivity:
1
(𝑒𝑦 ) s = 2 ⤫ intercept in mV
𝐽𝑟 𝐺𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝑔𝑥 (𝑒𝑦 )
𝜇𝑟 = =
4𝜋 𝐴
[𝑔𝑦 {( 𝑠⁄𝐴 ) − 𝑁} 4𝜋]
𝑐

For this equipment diameter of pick up coil = 3.21

Thus 𝑔 𝑥 = 100
𝑔𝑦 = 1
Procedure:
1. Initially set area ratio As/Ac; 0.4 & demagnetization factor (N) as zero in hysteresis
loop kit. You will adjust these (area ratio & demagnetization) with the help of
available knobs given on hysteresis loop kit panel and also remember to keep
magnetic field knob at B.
2. Put the sample in pick up coil and then place the pickup coil in solenoid.
3. Connect the CRO ‘x’ to channel 2 and ‘y’ to channel 1.
4. Switch ON both the units (hysteresis loop kit & CRO).
5. Now to observe 𝑒𝑥 and 𝑒𝑦 from visible figure of hysteresis loop on CRO screen as
given (see fig 1).
6. Putting the magnetic field at different positions note down gauss reading from
hysteresis loop kit and 𝑒𝑥 as well as 𝑒𝑦 from CRO.

Observations:
S. Magnetic field (Gauss) Loop (𝑒𝑥 ) Intercept (𝑒𝑦 )
No. width(2𝑒𝑥 ) cm (2𝑒𝑦 ) volt volt
cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Calculation:
Plot a graph between magnetic field and loop width after this, draw a tangent and
find out the final 𝑒𝑥 from graph as well as plot a graph between magnetic field
and intercept and find out final 𝑒𝑦 from graph.

Now calculate corecivity:

 𝑒𝑥
H = 𝐺𝑜 [ 𝐴 ]
{( 𝑠⁄𝐴 )−𝑁}
𝑐

And for retentivity:

𝐽𝑟 𝐺𝑜 𝜇𝑜 𝑔𝑥 (𝑒𝑦 )
𝜇𝑟 = =
4𝜋 𝐴
[𝑔𝑦 {( 𝑠⁄𝐴 ) − 𝑁} 4𝜋]
𝑐

Result:

Precautions:
(1) The intensity of CRO would be minimum.
(2) Don’t switch ON hysteresis loop kit for longer duration.

Experiment No 10

Object- To determine the wavelength of sodium light with help of fresnel,s Bi –prism.
Apparatus used- optical bench with uprights, sodium lamp, Biprism, convex lens, slit and
micrometer eyepiece, slit and micrometer eyepieces are already fitted on optical bench.
Formula used- The wavelength  of the sodium light is given by the formula in the case of
Bi prism experiment.

 =  2d
D
Where,

 = Fringe width,
2d = Distance between two virtual sources,
D = Distance between Eye piece (screen) and slit.

Again,
2d =d1d2
Where,
d1 = Distance between two images formed by the convex lens in one position
d2 = Distance between two images formed by the convex lens in the second
position.

Description of the apparatus:

Two coherent sources, from a single source, to produce interference pattern are
obtained with the help of a Bi-prism. A Bi-prism may be regarded as made as made of
two prisms of very small refracting angles placed base to base. In actual practice a single
glass plate is suitably grinded and polished to give a single prism of obtuse
angle179leaving remaining two actue angles of 30’each.The optical bench used in the
experiment consists of a heavy cast iron base supported on four traveling screws. There
is a graduated scale along its one arm. The bench is provided with four uprights, which
can be, clamped anywhere and position can be read by means of vernier attached to it.
Each of the uprights is subjected to the following motions.

1- Motion along bench.

2-Transverse motion (motion right angle to bench),
3-Rotation about the axis of the upright,
4-With the help of a tangent screw, the slit and Bi-prism can be rotated in their own
vertical planes.

The bench arrangement is shown in Fig.

