Geometry Module

developed by
The Rice University
School Mathematics Project
(RUSMP)

Funding for the Geometry Module was provided by the

Texas Education Agency and the Texas Higher
Education Coordinating Board.

2004

DRAFT
Introduction

The Texas Education Agency and the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board
Geometry Module

Introduction

The Rice University School Mathematics Project (RUSMP) developed the Geometry Module as a
comprehensive teacher training module with funding from the Texas Education Agency and the
Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. The Geometry Module effectively assists teachers
in developing a deeper understanding of the underlying concepts that support the Texas Essential
Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) in Geometry and helps teachers develop the pedagogical tools
necessary to provide their students the opportunity to meet Texas’ challenging state content and
student performance standards. The Geometry Module also supports related TExES Mathematics
Competencies. The rigor of the Geometry Module is of sufficient nature as to allow participating
teachers who have not yet met the requirements of a “highly qualified” teacher, as defined by the
United States NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND ACT of 2001 (NCLB), to progress towards this goal.

Theoretical Framework for the Geometry Module

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) proposed major changes in pre-
college mathematics curriculum in its Standards (1989, 1991, 1995, 2000). The National
Research Council in Adding It Up: Helping Children Learn Mathematics (2001) and Educating
Teachers of Science, Mathematics, and Technology: New Practices for the New Millennium
(2001) provides research-based recommendations for teaching and learning that support effective
mathematics education. This research indicates that active, student-centered mathematical
investigations, group cooperation, and alternative assessments are more effective in reaching
diverse student populations than the passive, teacher-centered learning methods which have
dominated mathematics instruction in the past. The Geometry Module materials are consistent
with these recommendations.

The Geometry Module is based on the van Hiele model of geometric thought. NCTM in its
Standards (1989), acknowledged the importance of the van Hieles’ research.
Development of geometric ideas progresses through a hierarchy of levels. Students first
learn to recognize whole shapes and then to analyze the relevant properties of a shape.
Later they can see relationships between shapes and make simple deductions (p. 48).

Geometry Module DRAFT i

Introduction

Traditional geometry curriculum often fails, because there is a mismatch between geometry
instruction and a student’s van Hiele level. The hierarchy of levels in the van Hiele model
consists of (1) the Visual Level, (2) the Descriptive Level, (3) the Relational Level, (4) the
Deductive Level, and (5) Rigor. The Geometry Module provides van Hiele-based experiences
(Crowley, 1987) to move participants through the hierarchy from the Visual Level to Rigor. The
Geometry Module provides descriptive behavior criteria which identify the different van Hiele
levels of student performance, so that participants may identify and select corresponding
activities to ensure success for all. Throughout the Geometry Module, participants will identify
the van Hiele levels within the activities.

Tools for Learning Geometry

The Geometry Module utilizes construction tools, manipulatives, and technology: (1) to address
various learning styles, (2) to model or represent mathematical concepts, (3) to abstract from the
manipulative representations, (4) to construct and explore mathematical properties of geometric
objects, (5) to generate authentic data, and most importantly (6) to progress participants through
the van Hiele levels. The appropriate use of construction tools, manipulatives, the graphing
calculator, The Geometer’s Sketchpad, and NonEuclid is incorporated into module materials.

RUSMP’s Unique Qualifications to Write the Geometry Module

RUSMP was established in 1987, with a grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF), in
order to provide a bridge between the Rice University mathematics research community and
Houston-area mathematics teachers. In addition to the original grant, RUSMP has received
funding from a second NSF grant, the United States Department of Education Eisenhower and
Teacher Quality Programs, and from corporations, foundations and school districts. The mission
of RUSMP is to help teachers and administrators better understand the nature of mathematics, the
effective teaching and assessing of mathematics, and the importance of mathematics in today's
society. RUSMP’s major goal is to enhance the mathematical and pedagogical knowledge of
Houston PreK-12 teachers and support them in implementing more effective mathematics
programs.

The RUSMP approach is founded on the belief that sustained instructional changes can best be
supported through the development of professionalism among teachers and the creation of a
network of teachers who have extensive knowledge of both mathematical content and pedagogy.
All RUSMP activities are designed to support the development of teachers’ professionalism.

Geometry Module DRAFT ii

Introduction

RUSMP has developed an extensive array of programs and courses available to teachers and
administrators. These include long-term, intensive professional development for teachers, day-
long workshops, and opportunities for networking across schools and districts. In addition,
RUSMP has undertaken several collaborative projects with districts, schools, and other
community members in the Houston area. While there is great diversity among the programs and
activities offered by RUSMP, they are all anchored by a common curriculum and approach to
instruction. The Geometry Module is the latest of RUSMP’s efforts to improve the teaching of
pre-college mathematics.

As a result of RUSMP’s eighteen-year partnership with Houston-area school districts to improve

mathematics instruction, RUSMP has the knowledge and experience necessary to develop an
effective Geometry Module that meets the needs of current and future teachers. The Geometry
Module builds upon the strengths and recommendations of prior curricula that RUSMP has
designed and implemented for Houston-area PreK-12 teachers.

Geometry Module DRAFT iii

Acknowledgements

The Texas Education Agency and the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board
Geometry Module

Acknowledgements

Funding for the Geometry Module was provided by the Texas Education Agency and the
Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. The Geometry Module was developed
under the direction and with the assistance of:

The Rice University School Mathematics Project (RUSMP)

Anne Papakonstantinou, Director, RUSMP

Richard Parr, Director of Educational Technology and Secondary Education, RUSMP

Project Manager

Jackie Sack, Geometry Model Lessons Writer, Houston Independent School District

Writers

Jan Casey Consultant

Gary Cosenza Region IV ESC
David Eschberger Region IV ESC
Maria Franshaw River Oaks Baptist School
Cedric French Houston Independent School District
Paul Gray Region IV ESC
Anne Papakonstantinou Rice University
Richard Parr Rice University
Judy Rice Region IV ESC
Michelle Rohr Houston Independent School District
Jackie Sack Houston Independent School District
Sherry Senior Houston Independent School District
Jo Ann Wheeler Region IV ESC

External Evaluator

Ann McCoy Decision Information Resources, Inc.

Special thanks to

Joel Castellanos, University of New Mexico Department of Computer Science

John Polking, Rice University Department of Mathematics
Key Curriculum Press
Retha van Niekerk, African Mathematics and Science Institute

Geometry Module DRAFT iv

Acknowledgements

January 28, 2004 
Anne Papakonstantinou
Rice University School Math Project
5620 Greenbriar, Suite 230
Houston, TX 77005

Dear Anne,

It was a pleasure seeing you last week.  As we discussed, Key Curriculum Press is 
pleased to support you in your and your colleagues’ efforts in producing geometry 
curriculum and materials in support of the Department of Higher Education, 
Participation & Success ‐‐ Institution & Educator Initiatives.  Accordingly, we extend 
permission to you to reproduce, in print or electronically, portions of text and diagrams 
from the following Key Curriculum Press Publications for inclusion in Initiative 
materials: 

Heart of Mathematics, © 2000

Symmetry, Shape & Space, © 2002
Exploring Algebra with The Geometer’s Sketchpad, © 2002
Exploring Geometry with The Geometer’s Sketchpad, © 2002
Exploring Conics with The Geometer’s Sketchpad, © 2002
Rethinking Proof with The Geometer’s Sketchpad, © 2002
Pythagoras Plugged In, © 2003
Discovering Geometry: an Investigative Approach, 3rd Edition, © 2003 Student textbook and
teacher materials

We expect that any content taken from the above materials will be identified as Key
Curriculum Press copyrighted material.
Should you wish to use any artwork or images (other than diagrams) from these
books, we request that you contact us and obtain permission on a case by case basis.
This is necessary because the terms of use we obtained for images may not, in some
cases, extend to your planned use. As an example, the Far Side cartoons in Discovering
Geometry may not be reproduced for additional publication without additional
permission from the owner of this work.
Please don’t hesitate to contact me directly at (800) 338-7638, extension 124 or via
email at [email protected] if there are questions or if I can be of assistance.

Sincerely,

Kelvin Taylor

Sales Director

Geometry Module DRAFT v

Acknowledgements

April 27, 2004

Dear Anne:

You are permitted to load The Geometer’s Sketchpad® software program onto the
computer labs in Fort Worth and Houston for the duration of the Geometry Module
Workshops. After the completion of the workshops, please unload the programs from all
the computers.

Feel free to contact me if you have any questions or concerns.

Thank You,

Lesa Zimmerman
Central Regional Manager
Key Curriculum Press
[email protected]
800-995-6284 x 225

Please visit our web site at www.keypress.com for the latest in Innovative Mathematics
Materials.

Geometry Module DRAFT vi

Table of Contents

The Texas Education Agency and The Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board
Geometry Module

Table of Contents

Introduction i

Acknowledgements iv

Table of Contents vii

Materials List
Comprehensive Materials List x
Required Materials by Activity xii

Suggested Timeline xvi

Unit 1 Transformations
Terms and Definitions 1-1
What is a Translation? 1-6
Reflections 1-14
Theoretical Framework: The van Hiele Model of Geometric Thought 1-22
Rotations 1-39
Composite Transformations 1-52
Tessellations 1-59
Do You See What I See? 1-64
References and Additional Resources 1-73

Unit 2 Triangles
Equilateral Triangles 2-1
Two Congruent Angles 2-7
Scalene Triangles 2-14
The Meeting Place 2-21
References and Additional Resources 2-34

Unit 3 Quadrilaterals
Isosceles Right Triangle Reflections 3-1
Scalene Right Triangle Reflections 3-7
Scalene Acute/Obtuse Triangle Reflections 3-13
Rotate a Triangle 3-19
Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex 3-27
Vesica Pisces 3-40
Exploring Prisms 3-44
References and Additional Resources 3-54

Geometry Module DRAFT vii

Table of Contents

Unit 4 Informal Logic/Deductive Reasoning

Informal Logic 4-1
Inductive Triangle Congruences 4-7
Deductive Triangle Congruence 4-15
Quadrilateral Proofs 4-24
Alternate Definitions of Quadrilaterals 4-32
Circle Proofs 4-38
References and Additional Resources 4-46

Unit 5 Area
What is Area? 5-1
Investigating Area Formulas 5-6
Area of Trapezoids 5-13
Area of Circles 5-18
Applying Area Formulas 5-27
What is Surface Area? 5-34
What is Volume? 5-41
Net Perspective 5-46
Area Proofs 5-53
References and Additional References 5-59

Unit 6 Pythagoras
Sides of Squares 6-1
Squares on the Sides of Acute or Obtuse Triangles 6-13
Applying Pythagoras, Part I 6-17
Pythagorean Triples 6-22
Special Right Triangles 6-34
Distance Formula 6-39
Applying Pythagoras, Part II 6-41
References and Additional Resources 6-52

Unit 7 Polygons and Circles

Diagonals of a Polygon 7-1
Interior and Exterior Angles of a Polygon 7-7
Polygons in Circles 7-22
Angles Associated with a Circle 7-29
Parts of a Circle 7-47
References and Additional Resources 7-57

Unit 8 Similarity and Trigonometry

Magnification Ratio 8-1
What Do You Mean? 8-15
Dilations 8-21
Similarity and the Golden Ratio 8-27
Trigonometry 8-44
Exploring Pyramids and Cones 8-64

Geometry Module DRAFT viii

Table of Contents

References and Additional Resources 8-74

Unit 9 Non-Euclidean Geometries

When Is the Sum of the Measures of the Angles of a Triangle Equal to 180º? 9-1
Euclid’s First Five Postulates in Euclidean Space 9-6
Curvature in Different Geometries 9-9
Euclid’s First Five Postulates in Elliptic Space 9-14
Euclid’s First Five Postulates in Hyperbolic Space 9-22
Visualizing Three Different Geometries 9-33
References and Additional Resources 9-38

The Geometer’s Sketchpad Activities

Unit 1: Meet The Geometer’s Sketchpad GS-1
Unit 2: Transformations GS-14
Unit 3: Triangles and Quadrilaterals GS-19
Unit 4: Area and Perimeter GS-29
Unit 5: Pythagorean Theorem GS-33
Unit 6: Polygons GS-37
Unit 7: Fractals GS-40
References and Additional Resources GS-47

Sample Assessment and Evaluation Documents

Geometry Module Subject Matter Pre-/Post-Test E-1
Geometry Module Subject Matter Pre-/Post-Test Solutions E-7
Classroom Observation Protocol E-15

Mentoring Strategies and Plan

Overview M-1
Timeline M-4
Observation Protocol M-6
Observation Record M-12
Observation Checklist M-13
Self-Report M-16
References and Additional Resources M-18

Competencies and Objectives

Texas Examination of Educator Standards Teacher Competencies
for Mathematics (8-12) C-1
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills for Geometry C-13

Appendix
Centimeter Grid Paper A-1
Geoboard Dot Paper A-2
Equilateral Triangle Paper A-3

Geometry Module DRAFT ix

Materials List Comprehensive Materials List

Comprehensive materials list

Consumables
easel paper (several sheets per group of 4)
colored markers
patty paper (several pieces per participant)
graph paper
colored pencils (1 package of assorted colors per group of 4)
centimeter grid paper (several sheets per participant)
small colored dot (1 for demonstration)
transparency sheet (several sheets per group of 4 and 1 for demonstration)
overhead projector pens (1 package of 4 colors per group of 4)
unlined 8.5 in. by 11 in. paper (several sheets per person)
3 in. by 5 in. index cards (1½ card per participant)
11 in. by 17 in. paper (1 per participant)
masking tape (1 roll per group of 4)
cardstock
floral wire (several pieces per participant)
modeling clay
one–inch easel grid paper (1 sheet per group of 4)
spaghetti
clear tape (1 roll per group of 4)
glue (1 bottle or stick per table)
cups (preferably large plastic cups)
geoboard dot paper (several sheets per participant—provided in the Appendix)
3 in. square adhesive notes (2 of different colors for each participant)
paper cone shaped drinking cups
plastic rice
string (1 spool per group of 4)
equilateral triangle paper with side length at least one inch (several sheets per participant
provided in the Appendix)

Non-consumables
selection of geometry reference books or textbooks
centimeter ruler (1 per participant)
protractor (1 per participant)
linking cubes (several per participant)
plastic mirror (1 per participant)
compass (1 per participant)
graphing calculator (1 per participant)
scissors (1 pair per participant)
straightedge (1 per participant)
centimeter cubes
geoboard (1 per participant)
centimeter grid transparency (1 for demonstration)
flexible protractor (1 per participant)

Geometry Module DRAFT x

Materials List Comprehensive Materials List

globe, beach ball, or Lénárt sphere (1 per group of 4)

transparencies “Constructing a Polygon’s Exterior Angles” and “Determining the Sum of
a Polygon’s Exterior Angles”
wire-frame constructions from Unit 2: Exploring Prisms

Technology
PowerPoint presentation: The van Hiele Model of Geometric Thought (or transparencies
of Power Point slides)
Flash animation video 3-D.html
The Geometer’s Sketchpad with sketches: Dilation Investigation, Mona Lisa, Golden
Construction, Spiral, Trigonometry Ratios, Trigonometry Tracers
computers with Internet access
NonEuclid at http://cs.unm.edu/~joel/NonEuclid/NonEuclid.html

Geometry Module DRAFT xi

Materials List Required Materials by Activity

Required Materials by Activity

Unit 1 - Transformations
Activity Name Materials
Terms and Definitions a selection of geometry reference books or
textbooks, easel paper, colored markers
What is a Translation? easel paper, centimeter ruler, colored markers
Reflections easel paper, centimeter ruler, colored markers,
patty paper, graph paper
Theoretical Framework: The van PowerPoint presentation: The van Hiele Model of
Hiele Model of Geometric Thought Geometric Thought or transparencies of
PowerPoint slides
Rotations centimeter ruler, patty paper, protractor, colored
pencils, centimeter grid paper, small colored dot,
transparency sheets (1 per group of 4), two
overhead pens of different colors (for each group)
Composite Transformations protractor, centimeter ruler, transparency sheets (1
per group of 4), overhead projector pens in at least
two different colors
Tessellations centimeter ruler, patty paper, protractor, colored
pencils, unlined 8.5 in. by 11 in. paper, 3 in. by 5
in. index card cut in half, tessellation transparency,
11 in. by 17 in. sheet of paper, colored markers,
masking tape, easel paper
Do You See What I See? linking cubes, plastic mirrors, a small object such
as a color tile for each participant

Unit 2 - Triangles
Activity Name Materials
Equilateral Triangles patty paper, straightedge, compass, easel paper,
colored markers
Two Congruent Angles patty paper, straightedge, protractor, compass,
easel paper, colored markers
Scalene Triangles patty paper, centimeter ruler, compass, protractor
The Meeting Place patty paper, centimeter ruler, compass, calculator

Unit 3 - Quadrilaterals
Activity Name Materials
Isosceles Right Triangle Reflections colored pencils, easel paper, colored markers,
centimeter ruler, transparency
Scalene Right Triangle Reflections colored pencils, easel paper, graph paper, colored
markers, centimeter ruler

Geometry Module DRAFT xii

Materials List Required Materials by Activity

Scalene Acute/Obtuse Triangle colored pencils, easel paper, colored markers,

Reflections centimeter ruler
Rotate a Triangle easel paper, graph paper, colored markers, patty
paper, centimeter ruler
Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex easel paper, graph paper, colored markers,
centimeter ruler
Vesica Pisces compass, easel paper, colored markers, centimeter
ruler
Exploring Prisms cardstock, scissors, floral wire, modeling clay,
one-inch grid easel paper, Flash animation video
3-D.html, computer and projector or computer lab
accessibility

Unit 4 - Informal Logic/Deductive Reasoning

Activity Name Materials
Informal Logic easel paper, colored markers
Inductive Triangle Congruences unlined 8.5 in. by 11 in. paper, compass,
centimeter ruler, protractor, spaghetti, scissors
Deductive Triangle Congruence
Quadrilateral Proofs easel paper, colored markers
Alternate Definitions easel paper, colored markers
Circle Proofs

Unit 5 - Area
Activity Name Materials
What Is Area? 3in. by 5 in. index cards, patty paper, straightedge
Investigating Area Formulas transparency sheets, colored pencils, glue or clear
tape, patty paper, scissors
Area of Trapezoids patty paper, scissors
Area of Circles cups (preferably large plastic cups), glue or clear
tape, graphing calculator, colored markers, patty
paper, scissors
Applying Area Formulas graphing calculator
What Is Surface Area? centimeter grid paper, linking cubes, scissors,
straightedge, tape
What Is Volume? centimeter cubes, straightedge, centimeter grid
paper, scissors, tape
Net Perspective paper, scissors, tape, rulers, centimeter grid paper
(optional), centimeter cubes
Area Proofs colored markers, easel paper

Geometry Module DRAFT xiii

Materials List Required Materials by Activity

Unit 6 - Pythagoras
Activity Name Materials
Sides of Squares centimeter grid paper
Squares on the Sides of Acute or centimeter grid paper, centimeter ruler
Obtuse Triangles
Applying Pythagoras, Part I graphing calculator
Pythagorean Triples transparencies of the tables for the activity,
calculator
Special Right Triangles geoboard or geoboard dot paper (provided in the
appendix), unlined 8.5 in. x 11 in. paper
Distance Formula centimeter grid paper, centimeter grid
transparency, 3 in. square adhesive notes in two
colors (one of each color per participant)
Applying Pythagoras, Part II graphing calculator

Unit 7 - Polygons and Circles

Activity Name Materials
Diagonals of a Polygon straightedge, graphing calculator
Interior and Exterior Angles of a graphing calculator, straightedge, unlined 8.5 in.
Polygon by 11 in. paper, scissors, tape, transparencies
“Constructing a Polygon’s Exterior Angles” and
“Determining the Sum of a Polygon’s Exterior
Angles”
Polygons in Circles graphing calculator, centimeter ruler
Angles Associated with a Circle protractor, centimeter ruler
Parts of a Circle compass, centimeter ruler, graphing calculator,
easel paper, colored markers

Unit 8 - Similarity
Activity Name Materials
Magnification Ratio graphing calculator, compass, centimeter grid
paper, protractor or patty paper, straightedge
What Do You Mean? compass, centimeter grid paper, patty paper,
centimeter ruler
Dilations compass, The Geometer’s Sketchpad, The
Geometer’s Sketchpad Sketch: Dilation
Investigation, centimeter grid paper, straightedge

Geometry Module DRAFT xiv

Materials List Required Materials by Activity

Similarity and the Golden Ratio compass, The Geometer’s Sketchpad, The
Geometer’s Sketchpad Sketches: Mona Lisa,
Golden Construction, Spiral, graphing calculator,
centimeter grid paper, patty paper, straightedge
Trigonometry cardstock, compass, The Geometer’s Sketchpad,
The Geometer’s Sketchpad Sketches:
Trigonometry Ratios, Trigonometry Tracers,
graphing calculator, centimeter grid paper, patty
paper, protractor, scissors, straightedge
Exploring Pyramids and Cones wire-frame constructions from Unit 2: Exploring
Prisms, centimeter ruler, scissors, protractor, patty
paper (optional), compass (optional), paper cone-
shaped drinking cups, plastic rice, cardstock

Unit 9 - Non-Euclidean Geometries

Activity Name Materials
When is the Sum of the Measures straightedge, compass, patty paper, colored
of the Angles of a Triangle Equal to pencils, transparency sheet, scissors, overhead
180º? projector pens
Euclid’s First Five Postulates in straightedge, protractor
Euclidean Space
Curvature in Different Geometries
Euclid’s First Five Postulates in flexible protractor, string, overhead projector pens,
Elliptic Space globe, beach ball, or Lénárt sphere
Euclid’s First Five Postulates in compass, straightedge, colored pencils, computers
Hyperbolic Space with Internet access, NonEuclid at
http://cs.unm.edu/~joel/NonEuclid/NonEuclid.html
Visualizing Three Different Equilateral triangle paper with side length of at
Geometries least one inch (several sheets per participant—
provided in the Appendix), scissors, clear tape

Geometry Module DRAFT xv

Suggested Timeline

The Texas Education Agency and the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board
Geometry Module Suggested Institute Timeline

This suggested timeline assumes 10 days of instruction with 6 hours of instruction

per day.

Day 1
Hour 1 Welcome and Pre-Test
Hours 2-5 Unit 1: Introduction and Transformations
Hour 6 The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 1: Introduction to the Program

Day 2
Hours 1-2 Unit 1: Introduction and Transformations (cont.)
Hours 3-5 Unit 2: Triangles
Hour 6 The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 2: Transformations

Day 3
Hours 1-2 Unit 2: Triangles (cont.)
Hours 3-6 Unit 3: Quadrilaterals

Day 4
Hours 1-4 Unit 3: Quadrilaterals (cont.)
Hours 5-6 The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 3: Triangles and Quadrilaterals

Day 5
Hours 1-5 Unit 4: Reasoning
Hour 6 Unit 5: Area

Day 6
Hours 1-5 Unit 5: Area (cont.)
Hour 6 The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 4: Perimeter and Area

Day 7
Hours 1-5 Unit 6: Pythagoras
Hour 6 The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 5: Pythagoras

Day 8
Hours 1-5 Unit 7: Polygons and Circles
Hour 6 The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 6: Polygons and Circles

Day 9
Hours 1-6 Unit 8: Similar Figures and Trigonometry (The Geometer’s Sketchpad
embedded)

Day 10
Hours 1-5 Unit 9: Non-Euclidean Geometries (NonEuclid embedded)
Hour 6 Post-Test and Closing

Geometry Module DRAFT xvi

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Terms and Definitions

Unit 1 – Transformations

Terms and Definitions

Overview: This activity establishes a common language of terms and definitions
which will be used throughout the module.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.

Background: No specific geometry knowledge is needed.

Materials: a selection of geometry reference books or textbooks, easel paper,

colored markers

New Terms: This activity creates the glossary of basic terms which will be used
throughout the module.

Procedures:

Distribute the activity sheet. Participants use available reference materials to establish the
common terminology and symbol usage for the terms listed. This is the beginning of a
glossary to be developed during the module. Terms, definitions, and conjectures which
arise during the module can be added to the glossary.