 Fig. 1

Action of Bi-prism
The action of Bi-prism is shown in fig-2.

fig-2

Monochromatic light from a source S falls on two points of the prism and its bend towards
the base. Due to the division of wave front, the appears to come from S1 and S2. The
waveform two sources unite and give interference pattern. The fringes are hyperbolic, but
due to high eccentricity they appear to the straight lines in the focal plane of eyepiece

Procedure:

Adjustment

1. The Bench is adjusted so the light comes straight along its length.
 2. The Source, slit, Bi prism and eye piece are adjusted at the same height. The cross
wire of eye piece are made vertical.

(1)Measurement:

(A) Measurement of fringe width ()

1. Find out the least count of the micrometer screw

2. Place the prism holder and micrometer / eye piece near the slit and adjust the micrometer
reading at 0.
4. Set thin (narrow) slit width as much you can do with necked eyes.
5. Then place Bi prism in the prism holder such that it’s centre edge should be parallel and
straight to the main slit.
6. Then the bright patch will be visible on moving bi prism slightly either left side or right side
to the bench.
7. After getting the bright patch Keep eyes on eyepiece and try to make slit more thin till than
interference pattern (consecutive bright dark .. 2… fringes ) are visible.
8. If the above interference pattern is not clearly observed then rotate prism holder gently
through horizontal knob .(Mounted in top corner ) either clockwise or anti clock wise.
9. Place the micrometer screw at such a distance where fringes are distinct, bright and widely
spaced. (Say 50 cm).
10. If the fringe pattern is not visible after step 9 it shows existence of lateral shift .This shift is
move through only adjusting the prism.
11 The cross wire is moved on one side of the fringes to avoid backlash error. Now the
crosswire is fixed at the center of a bright fringe and its reading is noted on main scale as
well as on micrometer screw.
12. The cross wires is moved and fixed at the center of every second bright fringe. The
micrometer reading is noted. From these observations  can be calculated.

(B)Measurement of D:

The distance between slit and eyepiece upright is noted. This distance gives D. The value of D is
corrected for the bench error.

(c)Measurement of 2d:

The distance 2d between two virtual sources can be measured with help of Fig-3
 Fig-3

1. To obtain the value of 2d, the position of slit and Bi-prism upright are not disturbed.
2. A convex lens is introduced between Bi-prism and eye piece and moved in between to
obtain two sharp and focused images of the source. The distance between two images is
noted In the first position in Fig-3 the distance is denoted as d1 .
3. The lens is again moved towards eyepiece to obtain the second position where again two
sharp and focused images are obtained. The distance in this case denoted as d2. 2d can be
calculated by the using formula

2d= d1d2
Observations:

Pitch of the screw =………..cm.

No. of division on the screw=………..cm.
L.C. of micrometer screw =………..cm.

(2) Measurement of D:

Position of upright carrying slit = … cm.

Position of upright carrying eyepiece = … cm.
Observed value of D = … cm.

Value of D corrected for bench error = … cm.

 Table for the fringe width  :

Micrometer reading Micrometer reading Fringe

No. Of (a) No. Of (b) Differenc Mean Width
e
 
Fringes Fringes For 5
M.S V.S. Tota M.S. V.S. Total For 5
Reading Reading l Reading Readi Cms Fringes
fringes = Mean
Cms Cms Cms Cms ng (a-b) 5
Cms
1 … … … 6 … … … …
2 … … … 7 … … … …
3 … … … 8 … … … … … …
4 … … … 9 … … … …
5 … … … 10 … … … …

Measurement of 2d:
Table for measurement of 2d :

Micrometer reading
S. No. st
1 position of lens 2nd position of lens 2d= d1d2
I Image II Image d1 I Image II Image d2

1.
2.
3.

Calculation:

 = 2d
D

= … A.U.

Result:

Wavelength of sodium light  = … A.U.

Standard value of  = …A.U.
Percentage error = …
Precautions and sources of error:

1. The setting of the uprights at the same level is essential

2. The slit should be vertical and narrow.
3. Lateral shift should be removed.
4. Bench error should be taken into account.
5. Crosswire should be fixed in the center of the fringes while taking observation for fringe
width.
6. The micrometer screw should be rotated in one direction to avoid backlash error.
7. The fringe width should be measured at a fairly large distance.

Theoretical error:

We know  = 2d
D
=  d1d2
D
Taking loge and differentiating, we get

 =   D  1 d1  1  d2
  D 2 d1 2 d2