The activity, which should take no longer than 30 minutes, can be divided up so that each
group defines a different set of terms. The terms have been grouped for this purpose.
Provide easel paper and markers if you wish to display the terms for whole class
reference and correction if needed.

The following four terms are undefined in the Euclidean axiomatic system. Describe each
term in your own words.

A point has no size. It has only location in space. It is represented with a dot and named
with a capital letter.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-1

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Terms and Definitions

A line is a straight, continuous arrangement of infinitely many points. It is infinitely long

and extends in two directions but has no width or thickness. It is represented and
named by any two distinct points that lie on it.
A plane has length and width but no thickness. It is a flat surface that extends infinitely
along its length and width. It can be named with a script capital letter, such as P.
Space has length, width and thickness, extending infinitely along all three dimensions.

Define and/or draw representations of the following terms using conventional symbols.
Definitions are provided below. Participants should include diagrams showing
conventional symbols, such as matching tick marks for congruent figures, matching
arrows for parallel lines and right angle and perpendicular signs.

I.
Collinear points lie on the same line.
Coplanar points or lines lie on the same plane.
A line segment is that part of a line that consists of two points, called endpoints, and all
the points between them. It is designated AB .
An endpoint is a point at the end of a segment or ray.
The measure of a line segment is designated AB.
An angle is formed by two non-collinear rays that share a common endpoint, designated
∠ABC or ∠D .
A vertex is the common endpoint of the rays forming the angle.
The measure of an angle is designated m ∠ABC or m ∠D .
Congruent (angles, segments, polygons, circles, solids) are identical in size and shape.
e.g., ∠ABC ≅ ∠ATC .
Equal measures of segments or angles are designated AB = CD or m ∠ABC = m ∠D .
A midpoint of a segment is a point that divides a segment into two congruent segments.

II.
A bisector is a line, segment, or ray that divides a figure into two congruent figures.
A right angle is an angle that measures 90o.
An acute angle is an angle whose measure is between 0o and 90o.
An obtuse angle is an angle whose measure is between 90o and 180o.
A pair of vertical angles is a pair of non-adjacent angles formed by two intersecting lines.
A linear pair of angles consists of two adjacent angles whose sum is 180o.
A pair of complementary angles is a pair of angles whose sum is 90o.
A pair of supplementary angles is a pair of angles whose sum is 180o.

III.
A polygon is a closed figure in a plane formed by connecting line segments endpoint to
endpoint.
Consecutive angles in a polygon share one side of the polygon.
Consecutive sides in a polygon share one vertex of the polygon.
A convex polygon has all of its diagonals within the polygon.
A concave polygon has at least one diagonal lying outside the polygon.
A diagonal of a polygon is a segment that connects two non-consecutive vertices.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-2

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Terms and Definitions

A polygon in which all sides are congruent is an equilateral polygon.

A polygon in which all angles are congruent is an equiangular polygon.
A regular polygon is equilateral and equiangular.
Common polygon names: triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, octagon,
nine-gon, decagon, dodecagon.

IV.
Perpendicular lines, segments, rays or planes intersect at right angles to each other.
Parallel lines, in the same plane, are equidistant from each other. Parallel planes never
intersect.
A right triangle is a triangle that has one right angle.
An acute triangle is a triangle that has three acute angles.
An obtuse triangle is a triangle that has one obtuse angle.
A scalene triangle is a triangle with no congruent sides.
An equilateral triangle is a triangle that has three congruent sides.
An isosceles triangle is a triangle that has at least two congruent sides.

V.
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with exactly one pair of parallel sides.
A kite is a quadrilateral with two distinct pairs of consecutive congruent sides.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides.
A rhombus is a quadrilateral with four congruent sides.
A rectangle is a quadrilateral with four right angles.
A square is a regular quadrilateral; it has four congruent sides and four right angles.

VI.
A circle is a set of points a given distance (radius) from a given point (center) in the
plane.
A diameter is a segment with endpoints on the circle that contains the center of the circle.
An arc of a circle is that part of the circle that consists of two points on the circle and all
the points between them. The two points are called endpoints.
A semicircle is an arc of a circle whose endpoints are the endpoints of a diameter.
A chord is a segment whose endpoints lie on the circle.
A tangent is a line that intersects a circle at only one point.
A secant is a line that intersects a circle at two points.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-3

Activity Page: Transformations Terms and Definitions

Terms and Definitions

The following four terms are undefined in the Euclidean axiomatic system.
Describe each term in your own words.
point
line
plane
space

Define and/or draw representations of the following terms using

conventional symbols.

G
Example: ray GH H

A ray is the part of a line that contains point G and all of the points on the
same side of point G as point H.

I. II.
collinear bisector
coplanar right angle
line segment acute angle
endpoint obtuse angle
measure of a line segment pair of vertical angles
angle linear pair of angles
vertex pair of complementary angles
measure of an angle pair of supplementary angles
congruent
equal measure
midpoint

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-4

Activity Page: Transformations Terms and Definitions

III. IV.
polygon perpendicular
consecutive angles parallel
consecutive sides right triangle
convex polygon acute triangle
concave polygon obtuse triangle
diagonal scalene triangle
equilateral polygon equilateral triangle
equiangular polygon isosceles triangle
regular polygon
common polygon names

V. VI.
trapezoid circle
kite radius
parallelogram center
rhombus diameter
rectangle arc of a circle
square semicircle
chord
tangent
secant

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-5

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations What is a Translation?

What is a Translation?
Overview: The properties of translation vectors are determined for 2-dimensional
figures in the plane and on the coordinate plane.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.006.A. The beginning teacher understands the concept of slope as a
rate of change and interprets the meaning of slope and intercept in a
variety of situations.
III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.014.A. The beginning teacher identifies transformations (i.e.,
reflections, translations, glide-references, rotations, dilations) and
explores their properties.
III.014.D. The beginning teacher applies transformations in the
coordinate plane.
III.014.H. The beginning teacher explores the relationship between
geometric and algebraic representations of vectors and uses this
relationship to solve problems.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems
to represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
d.2.B. The student uses slopes and equations of lines to investigate
geometric relationships, including parallel lines, perpendicular lines,
and special segments of triangles and other polygons.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make
conjectures and justify properties of geometric figures.

Background: Identify and graph coordinates and slopes in coordinate figures.

Recognize parallel lines.

Materials: easel paper, centimeter ruler, colored markers

New Terms: image, isometry, pre-image, translation vector

Procedures:

The activity has been divided into parts, represented by the different phases of learning in
the van Hiele model, which will be explained to participants after they have experienced
the activities on translations and reflections. The activity begins with participants sharing
prior knowledge about translations, using 1, in their groups. Post a large sheet of easel
paper with the heading “Translations.”

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-6

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations What is a Translation?

1. The polygon ABCDEFG, transformed into polygon A ' B ' C ' D ' E ' F ' G ' below,
represents a translation. The original figure, ABCDEFG, is called the pre-image. The
resultant figure, A ' B ' C ' D ' E ' F ' G ' , is called the image. Each point on the image is
labeled with the same letter as its corresponding pre-image point, with the addition of
a prime mark. G
F
D G'
F'
E A
D' E' A'

B
B'

C
C'

Ask participants to add the new terms pre-image and image to their glossaries.

In your group, discuss the figure and make a list of properties for a translation.

After a few minutes, during whole group discussion, ask a participant to record a list of
translation properties supplied by the class. Do not discuss or critique the statements.
Explain that, after completing 2 – 5, these statements will be critiqued for validity.

Where are translations seen in the real world?

Some examples of translations can be seen in decorative friezes, rows of apartment units,
or hotel rooms facing the same direction, and some tessellations.

Participants work on 2 – 5. Move around the room listening and facilitating while
participants work.

2. Use a ruler and colored pencil or marker to connect each pre-image point to its
corresponding image point. In your group, discuss and record your findings on paper.

F G'
D
F'
E A
D' E' A'

B
B'

C
C'

The connecting segments are all parallel and have the same magnitude.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-7

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations What is a Translation?

3. A translation vector resembles a ray and is used to define the magnitude (by the
length of the vector) and the direction (by the direction of the arrow) of the
translation. Transform pentagon OPQRS using the translation vector given. Show the
segments connecting pre-image to corresponding image points. Label the image
points appropriately. P'

O' Q'
P
R'

S'
O
Q

R
S

Remind participants to add the new term translation vector to their glossaries.

4. Draw and number the x- and y- axes on the grid below.

Write the coordinates of the vertices of ∆ UVW.
Apply the rule (x, y) → (x + 3, y – 2) to the coordinates for U, V, and W.
Draw the image that results from this transformation.
y
An example: 5

Pre-image Image
U
(x, y) (x + 3, y – 2)
U (−2, 2) (1, 0)
V (1, −2) (4, −4)
W
x
U' 5
W (2, 0) (5, -2)
W'
V

V'
-5

Using a colored pencil or marker, connect corresponding pre-image and image points.
Describe what happened in terms of the transformation rule (x, y) → (x + 3, y – 2).
The figure moved 3 units to the right and 2 units down.
2
The slope of the translation vector is − .
3
Generalize: Describe the translation for the rule (x, y) → (x + a, y + b).
If a and b are positive, each point moves a units to the right and b units up. If a and b
are negative, then the point moves in the opposite direction.
b
The slope of the translation vector is .
a

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-8

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations What is a Translation?

5. In your group, discuss and record on paper the properties of translations. Be prepared
to share during whole class discussion.

After most participants have completed 2 − 5, facilitate a whole class discussion on the
properties of translations.

Ask a volunteer to record the class-proposed properties of translations on the easel paper.
Discuss each item for validity from the list produced at the beginning of the activity.
Cross out invalid properties.

The following represent possible responses.

ƒ The pre-image and image are congruent.

ƒ The pre-image and image have exactly the same orientation.
ƒ The pre-image points all move in exactly the same direction and distance.
ƒ Parallel congruent segments connect the pre-image points to the corresponding
image points.
ƒ The connecting segments with directional arrows are called translation vectors.
ƒ The translation vector determines the magnitude and direction of movement for each
point in the figure.
ƒ If a and b are both positive, for the general coordinate rule (x, y) → (x + a, y + b),
each point moves a units to the right and b units up. If a and b are negative, then
points move a units to the left and b units down.
b
The slope of the translation vector is .
a
Participants should discuss any additional properties and knowledge emerging from the
activity.

Look at 3. It shows a figure with a translation vector.

Does a translation vector have to be attached to the figure?

No, it can lie anywhere. However, if the connecting segments are drawn, they should all
be parallel to, and of the same magnitude as, the given translation vector.

What is an isometry?
An isometry is a transformation that preserves congruence.

Is translation a type of isometry?

Yes, the pre-image and image are congruent.

Point out that students in secondary school may prefer to use the term slide instead of the
term translation. Slide is acceptable at the informal Visual Level. However, following
any discussion, when formal terms and symbols have been introduced, only formal terms
should be used.

Participants work independently on 6 and 7, applying the properties of translations.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-9

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations What is a Translation?

6. Find the coordinate rule for the following translation:

y

Q'
(x, y) → (x – 2, y + 1)
x
Q

D'

A'
D

7. Polygon H ' E ' X ' A ' G ' N ' is the image resulting from the translation rule
(x, y) → (x + 7, y − 4). Find the coordinates of the pre-image.
y
H (−5, 6)
E'
E (−4, 9)
X (−2, 8)
X'
A (0, 5)
G (−2, 2)
N (−3, 5)
H'
A'
N'
x

G'

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-10

Activity Page: Transformations What is a Translation?

What is a Translation?

1. The polygon ABCDEFG, transformed into polygon A ' B ' C ' D ' E ' F ' G '
below, represents a translation. The original figure, ABCDEFG, is called
the pre-image. The resultant figure, A ' B ' C ' D ' E ' F ' G ' , is called the
image. Each point on the image is labeled with the same letter as its
corresponding pre-image point, with the addition of a prime mark.
G
F
D G'
F'
E A
D' E' A'

B
B'

C
C'

In your group, discuss the figure and make a list of properties for a
translation.

2. Use a ruler and colored pencil or marker to connect each pre-image point
to its corresponding image point. In your group, discuss and record your
findings on paper.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-11

Activity Page: Transformations What is a Translation?

3. A translation vector resembles a ray, and is used to define the magnitude

(by the length of the vector) and the direction (by the direction of the
arrow) of the translation. Transform pentagon OPQRS using the
translation vector given. Show the segments connecting pre-image to
corresponding image points. Label the image points appropriately.

O Q

4. Draw and number the x- and y- axes on the grid below. Write the
coordinates of the vertices of ∆ UVW. Apply the rule (x, y) → (x + 3, y –
2) to the coordinates for U, V, and W. Draw the image that results from
this transformation.

Pre-image Image
U (x, y) (x + 3, y – 2)
U
W V
W

Using a colored pencil or marker, connect corresponding pre-image and

image points. Describe what happened in terms of the transformation rule
(x, y) → (x + 3, y – 2).

Generalize: Describe the translation for the rule (x, y) → (x + a, y + b).

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-12

Activity Page: Transformations What is a Translation?

5. In your group, discuss and record on paper the properties of translations.

Be prepared to share during whole class discussion.

6. Find the coordinate rule for the following translation:

y

Q'
x
Q

D'

A'
D

7. Polygon H ' E ' X ' A ' G ' N ' is the image resulting from the translation rule
(x, y) → (x + 7, y − 4). Find the coordinates of the pre-image.
y

E'

X'

H'
A'
N'
x

G'

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-13

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Reflections

Overview: The properties of reflections are determined for 2-dimensional figures

in the plane and on the coordinate plane.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.006.A. The beginning teacher understands the concept of slope as a
rate of change and interprets the meaning of slope and intercept in a
variety of situations.
III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.014.A. The beginning teacher identifies transformations (i.e.,
reflections, translations, glide-references, rotations, dilations) and
explores their properties.
III.014.C. The beginning teacher uses transformations to explore and
describe reflectional, rotational, and translational symmetry.
III.014.D. The beginning teacher applies transformations in the
coordinate plane.
III.014.H. The beginning teacher explores the relationship between
geometric and algebraic representations of vectors and uses this
relationship to solve problems.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems
to represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
d.2.B. The student uses slopes and equations of lines to investigate
geometric relationships, including parallel lines, perpendicular lines,
and special segments of triangles and other polygons.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make
conjectures and justify properties of geometric figures.

Background: Participants should be able to identify slopes and graph coordinates in

the coordinate plane and recognize parallel and perpendicular lines.

Materials: easel paper, centimeter ruler, colored markers, patty paper, graph
paper

New Terms: line of reflection or line of symmetry

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-14

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Reflections

Procedures:

Post a large sheet of easel paper with the heading “Reflections.” Distribute the activity
sheet. Ask participants to work only on 1 for about 5 minutes.

1. The figures below represent reflections across the dotted lines. In your group, discuss
and record the properties of reflections. Be prepared to share all of your observations
at the end of this activity during whole class discussion.

Ask a participant to record reflection properties as provided by the class on the easel
paper. Do not critique the statements.

Where are reflections seen in the real world?

Some examples are: mirrors, adjacent hotel rooms, the word “AMBULANCE” written on
the front of an ambulance as seen in a rear-view mirror, works of art (e.g., M.C. Escher).

The mathematical definition of a line of reflection or a line of symmetry is the line over
which a figure is reflected resulting in a figure that coincides exactly with the original
figure.

Ask participants to add the terms line of reflection and line of symmetry to their
glossaries.

Participants work on 2 – 6. Walk around the room listening and facilitating while
participants work. When most participants have completed these items, conduct a group
discussion to bring about consensus.

2. Reflect each polygon across its line of reflection. Label at least one polygon and its
image, using prime notation, e.g., A transforms to A′.
An example of labeling is shown below for figure A. Participants should not have
difficulty with figures A – D. The reflections can be found by counting grid units for
A, B, and C, and diagonal units for D, across the reflection lines.

If anyone needs further assistance, provide patty paper. Have participants trace the figure
and the reflection line, fold across the reflection line, and trace the folded figure. They
should then copy the result onto the activity sheet. Figure E is difficult. The grid is a
hindrance. Give participants adequate time to work on E. Discourage use of patty paper
for this item. If necessary, suggest that they move to 3 and then return to figure E.

3. Using a ruler, connect each pre-image point to its corresponding image point for the
figures above. In your group, share and write down observations. Be prepared to
share all of your observations at the end of this activity during whole class discussion.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-15

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Reflections

A J J'

K K'
L L'
N'
N M M'
B
C

4. For each of the figures A – D from 2, let one end of the reflection segment represent
the origin. Examples are illustrated below. Work with a partner to find the
coordinates of each pre-image point and its corresponding image point. Then
complete the following:

a. When a figure is reflected across the y-axis, (x, y) → (−x, y).

b. When a figure is reflected across the x-axis, (x, y) → (x, −y).
c. When a figure is reflected across the line y = −x, (x, y) → (−y, −x).
A (-3, 3) (3, 3) (-3, 3)

(-4, 1) (4, 1)

B (-4, 1)

(-4, -1)

C
(-3, -3)

D (2, 1)

(-1, -2)

E (4, -3)

(3, -4)

d. Predict: When a figure is reflected across the line y = x, (x, y) → (y, x).

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-16

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Reflections

On a coordinate grid, draw a shape, reflect it across the line y = x, and verify your
prediction.

With your group, share and record on paper your observations.

An example is shown.
(4, 6)

(6, 4)

(2, 3)

(3, 2)

5. Find the lines of reflection or lines of symmetry for the following figures.
In b, below, the line of reflection can be obtained in the same way as for figure a.
Alternately, connect a pre-image point to a non-corresponding image point and vice
versa. The intersection point is on the line of reflection. Repeat for a different pair of
points. Draw a line, the line of reflection, through the intersection points.

a. b.

6. Describe at least three ways in which the position of the line of reflection, or line of
symmetry, can be determined.
ƒ Trace the pre-image and the image. Fold so that the figures coincide. The fold
line is the line of reflection.
ƒ Draw a segment from a pre-image point to its corresponding image point.
Construct the perpendicular bisector, which is the line of symmetry.
ƒ Draw at least two line segments connecting points to the corresponding image
points. Find the midpoints. Draw a line through the midpoints, forming the line of
reflection.
ƒ Connect a pre-image point to a non-corresponding image point and vice versa.
The intersection point is on the line of reflection. Repeat for a different pair of
points. Draw a line, the line of reflection, through the intersection points.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-17

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Reflections

Lead a whole class discussion during which participants share their observations. Discuss
the validity of each of the statements provided at the start of the lesson. Ask a participant
to record new properties on the poster, and be sure to include all of the following points
in the discussion.
ƒ Reflections are congruence transformations.
ƒ Reflections are a type of isometry, because the pre-image and its image are
congruent.
ƒ The image and its pre-image are the same distance from the line of reflection but
on opposite sides.
ƒ The lines connecting corresponding pre-image to image points are parallel to
each other and the line of reflection is their perpendicular bisector.

When these properties are provided, participants should label congruence and
perpendicular symbols on their papers. For example:

ƒ If a line is perpendicular to two distinct lines in the plane, then the two lines are
parallel to each other.
ƒ If the slope of the line of reflection is m, then the slopes of the connecting parallel
1
lines are all − .
m
ƒ Coordinate rules:
When a figure is reflected across the y-axis, (x, y) → (−x, y).
When a figure is reflected across the x-axis, (x, y) → (x, −y).
When a figure is reflected across the line y = −x, (x, y) → (−y, −x).
When a figure is reflected across the line y = x, (x, y) → (y, x).

Point out that the term flip is commonly used in secondary classrooms, but this
informal term should be replaced with the formal term reflection.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-18

Activity Page: Transformations Reflections

1. The figures below represent reflections across the dotted lines. In your
group, discuss and record the properties of reflections. Be prepared to
share all of your observations at the end of this activity during whole
class discussion.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-19

Activity Page: Transformations Reflections

2. Reflect each polygon across its line of reflection. Label at least one
polygon and its image using prime notation, e.g., A transforms to A′.

B
C

3. Using a ruler, connect each pre-image point to its corresponding image

point for the figures above. In your group, share and write down
observations. Be prepared to share all of your observations at the end of
this activity during whole class discussion.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-20

Activity Page: Transformations Reflections

4. For each of the figures A – D from 2, let one end of the reflection segment
represent the origin. Work with a partner to find the coordinates of each
pre-image point and its corresponding image point. Then complete the
following:

a. When a figure is reflected across the y-axis, (x, y) →_______

b. When a figure is reflected across the x-axis, (x, y) →_______

c. When a figure is reflected across the line y = −x, (x, y) →_______

d. Predict:
When a figure is reflected across the line y = x, (x, y) →_______
On a coordinate grid, draw a shape, reflect it across the line y = x, and
verify your prediction.

With your group, share and record on paper your observations.

5. Find the lines of reflection, or lines of symmetry, for the following

figures.

a. b.

6. Describe at least three ways in which the position of the line of reflection,
or line of symmetry, can be determined.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-21

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

Theoretical Framework: The van Hiele Model of Geometric Thought

Overview: Participants view and take notes on the PowerPoint presentation about
the van Hiele Model of Geometric Thought, the theoretical framework
on which this geometry module is based.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

VI.020.A. The beginning teacher applies research-based theories of
learning mathematics to plan appropriate instructional activities for all
students.
VI.020.B. The beginning teacher understands how students differ in
their approaches to learning mathematics.
VI.020.C. The beginning teacher uses students’ prior mathematical
knowledge to build conceptual links to new knowledge and plans
instruction that builds on students’ strengths and addresses students’
needs.
VI.020.E. The beginning teacher understands how to provide instruction
along a continuum from concrete to abstract.
VI.020.F. The beginning teacher understands a variety of instructional
strategies and tasks that promote students’ abilities to do the
mathematics described in the TEKS.
VI.020.G. The beginning teacher understands how to create a learning
environment that provides all students, including English Language
Learners, with opportunities to develop and improve mathematical skills
and procedures.
VI.020.H. The beginning teacher understands a variety of questioning
strategies to encourage mathematical discourse and to help students
analyze and evaluate their mathematical thinking.

Background:

Materials: PowerPoint presentation: van Hiele Model of Geometric Thought or

transparencies of PowerPoint slides

New Terms:

Procedures:

This activity describes the theoretical framework known as the van Hiele model for
geometric thought as it relates to the Geometry Module. Awareness of the model helps
teachers understand how geometry should be taught and identify reasons for possible
students’ lack of success in learning high school geometry.

Students first learn to recognize whole shapes and then to analyze the relevant properties
of the shapes. Later they see relationships between shapes and make simple deductions.
Curriculum development and instruction must consider this hierarchy because although

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-22

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

learning can occur at several levels simultaneously, the learning of more complex
concepts and strategies requires a firm foundation of prior skills.

The van Hiele model underscores the importance of the Learning Principle in NCTM’s
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (2000), p. 11, which states that
“students must learn mathematics with understanding, actively building new knowledge
from experience and prior knowledge.” Students learn more mathematics and learn it
better when they can take control of their learning by defining their goals and monitoring
their progress. Effective learners recognize the importance of reflecting on their thinking
and learning from their mistakes.

Distribute the activity sheet to participants to help them focus on the important ideas from
the PowerPoint presentation “The van Hiele Model of Geometric Thought” as they take
notes. They will need additional paper for note-taking. Show the PowerPoint
presentation. Use the following notes pages to elaborate on the content of each slide.

Slide The van Hiele model of geometric thought

1 outlines the hierarchy of levels through
which students progress as they develop
The van Hiele Model geometric ideas. The model clarifies many
of Geometric of the shortcomings in traditional
Thought instruction and offers ways to improve it.
Pierre van Hiele and his wife, Dina van
Hiele-Geldof, focused on getting students
to the appropriate level to be successful in
high school geometry.

Slide Language is the basis for understanding

2 Define it … and communicating. Before we can find
out what a student knows we must establish
a common language and vocabulary.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-23

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

Slide When is it appropriate Only through the use of a common

3 to ask for a definition? language can we develop the network of
structures and relations which help produce
A definition of a concept is only
possible if one knows, to some good definitions.
extent, the thing that is to be
defined.
Pierre van Hiele

Slide
4 Definition?
How can you define a thing before
you know what you have to define?
Most definitions are not preconceived
but the finished touch of the
organizing activity.
The child should not be deprived of
this privilege…
Hans Freudenthal

Slide The development of geometric ideas

Levels of Thinking in
5 Geometry progresses through a hierarchy of levels.
„ Visual Level
The research of Pierre van Hiele and his
„ Descriptive Level wife, Dina van Hiele-Geldof, clearly shows
„ Relational Level that students first learn to recognize whole
„ Deductive Level

„ Rigor
shapes, then to analyze the properties of a
shape. Later they see relationships between
the shapes and make simple deductions.
Only after these levels have been attained
can they create deductive proofs.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-24

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

Slide The hierarchy for learning geometry

Levels of Thinking in
6 Geometry described by the van Hieles parallels
„ Each level has its own network of
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
relations. One should note that the van Hiele model
„ Each level has its own language.
„ The levels are sequential and
is based on instruction, whereas Piaget’s
hierarchical. The progress from one
level to the next is more dependent
model is not.
upon instruction than on age or
maturity.
The van Hiele model supports Vygotsky’s
notion of the “zone of proximal
development” which is the “distance
between the actual developmental level as
determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential
development as determined through
problem solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers”
(Vygotsky, 1978, p. 85-86).

Slide Language at the Visual Level serves to

Visual Level
7 Characteristics make possible communication for the
whole group about the structures that
The student students observe. Formal or conventional
– identifies, compares and sorts shapes on the
basis of their appearance as a whole. vocabulary is used to describe the figures.
– solves problems using general properties and
techniques (e.g., overlaying, measuring). Any misconceptions identified may be
– uses informal language.
– does NOT analyze in terms of components. clarified by the use of appropriate
language. The language of the next level
(e.g., congruence) will not be understood
by students who are at the Visual Level.

Slide In this example, the term rotation is

8 Visual Level Example introduced.

It turns!

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-25

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

Slide
9
Where and how is the
Visual Level represented
in the translation and
reflection activities?

Slide The term translation is introduced. The

Where and how is the Visual
10 Level represented in this observation that the two figures look the
translation activity? same and keep the same orientation may
emerge.

It slides!

Slide Where and how is the Visual

The term reflection is introduced. Students
11 Level represented in this may note that a mirror might produce a
reflection activity? reflection.

It is a flip!
It is a mirror image!

Slide Descriptive Level The language of the Descriptive Level

12 Characteristics includes words relating to properties within
The student
a given figure (e.g., parallel, perpendicular,
– recognizes and describes a shape (e.g.,
parallelogram) in terms of its properties.
and congruent). Various properties can be
– discovers properties experimentally by
observing, measuring, drawing and modeling.
used to describe or define a figure, but this
– uses formal language and symbols. is usually a very uneconomical list of
– does NOT use sufficient definitions. Lists many
properties. properties. A concise definition, using a
– does NOT see a need for proof of generalizations
discovered empirically (inductively). sufficient number of properties rather than
an exhaustive list, is not possible at this
level. Students functioning at the Visual
Level are not able to understand the
properties of the Descriptive Level even
with the help of pictures.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-26

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

Slide The isosceles triangles, with congruent

Descriptive Level
13 Example vertices at the point or center of rotation,
become an accepted property of rotations.
Students at the Descriptive Level recognize
a rotation by these properties.
It is a rotation!

Slide
14
Where and how is the
Descriptive Level
represented in the
translation and reflection
activities?

Slide Where and how is the The congruent, parallel translation vectors
15 Descriptive Level become the defining property behind a
represented in this translation. The symbols used to describe
translation activity? the vectors (e.g., parallel and congruent),
F
G
both on the figure and in written geometric
language, become a part of the formal
D
F'
E A
D' A'
E'
It is a translation!
language of the Descriptive Level.
B
B'

C
C'

Slide Where and how is the

The line of reflection bisects the parallel
16 Descriptive Level segments that connect corresponding points
represented in this on the pre-image and image. This property
reflection activity? describes and defines a reflection. The
It is a reflection!
congruency symbols, the perpendicular
symbol, and the corresponding symbols
used in written descriptions become part of
the language of the Descriptive Level.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-27

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

Slide Relational Level The language of the Relational Level is

17 Characteristics based on ordering arguments which may
The student
have their origins at the Descriptive Level.
– can define a figure using minimum For example, a figure may be described by
(sufficient) sets of properties.
– gives informal arguments, and discovers an exhaustive list of properties at the
new properties by deduction.
– follows and can supply parts of a Descriptive Level. At the Relational Level,
deductive argument.
– does NOT grasp the meaning of an
it is possible to select one or two properties
axiomatic system, or see the
interrelationships between networks of
of the figure to determine whether these are
theorems.
sufficient to define the figure. The
language is more abstract including causal,
logical and other relations of the structure.
A student at the Relational Level is able to
determine relationships among figures, and
to arrange arguments in an order in which
each statement except the first one is the
outcome of previous statements.

Slide Relational Level

In this example, the triangle is divided into
18 Example parts which transform to form the
If I know how to find rectangle. Properties of rotation,
the area of the
rectangle, I can find
congruence, and conservation of area are
the area of the utilized.
h
triangle!

1
h
2
1
Area of triangle = 2 bh
b

Slide If the structures of the Visual, Descriptive,

Deductive Level
19 and Relational Levels are not sufficiently
My experience as a teacher of geometry
understood, then the student is not able to
convinces me that all too often, students learn successfully from a traditional
have not yet achieved this level of
informal deduction. Consequently, they
deductive approach as expected in most
are not successful in their study of the high school textbooks.
kind of geometry that Euclid created,
which involves formal deduction.
Pierre van Hiele

Slide The Deductive Level is sometimes called

Deductive Level
20 Characteristics the Axiomatic Level. The language of this
The student
level uses the symbols and sequence of
– recognizes and flexibly uses the formal logic.
components of an axiomatic system
(undefined terms, definitions, postulates,
theorems).
– creates, compares, contrasts different
proofs.
– does NOT compare axiomatic systems.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-28

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

Slide At this level, students are able to construct

21 Deductive Level Example the steps of a proof using appropriate
In ∆ABC, BM is a
symbolic language.
median.

I can prove that

A
Area of ∆ABM = Area
of ∆MBC .
M

B
C

Slide The student is able to establish proofs and

22 Rigor reach conclusions using the symbolic
The student
language of the system without the aid of
– compares axiomatic systems (e.g., visual cues.
Euclidean and non-
non-Euclidean geometries).
– rigorously establishes theorems in
different axiomatic systems in the
absence of reference models.

Slide The van Hiele model defines the different

Phases of the
23 Instructional Cycle levels along with the accompanying
„ Information
language (symbols) for each level. The
„ Guided orientation phases in the instructional cycle help
„ Explicitation students progress from lower to higher
„ Free orientation

„ Integration
levels of thinking.

Slide In other models, this phase might be called

24 Information Phase knowledge, i.e., what the students already
The teacher holds a conversation with the
know about the context. Formal vocabulary
pupils, in well-
well-known language symbols,
in which the context he wants to use
associated with the concept is clarified.
becomes clear.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-29

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

Slide
25 Information Phase

It is called a “rhombus.”

Slide The teacher provides instructional activities

26 Guided Orientation Phase in which students explore and discuss the
concept, preferably in small groups, and
– The activities guide the student toward come to a consensus about the concept
the relationships of the next level.
within their groups. The teacher’s role is to
– The relations belonging to the context are facilitate, provide hints, and ask scaffolding
discovered and discussed.
questions rather than to provide answers.
Students should construct their own
knowledge from their own thinking rather
than rely on the teacher for direct
information.

Slide
27 Guided Orientation Phase

Fold the rhombus on its axes of symmetry.

What do you notice?

Slide After the class has completed the guided

28 Explicitation Phase orientation activity, the teacher leads a
whole class discussion. Each group shares
– Under the guidance of the teacher, its findings, and through discussion
students share their opinions about the
relationships and concepts they have misconceptions are re-conceptualized.
discovered in the activity.
Even if groups share the same conclusions,
– The teacher takes care that the correct
technical language is developed and much can be gained when students hear
used.
explanations in different words or from
slightly different viewpoints. The van Hiele
model emphasizes that this step is often
short-changed in mathematics classrooms
at the expense of student understanding and
learning.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-30

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

Slide Sometimes students arrive at the wrong

29 Explicitation Phase conclusions. During the discussion, these
Discuss your ideas with your group, and
misconceptions can be corrected, especially
then with the whole class. if other students, rather than the teacher,
– The diagonals lie on the lines of symmetry.
– There are two lines of symmetry. are able to explain to their peers.
– The opposite angles are congruent.
– The diagonals bisect the vertex angles.
– …

Slide After the whole class discussion, the

30 Free Orientation Phase teacher provides independent practice using
the newly discovered relationships. This
– The relevant relationships are known. can be in the form of homework problems
– The moment has come for the students
or extended investigations.
to work independently with the new
concepts using a variety of applications.

Slide Using the newly found properties of the

31 Free Orientation Phase rhombus, students should be able to work
backwards to sketch these rhombi.
The following rhombi are incomplete.
Construct the complete figures.

Slide The knowledge gained by completing the

32 Integration Phase instructional cycle now forms the basis for
The symbols have lost their visual content
the Information Phase of the next level of
and are now recognized by their properties. thinking.
Pierre van Hiele

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-31

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

Slide At the next level of thinking, students must

33 Integration Phase know these properties for immediate recall.
Summarize and memorize the properties of
a rhombus.

Slide The use of the appropriate language and its

What we do and what we
34 do not do… symbols for each level is critical if students
„ It is customary to illustrate newly introduced
are to progress to higher levels. If the
technical language with a few examples. language is mismatched for the level at
If the examples are deficient, the technical
which the student functions, then he/she
„
language will be deficient.
„ We often neglect the importance of the
third stage, explicitation. Discussion helps
will not be able to progress, even if the
clear out misconceptions and cements
understanding.
teacher attempts to use visual structures for
explanation.

Slide The traditional form of teaching, by

What we do and what we
35 do not do… modeling and explanation, is time efficient
„ Sometimes we attempt to inform by
but not effective. Students learn best
explanation, but this is useless. Students
should learn by doing, not be informed by
through personal exploration and active
explanation. thinking. By answering students’ questions,
The teacher must give guidance to the
„
process of learning, allowing students to we rob students of the opportunity to
discuss their orientations and by having
them find their way in the field of thinking.
develop good thinking habits. It is best to
guide by asking probing or scaffolding
questions, making suggestions, and
waiting.

Slide
Instructional
36 Considerations
„ Visual to Descriptive Level
– Language is introduced to describe figures that
are observed.
– Gradually the language develops to form the
background to the new structure.
– Language is standardized to facilitate
communication about observed properties.
– It is possible to see congruent figures, but it is
useless to ask why they are congruent.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-32

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

Slide Language is critical in moving students

Instructional
37 Considerations through the hierarchy.
„ Descriptive to Relational Level
– Causal, logical or other relations become
part of the language.
– Explanation rather than description is
possible.
– Able to construct a figure from its known
properties but not able to give a proof.

Slide
Instructional
38 Considerations
„ Relational to Deductive Level
– Reasons about logical relations between
theorems in geometry.
– To describe the reasoning to someone who does
not “speak” this language is futile.
– At the Deductive Level it is possible to arrange
arguments in order so that each statement,
except the first one, is the outcome of the
previous statements.

Slide
Instructional
39 Considerations
„ Rigor
– Compares axiomatic systems.
– Explores the nature of logical laws.

“Logical Mathematical Thinking”

Slide
40 Consequences
„ Many textbooks are written with only the
integration phase in place.
„ The integration phase often coincides with
the objective of the learning.
„ Many teachers switch to, or even begin,
their teaching with this phase, a.k.a. “direct
teaching.”
„ Many teachers do not realize that their
information cannot be understood by their
pupils.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-33

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

Slide
41
Children whose geometric thinking you
nurture carefully will be better able to
successfully study the kind of
mathematics that Euclid created.

Pierre van Hiele

The following table provides more detailed descriptors for what a student should be able
to do at each van Hiele level. These are for your reference or for anyone requiring more
information. The descriptors were adapted from Fuys, Geddes, & Tischler (1988).

Level Descriptors

1. Identifies instances of a shape by its appearance as a whole in

ƒ a simple drawing, diagram or set of cut-outs.
ƒ different positions.
ƒ a shape or other more complex configurations.
2. Constructs (using craft or commercial materials), draws, or copies a
shape.
3. Names or labels shapes and other geometric configurations and uses
standard and/or nonstandard names and labels appropriately.
4. Compares and sorts shapes on the basis of their appearance as a
Visual
whole.
Level
5. Verbally describes shapes by their appearance as a whole.
6. Solves routine problems by operating on shapes rather than by using
properties which apply in general (e.g., by overlaying, measuring,
counting).
7. Identifies parts of a figure but
ƒ does NOT analyze a figure in terms of its components.
ƒ does NOT think of properties as characterizing a class of figures.
ƒ does NOT make generalizations about shapes or use related
language.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-34

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

1. Identifies and tests relationships among components of figures (e.g.,

congruence of opposite sides of a parallelogram; congruence of
angles in a tiling pattern).
2. Recalls and uses appropriate vocabulary for components and
relationships (e.g., corresponding angles are congruent, diagonals
bisect each other).
3. Compares two shapes according to relationships among their
components. Sorts shapes in different ways according to certain
properties. This may include sorting figures by class or non-class.
4. Interprets and uses verbal description of a figure in terms of its
properties and uses this description to draw/construct the figure.
Interprets verbal or symbolic statements of rules and applies them.
5. Discovers properties of specific figures empirically and generalizes
properties for that class of figures.
6. Describes a class of figures (e.g., parallelograms) in terms of its
properties. Given certain properties, identifies a shape.
7. Identifies which properties used to characterize one class of figures
also apply to another class of figures and compares classes of figures
Descriptive according to their properties.
Level
8. Discovers properties of an unfamiliar class of figures.
9. Solves geometric problems by using known properties of figures or
by insightful approaches.
10. Formulates and uses generalizations about properties of figures
(guided by teacher/material or spontaneously on own) and uses
related language (e.g., all, every, none) but
ƒ does NOT explain how certain properties of a figure are
interrelated.
ƒ does NOT formulate and use formal definitions (e.g., defines a
figure by listing many properties rather than identifying a set of
necessary or sufficient properties).
ƒ does NOT explain subclass relationships beyond checking
specific instances against given list of properties (e.g., after
listing properties of all quadrilaterals cannot explain why “all
rectangles are not squares”).
ƒ does NOT see a need for proof or logical explanations of
generalizations discovered empirically and does NOT use related
language (e.g., if-then, because) correctly.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-35

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

1. Identifies different sets of properties that characterize a class of

figures and tests that these are sufficient. Identifies minimum sets of
properties that can characterize a figure. Formulates and uses a
definition for a class of figures.
2. Gives informal arguments (using diagrams, cutout shapes that are
folded, or other materials).
ƒ Having drawn a conclusion from given information, justifies the
conclusion using logical relationships.
ƒ Orders classes of shapes.
ƒ Orders two properties.
ƒ Discovers new properties by deduction.
ƒ Interrelates several properties in a family tree.
3. Gives informal deductive arguments.
ƒ Follows a deductive argument and can supply parts of an
argument.
Relational ƒ Gives a summary or variation of a deductive argument.
Level ƒ Gives deductive arguments on own.
4. Gives more than one explanation to prove something and justifies
these explanations by using family trees.
5. Informally recognizes difference between a statement and its
converse.
6. Identifies and uses strategies or insightful reasoning to solve
problems.
7. Recognizes the role of deductive argument and approaches problems
in a deductive manner but
ƒ does NOT grasp the meaning of deduction in an axiomatic sense
(e.g., does NOT see the need for definitions and basic
assumptions).
ƒ does NOT formally distinguish between a statement and its
converse.
ƒ does NOT yet establish interrelationships between networks of
theorems.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-36

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

1. Recognizes the need for undefined terms, definitions, and basic

assumptions (postulates).
2. Recognizes characteristics of a formal definition (e.g., necessary and
sufficient conditions) and equivalence of definitions.
3. Proves in axiomatic setting relationships that were explained
informally in the relational level.
4. Proves relationships between a theorem and related statements (e.g.,
converse, inverse, contrapositive).
5. Establishes interrelationships among networks of theorems.
Deductive
Level 6. Compares and contrasts different proofs of theorems.
7. Examines effects of changing an initial definition or postulate in a
logical sequence.
8. Establishes a general principle that unifies several different
theorems.
9. Creates proofs from simple sets of axioms, frequently using a model
to support arguments.
10. Gives formal deductive arguments but does NOT investigate the
axiomatics themselves or compare axiomatic systems.

1. Rigorously establishes theorems in different axiomatic systems.

2. Compares axiomatic systems (e.g., Euclidean and non-Euclidean
geometries); spontaneously explores how changes in axioms affect
the resulting geometry.
3. Establishes consistency of a set of axioms, independence of an
axiom, and equivalency of different sets of axioms; creates an
Rigor axiomatic system.
4. Invents generalized methods for solving classes of problems.
5. Searches for the broadest context in which a mathematical
theorem/principle will apply.
6. Does in-depth study of the subject logic to develop new insights and
approaches logical inference.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-37

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations The van Hiele Model

The van Hiele Model of Geometric Thought

Use this sheet and additional paper if needed to take notes from the van
Hiele PowerPoint presentation.

Levels of Geometric Understanding

Student characteristics:

Visual Level

Descriptive Level

Relational Level

Deductive Level

Rigor

Phases in the Instructional Cycle:

Knowledge

Guided Orientation

Explicitation

Free Orientation

Integration

Important key instructional considerations:

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-38

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Rotations

Rotations
Overview: In this activity, participants explore the properties of rotations by
rotating a variety of figures about different rotation points using
different angles of rotation.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.014.A. The beginning teacher identifies transformations (i.e.,
reflections, translations, glide-reflections, rotations, dilations) and
explores their properties.
III.014.C. The beginning teacher uses transformations to explore and
describe reflectional, rotational, and translational symmetry.
III.014.D. The beginning teacher applies transformations in the
coordinate plane.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.
VI.020.A. The beginning teacher applies research-based theories of
learning mathematics to plan appropriate instructional activities for all
students.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
d.2.A. The student uses one-and two-dimensional coordinate systems
to represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make
conjectures and justify properties of geometric figures.

Background: Participants must be able to recognize and apply different angle

measurements and to know and apply clockwise and counter-
clockwise movements. An understanding of translations and
reflections is helpful.

New Terms: identity rotation, point of rotation

Materials: centimeter ruler, patty paper, protractor, colored pencils, centimeter

grid paper, small colored dot, transparency sheets (1 per group of 4),
two overhead pens of different colors (for each group)

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-39

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Rotations

Procedures:

Begin by asking a participant to demonstrate a rotation about a given point, represented

by the colored dot on the floor. There are two possible ways to rotate about this point.
The participant may stand on the point and turn in a circular motion or he/she may stand
off the point and walk around it in a circular path. Depending on the method chosen by
the participant, ask for a second volunteer to demonstrate the other possible rotation.

What is a rotation?
For now, accept all definitions from participants. The purpose is just to get participants
thinking about rotations. Possible responses may include a spin on a point or a turn about
a point.

Where are rotations used in the real world?

Possible answers are: architecture, art, kaleidoscopes, tri-mirrors in dressing rooms at
clothing stores, Ferris wheels, and an ice skater spinning about a point.

Model how to draw a rotation using patty

paper. Ask participants to draw a smiling
circular face on patty paper. This is the pre-
image. A small arrow pointing upwards can
be drawn on the paper to indicate the
orientation of the pre-image.

Model or discuss how to rotate the figure

90° counterclockwise about one of the
eyes. The point of rotation is the vertex of
the angle of rotation; it is a fixed point.
Place the pencil on one of the dots in the
middle of an eye to indicate the point of
rotation. The angle of rotation can be
directed counter-clockwise (having a
point of
positive measure) or clockwise (having a rotation
negative measure.

Place a second piece of patty paper on top of the smiling face and trace the face. With the
pencil on the point of rotation (the dot within one of the eyes), turn the top piece of patty
paper 90o left (counter-clockwise) while keeping the bottom piece of patty paper still.
The resulting figure is the image of a 90o counter-clockwise rotation. Trace the pre-image
on the top sheet of patty paper, and draw the angle of rotation with the point of rotation as
the vertex of the angle. Using a colored pencil, draw in other angles of rotation by
connecting points on the pre-image to the point of rotation and then to the corresponding
points on the image.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-40

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Rotations

Next, model how to rotate the face from a

point not on the figure. Place a point off of
the smiling face and use it as the point of
rotation. Ask participants to rotate the
smiling face about a point not on the
smiling face -90°, which is a 90° clockwise
rotation. Use a colored pencil to draw the
point of angles of rotation.
rotati on

Participants work 1 – 4 to identify the properties of rotations. When participants have

completed 1 – 4, conduct a whole group discussion on the properties of rotations.

Possible properties participants may identify are:

ƒ Rotations preserve congruence of the two shapes.
ƒ The distance (side length), angle measure, perpendicularity and parallelism are all
preserved.
ƒ Rotations are isometries because congruence of size and shape are preserved.
ƒ 180° clockwise and 180° counter-clockwise rotations are identical to each other.

1. Rotate ∆ABC 180o counter-clockwise about point D. Label the corresponding vertices.
Write the coordinates in the table below in order to find the rule for a 180° counter-
clockwise rotation. B

Pre-image Image
A (−4, 0) A' (4, 0) A C

B (−3, 2) B' (3, −2) D

C (4, 0) C' (−4, 0)

Rule: (x, y) → (−x, −y) B'

Angles of rotation: ∠ BDB' , ∠ CDC' and ∠ ADA'

2. Rotate ∆ABC 180o clockwise about point D. Write the coordinates of the vertices of
the pre-image and the image in the table below. Use the table to find the rule for an
180o clockwise rotation. C'
Pre-image Image
A' (0, −1)
B
A (0, 1)
B (3, 2) B' (−3,−2) A

C (−2, −3) C' (2, 3) D

Rule: (x, y) → (−x, −y)
A'

Angles of rotation: ∠ BDB′, ∠ CDC′ and ∠ ADA′ B'

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-41

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Rotations

In order to fully understand the geometry of rotations, carefully draw the isosceles
triangles for at least one of the rotations in 2, 3 or 4. Connect a pre-image point to a
corresponding image point, in addition to the associated angle of rotation. The vertex
of this isosceles triangle is at the point of rotation. Repeat for a second pair of points
on the same figure. See the answers below for a full development of this property of
rotations, which is required for 6 and 7.

3. Rotate quadrilateral PQRS 90o counter-clockwise about point X.

a) Write the coordinates of the vertices of the pre-image and the image in the table
below. Use the table to find the rule for a 90o counter-clockwise rotation.
b) Draw isosceles triangles QXQ' and SXS'. Shade each triangle in a different color.
Mark congruent segments.
c) Write the measures of ∠QXQ ' and ∠SXS ' .
Pre-image Image
P (−6, −1) P' (1, −6) Q

Q (−3, 1) Q' (−1, −3) R X

R (−3, 0) R' (0, −3) S'
S (−1, −1) S' (1, −1) P S
Rule: (x, y) → (−y, x)
Q'
Q R'

R X

P S S' P'

Q'
R'
In this solution, two of the four possible
isosceles triangles have been drawn. Triangle
QXQ' and ∆SXS' are isosceles triangles. The
vertices of both triangles meet at the point of
P' rotation, X.

4. Rotate quadrilateral ABCD 90o clockwise about point C.

a) Write the coordinates of the vertices of the pre-image and the image in the table
below. Use the table to find the rule for a 90o clockwise rotation.
b) Draw isosceles triangles ACA' and DCD'. Shade each triangle in a different color.
Mark congruent segments.
c) Write the measures of ∠ACA ' and ∠DCD ' .

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-42

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Rotations

Pre-image Image
A (−2, 3) A' (3, 2)
B (−2.5, 0.5) B' (0.5, 2.5) A
B'
C (0, 0) C' (0, 0) A'
D (2, 1) D' (1, −2) D
Rule: (x, y) → (y, -x) B
C

A D'
B'
A'

D
B
C

All three isosceles triangles, ∆ACA', ∆BCB', and

D'
∆DCD', have a common vertex, C, which is the
point of rotation.

Participants work 5 − 9. Construct the rotations using a ruler and protractor without the
use of patty paper. In 8 and 9, participants determine the point of rotation and the angle of
rotation.

The role of the instructor is to walk around the room, listen and facilitate. Try not to
directly answer participants’ questions, but rather provide minimal prompts and/or ask
questions to help participants clarify their thinking. When most of the participants have
completed 5 − 9, give each group an overhead transparency sheet and two different
colored overhead pens. Each group prepares an answer to one of 5 – 9 for presentation to
the class.

5. Rotate the pentagon ABEDC 45o counter-clockwise about point G, draw the angles of
rotation and connect the corresponding vertices to form isosceles triangles.
The figure below represents the correct rotation. The isosceles triangles shown are
three of five possibilities.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-43

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Rotations

D'
C G

A'
E
C' E'

B'
6. Rotate the quadrilateral HIJK −70o about point L, draw the angles of rotation and
H'
connect the corresponding vertices to form isosceles triangles.
The figure below represents the correct rotation.
The isosceles triangles shown are two of four possibilities.

I'
K'

I J'
H

L
J

K
o o
7. Describe the effect of rotations of magnitude 0 and 360 on a figure.
The image coincides with its pre-image. Each pre-image point is mapped on the
corresponding image point. A rotation of magnitude of 0o or 360o is the identity
rotation.

Find the point of rotation and the angle of rotation in 8 and 9.

Draw a segment connecting a pre-image point to its corresponding image point. Find
the midpoint. Using the corner of a sheet of paper, draw a line through the midpoint,
perpendicular to the segment. Repeat for another pair of points. The two perpendicular
lines pass through the vertex of the isosceles triangles. The vertex is the point of
rotation. Measure the vertex angles of the isosceles triangles to find the angle of
rotation.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-44

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Rotations

8. Point F is the point of rotation because all of the isosceles triangles share a vertex at
F. The angle of rotation is 45o clockwise.
A'
o
B'
A m∠AFA ' = 45
F o
m∠BFB ' = 45
o
C' m∠CFC ' = 45
o
B C m∠DFD ' = 45
D'
o
E m∠EFE ' = 45
E'

D
9. Point V is the point of rotation, the vertex of the isosceles triangles ∆UVU', ∆TVT',
and ∆SVS'.
U
o
The angle of rotation is 100 .

o T
m∠UVU ' = 100
S
o
m∠TVT ' = 100 V
T'
o
m∠SVS ' = 100
U'

S'

At the end of the activity, summarize by asking participants to discuss which van Hiele
levels are represented.

The Visual Level is represented in the walking demonstration as participants are asked to
experience rotation holistically. Success with the rest of the activity indicates
participants are at the Descriptive Level as they are developing and applying properties of
transformations.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-45

Activity Page: Transformations Rotations

Rotations

For each of the following figures construct the given rotations. Draw each
angle of rotation in a different color.

1. Rotate ∆ ABC 180° counter-clockwise about point D. Label the

corresponding vertices. Write the coordinates in the table below in order
to find the rule for a 180° counter-clockwise rotation.

A D C

Pre-image Image Rule: (x, y) →

A
B
C

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-46

Activity Page: Transformations Rotations

2. Rotate ∆ABC 180o clockwise about point D. Write the coordinates of the
vertices of the pre-image and the image in the table below. Use the table
to find the rule for an 180o clockwise rotation.

Pre-image Image
A Rule: (x, y) →
B
C

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-47

Activity Page: Transformations Rotations

3. Rotate quadrilateral PQRS 90o counter-clockwise about point X.

a) Write the coordinates of the vertices of the pre-image and the image in
the table below. Use the table to find the rule for a 90o counter-
clockwise rotation.
b) Draw isosceles triangles QXQ' and SXS'. Shade each triangle in a
different color. Mark congruent segments.
c) Write the measures of ∠QXQ ' and ∠SXS ' .

R
X
P S

Pre-image Image
P Rule: (x, y) →
Q
R
S

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-48

Activity Page: Transformations Rotations

4. Rotate quadrilateral ABCD 90o clockwise about point C.

a) Write the coordinates of the vertices of the pre-image and the image in
the table below. Use the table to find the rule for a 90o clockwise
rotation.
b) Draw isosceles triangles ACA' and DCD'. Shade each triangle in a
different color. Mark congruent segments.
c) Write the measures of ∠ACA ' and ∠DCD ' .

D
B
C

Pre-image Image Rule: (x, y) →

A
B
C
D

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-49

Activity Page: Transformations Rotations

5. Rotate the pentagon ABEDC 45o counter-clockwise about point G, draw

the angles of rotation and connect the corresponding vertices to form
isosceles triangles. D

C G

6. Rotate the quadrilateral HIJK −70o about point L, draw the angles of
rotation and connect the corresponding vertices to form isosceles
triangles.
H I

J L

7. Describe the effect of rotations of magnitude 0o and 360o on a figure.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-50

Activity Page: Transformations Rotations

Find the points of rotation and the angles of rotation in 8 and 9.

8.

A'
A
B'

C'
C
B
D'
E
E'

9.
U

T'

U'

S'

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-51

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Composite Transformations

Composite Transformations

Overview: Participants reflect figures over two lines of reflection to produce a

composite transformation.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.014.A. The beginning teacher identifies transformations (i.e.,
reflections, translations, glide-reflections, rotations, dilations) and
explores their properties.
III.014.D. The beginning teacher applies transformations in the
coordinate plane.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
c.2. The student uses properties of transformations and their
compositions to make connections between mathematics and the real
world in applications such as tessellations or fractals.
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems
to represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.

Background: Participants need to have a general knowledge of transformations.

Materials: protractor, centimeter ruler, transparency sheets (1 per group of 4),

transparency pens in at least two different colors

New Terms: composite transformation or glide-reflection

Procedures

This activity may be used as a homework assignment. If time permits, have participants
complete the activity in class. Participants work individually, and then compare answers
with their group members.

A composite transformation is created when one transformation follows another

transformation. For example, a reflection is followed by a reflection, or a reflection is
followed by a translation.

1. Create a composite reflection by reflecting the flag pre-image over line l and then
reflecting the image over line m.

2. Measure the acute angle created by the intersection of lines l and m. For each of the
two reflections, measure the angles created between a pre-image point, the point of
intersection of l and m, and the corresponding image point. What conclusion can be
drawn?

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-52

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Composite Transformations

When a figure is reflected about two intersecting lines, the resulting image is the
same as that from a rotation. The measure of the angle of rotation is twice the
measure of the angle between the intersecting lines. The point of intersection between
the two lines is the point of rotation.

m
l

O
m∠IBJ = 129
I
O
K
m∠KBL = 64.5
B m∠IBJ = 2m∠KBL
J L

3. Create a composite reflection over parallel lines. Reflect the flag figure about line m
and then reflect the image over line l. Write a conclusion about a composite reflection
over two parallel lines.
When a figure is reflected over parallel
l m
lines, the resulting image is the same as
that created from translating the
original figure. The magnitude of the
translation vector is twice the distance
between the parallel reflection lines. The
direction of the translation is along the
line perpendicular to the parallel lines.
a
a

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-53

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Composite Transformations

4. Translate the flag figure with the rule (x, y) → (x + 3, y − 5). Then reflect the image
across line m. The composite transformation is called a glide-reflection. Describe the
properties of a glide-reflection.

-10 -5

-2

-4

-6

A glide-reflection resembles footprints on either side of a reflection line. The

translation and reflection can be performed in any order resulting in the same image.

5. Use the grid below to create “footprints in the sand”. Draw a foot at one end of the
grid below and create a set of footprints using the properties of glide reflections.
A possible answer is shown.

Ask participants to add the new terms composite transformation and glide-reflection to
their glossaries.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-54

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Composite Transformations

Success with this activity indicates that participants are at the Descriptive Level with
respect to congruence transformations as a whole, because they apply properties of each
transformation in each of the steps and then identify a transformation based on its
properties.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-55

Activity Page: Transformations Composite Transformations

Composite Transformations

A composite transformation is created when one transformation follows

another transformation. For example, a reflection is followed by a reflection,
or a reflection is followed by a translation.

1. Create a composite reflection by reflecting the flag pre-image over line l

and then reflecting the image over line m.

m
l

2. Measure the acute angle created by the intersection of lines l and m. For
each of the two reflections, measure the angles created between a pre-
image point, the point of intersection of l and m, and the corresponding
image point. What conclusion can be drawn?

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-56

Activity Page: Transformations Composite Transformations

3. Create a composite reflection over parallel lines. Reflect the flag figure
about line m and then reflect the image over line l. Write a conclusion
about a composite reflection over two parallel lines.
l m

4. Translate the flag figure with the rule (x, y) → (x + 3, y − 5). Then reflect
the image across line m. The composite transformation is called a glide-
reflection. Describe the properties of a glide-reflection.

-10 -5

-2

-4

-6

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-57

Activity Page: Transformations Composite Transformations

5. Use the grid below to create “footprints in the sand”. Draw a foot at one
end of the grid below and create a set of footprints using the properties of
glide reflections.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-58

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Tessellations

Tessellations
Overview: Participants explore the properties of triangles and parallel lines by
tessellating a scalene triangle.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.C. The beginning teacher applies the properties of parallel and
perpendicular lines to solve problems.
III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
III.014.B. The beginning teacher uses the properties of transformations
and their compositions to solve problems.
III.014.C. The beginning teacher uses transformations to explore and
describe reflectional, rotational, and translational symmetry.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
c.2. The student uses properties of transformations and their
compositions to make connections between mathematics and the real
world in applications such as tessellations or fractals.
e.2.A. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties of parallel and
perpendicular lines.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make
conjectures and justify properties of geometric figures.

Background: Participants must understand translations and rotations.

Materials: centimeter ruler, patty paper, protractor, colored pencils, unlined 8.5
in. by 11 in. paper, 3 in. by 5 in. index card cut in half, tessellation
transparency, 11 in. by 17 in. sheet of paper, colored markers, masking
tape, easel paper

New Terms: tessellation

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-59

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Tessellations

Procedures:

Look around the room for a tessellation. Be ready to explain what you know about
tessellations. Possible answers are the tiles on the ceiling or floor. Explain that a
tessellation is a pattern made up of one or more shapes, completely tiling the surface,
with no gaps and no overlaps. The original figure is called the fundamental region.

According to the dictionary, tessellate means to form or arrange small squares in a

checkered or mosaic pattern. The word tessellate is derived from the Ionic version of the
Greek word tesseres, which, in English, means four. The first tessellations were made
from square tiles (Alejandre, 2004).

What properties are required in order for a figure to tessellate?

At each vertex, the angle measures must add to 360o; if vertices meet at a point on a line,
the angle measures must add to 180o.

Participants create a tessellation using an acute scalene triangle or an obtuse scalene

triangle but not a right scalene triangle. The triangle will be the fundamental region of the
tessellation. Draw the triangle on a one-half index card. Cut out the triangle to use as a
template. Shade each of the three angles of the triangle in a different color.

Create the tessellation using only rotations and translations, and not reflections. The
tessellation may not have gaps or overlaps.

Two illustrations of non-acceptable placements follow.

1
3

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-60

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Tessellations

One possible tessellation is shown:

1
3
2 1
3
1
2
3
2 1
2 3
3 2
1 2
1 3 2
3 1
3
2 1 1 2
3
1 3
2 3 1
2 1
3
2 2
3
1 2
1 3
3 1 2
2 1 3
3 1 2
2 1 3
3 1
2 1
3
2 2
3
1 2
3
1 2
3
1 2
3
1

When most participants have completed their tessellations, ask each group to discuss the
triangle properties and the parallel line and angle properties which emerge from the
tessellation. Each group records their properties on large easel paper with diagrams as
needed. Then each group displays their poster on the wall.

Participants walk around the room as a group noting relationships they did not discover.
Bring the participants back for a whole group discussion about tessellations. Using the
overhead tessellation, individual group members summarize and explain one property
their group discovered.

Make sure that the following relationships arise.

Triangle properties:
ƒ The sum of the angles of a triangle is 180o. (Three angles of different colors that line
up along a line are the same as the three colors for the three angles of the triangle.)
ƒ The exterior angle of a triangle (made up of two colors) is equal to the sum of the
measures of the two nonadjacent interior angles (the same two colors).

Parallel line properties created by transversal lines:

ƒ Alternate interior angles are congruent (same color).
ƒ Alternate exterior angles are congruent (same color).
ƒ Interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary (three colors
altogether).

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-61

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Tessellations

ƒ Exterior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary (three colors
altogether).
ƒ Corresponding angles are congruent (same color).

Other relationships:
ƒ Vertical angles are congruent (same color).
ƒ The sum of the measures of the angles of a quadrilateral is 360o (two sets of the three
colors).
ƒ The sum of the measures of the angles of a convex polygon of n sides is (n − 2)180o
(n – 2 sets of the three colors).
ƒ The sum of the exterior angles of a polygon is 360o (two sets of the three colors).

A regular polygon has congruent sides and angles. Which regular polygons
tessellate the plane?
The triangle, square, and hexagon are the only regular polygons that tessellate the plane.
The measure of each angle of the equilateral triangle is 60o, and six 60o-angles tessellate
around a point. The measure of each angle of a square is 90o, and four 90o-angles
tessellate around a point. The measure of each angle of a hexagon is 120o, and three 120o-
angles tessellate around a point.

Success with this activity indicates that participants are performing at the Descriptive
Level since they apply properties of translations and rotation, and determine properties
among parallel lines and triangles.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-62

Transparency: Transformations Tessellations

Tessellation

1
3
2 1
3
1
2
3
2
2
3
1 2
1 3 2
3 1
2 1 3
3 1
1
2 3
2
2
3
1 2
1 3
3 1 2
2 1 3
3 1
2 1
3
2
2
3
1 2
1 3
1 2
3 3
2 1
3 1
1
2
3
2
2
3
1 2
3
2
1
3
1

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-63

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Do You See What I See?

Do You See What I See?

Overview: After exploring two-dimensional transformations, participants explore
transformations of three-dimensional objects by building, sketching
the solids top, front, and side views then comparing the volume and
surface area of the reflected solid to the original solid.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.011.B. The beginning teacher applies formulas for perimeter, area,
surface area, and volume of geometric figures and shapes
(e.g., polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders).
III.013.D. The beginning teacher computes the perimeter, area, and
volume of figures and shapes created by subdividing and combining
other figures and shapes (e.g., arc length, area of sectors).
III.013.F. The beginning teacher uses top, front, side, and corner views
of three-dimensional shapes to create complete representations and
solve problems.
III.014.C. The beginning teacher uses transformations to explore and
describe reflectional, rotational, and translational symmetry.

Geometry TEKS
d.1.C. The student uses top, front, side, and corner views of three-
dimensional objects to create accurate and complete representations
and solve problems.
e.1.D. The student finds surface areas and volumes of prisms,
pyramids, spheres, cones, and cylinders in problem situations.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make
conjectures and justify properties of geometric figures.

Background: Participants should be able to identify and describe reflections,

rotations, and translations in a coordinate plane.

Materials: linking cubes, plastic mirrors, a small object such as a color tile for
each participant

New Terms: surface area, volume

Procedures:

Participants should begin by constructing the following three-dimensional solid with

linking cubes. The instructor should model the construction of the solid shown below and
guide participants through their construction.

Front
Geometry Module DRAFT 1-64
Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Do You See What I See?

Using linking cubes, construct a three-dimensional solid.

1. Sketch the solid on the isometric grid paper below.

Front

2. Sketch the top, front, and right views of the solid.

TOP View FRONT View RIGHT View

3. Define the unit of volume as a single cube. Find the volume of this solid. Justify
your answer.
The volume of the solid is 14 cubes, since the bottom layer has 9 cubes, the middle
layer has 4 cubes, and the top layer has 1 cube.

4. Define total surface area as the total number of unit squares on the outer surface
of the solid, including the base that rests on the table, regardless of its orientation.
Define a unit of area as a single square. Find the total surface area of the solid.
Justify your answer.
The surface area of the solid is 42 squares. The top layer has 5 squares, the
middle layer has 11 squares, and the bottom layer has 26 squares.

5. Place a mirror parallel to one view of the solid. Using the mirror as a plane of
reflection, predict what the reflected image of the solid would look like. Using the
mirror as a plane of reflection, build the reflection of the solid.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-65

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Do You See What I See?

Front Front

Sketch the reflected solid on the isometric grid paper below.

Front

6. Sketch the top, front, and right views of the reflected solid.

TOP View FRONT View RIGHT View

7. What is the volume of the reflected solid? Justify your answer.

The volume of the solid is 14 cubes, since the bottom layer has 9 cubes, the middle
layer has 4 cubes, and the top layer has 1 cube.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-66

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Do You See What I See?

8. How does the volume of the reflected solid compare to the volume of the original
solid?
The volume is the same as that of the original solid.

9. What is the surface area of the reflected solid? Justify your answer.
The surface area of the solid is 42 squares. The top layer has 5 squares, the
middle layer has 11 squares, and the bottom layer has 26 squares.

10. How does the surface area of the reflected solid compare to the surface area of the
original solid?
The surface area is the same as the original solid.

11. Restore the solid to its original orientation. Place a marker about two inches from
one corner of the solid. Using the marker as a point of rotation, rotate the solid
90° counter-clockwise in the plane of the table upon which you constructed the
solid.

Sketch the rotated solid on the isometric grid paper below.

Front

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-67

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Transformations Do You See What I See?

12. Sketch the top, front, and right views of the rotated solid.

TOP View FRONT View RIGHT View

13. How does the volume and surface area of the rotated solid compare to the volume
and surface area of the original solid? Why?
The volume and surface area are the same as the original solid, because rotation
is an isometry; rotation preserves congruence.

Remind participants to add the new terms total surface area and volume to their
glossaries.

Participants begin this activity working at the Visual Level as they build and draw a copy
of a three-dimensional solid in 1. The transition between the Visual Level and the
Descriptive Level occurs in 2-3 as participants analyze the appearance of three-
dimensional top, front, and right view and translate the observations to a
two-dimensional representation. Participants are beginning to work at the Descriptive
Level in 4-13 as they determine volume and surface area using known properties of the
solid, reflect and rotate the solid, and compare the volume and surface area of the two
figures. Beginning at the Visual Level, participants develop visual perception of solids.
To be successful at this activity, the participant must be fluently working at the Visual
Level of van Hiele’s model.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-68

 Activity Page: Transformations Do You See What I See?

Do You See What I See?

Using linking cubes, construct a three-dimensional solid.

1. Sketch the solid on the isometric grid paper below.

2. Sketch the top, front, and right views of the solid.

TOP View FRONT View RIGHT View

3. Define the unit of volume as a single cube. Find the volume of this solid.
Justify your answer.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-69

 Activity Page: Transformations Do You See What I See?

4. Define total surface area as the total number of unit squares on the outer
surface of the solid, including the base that rests on the table, regardless
of its orientation. Define a unit of area as a single square. Find the total
surface area of this solid. Justify your answer.

5. Place a mirror parallel to one view of the solid. Using the mirror as a
plane of reflection, predict what the reflected image of the solid would
look like. Using the mirror as a plane of reflection, build the reflection of
the solid. Sketch the reflected solid on the isometric grid paper below.

6. Sketch the top, front, and right views of the reflected solid.

TOP View FRONT View RIGHT View

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-70

 Activity Page: Transformations Do You See What I See?

7. What is the volume of the reflected solid? Justify your answer.

8. How does the volume of the reflected solid compare to the volume of the
original solid?

9. What is the surface area of the reflected solid? Justify your answer.

10. How does the surface area of the reflected solid compare to the surface
area of the original solid?

11. Restore the solid to its original orientation. Place a marker about two
inches from one corner of the solid. Using the marker as a point of
rotation, rotate the solid 90° counter-clockwise in the plane of the table
upon which you constructed the solid. Sketch the rotated solid on the
isometric grid paper below.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-71

 Activity Page: Transformations Do You See What I See?

12. Sketch the top, front, and right views of the rotated solid.

TOP View FRONT View RIGHT View

13. How does the volume and surface area of the rotated solid compare to the
volume and surface area of the original solid? Why?

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-72

Supplemental Material: Transformations References and Additional Resources

References and Additional Resources

Alejandre, S. (2004). What is a tessellation? Retrieved April 2, 2004, from The Math

Forum Web site: http://mathforum.org/sum95/suzanne/whattess.html

Burger, W. F., & Shaughnessy, J. M. (1982). Characterizing the van Hiele levels of

development in geometry. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 17,

31-48.

Crowley, M. L. (1987). The van Hiele model of the development of geometric thought. In

M. Montgomery Lindquist (Ed.), Learning and Teaching Geometry, K-12: Vol.

1987 Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (pp. 1-16).

Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (Reprinted from

Navigating through geometry in grades 6 - 8,, by D. Pugalee, J. Frykholm, A.

Johnson, H. Slovin, C. Malloy, & R. Preston, 2002, Reston, VA: National Council

of Teachers of Mathematics)

de Villiers, M. (1996). The future of secondary school geometry. Paper presented at the

SOSI Geometry Imperfect Conference, 2-4 October 1996, UNISA, Pretoria,

South Africa. Retrieved from http://www.sun.ac.za/mathed/malati/

Freudenthal, H. (1983). Didactical phenomenology of mathematical structures.

Dordrecht, The Netherlands: D. Reidel Publishing Company.

Fuys, D., Geddes, D., & Tischler, R. (1988). The van Hiele model of thinking in

geometry among adolescents. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education,

Monograph Number 3. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of

Mathematics.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-73

Supplemental Material: Transformations References and Additional Resources

Geddes, D. (1992). Geometry in the middle grades, Addenda Series, Grades 5 - 8 (F. R.

Curcio, Ed.). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Kinsey, L. C., & Moore, T. E. (2002). Symmetry, shape, and space: An introduction to

mathematics through geometry. Emeryville, CA: Key College Publishing.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1989). Curriculum and evaluation

standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of

Mathematics.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for

school mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

van Hiele, P. M. (1986). Structure and insight. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

van Hiele, P. M. (1999). Developing geometric thinking through activities that begin with

play. Teaching Children Mathematics, 5(6), 310-316.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.),

Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Geometry Module DRAFT 1-74

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Equilateral Triangles

Unit 2 - Triangles

Equilateral Triangles
Overview: In this activity participants discover properties of equilateral triangles
using properties of symmetry.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric
constructions made using compass and straightedge, reflection
devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons
and their components.
III.013.B. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of circles and
the lines that intersect them.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.4. The student uses a variety of representations to describe geometric
relationships and solve problems.
c.3. The student identifies and applies patterns from right triangles to
solve problems, including special right triangles (45-45-90 and 30-60-
90) and triangles whose sides are Pythagorean triples.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
polygons and their component parts.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-1

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Equilateral Triangles

e.2.C. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student

formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
circles and the lines that intersect them.

Background: Participants need a basic understanding of reflections, lines of

reflection, lines of symmetry, and properties of similar figures.

Materials: patty paper, straightedge compass, easel paper, colored markers

New Terms: altitude, central angle, circumscribed circle, concentric circle,

inscribed angle, inscribed circle, line of reflection or line of symmetry,
median, perpendicular bisector

Procedures:

Distribute the activity sheet, easel paper, and markers to participants. Have them work for
about 45 minutes, answering the questions individually on their own paper. Allow
discussion with others when needed. Participants record their responses to 12 on a sheet
of easel paper. During whole group discussion, ask one participant from each group to
summarize the properties determined by his/her group. Ask other participants to add any
properties omitted by earlier groups. Be careful to list all of the properties that appear
below, including the connections to special right triangles, similar figures and circles
from 10 and 11.
T
Complete 1-12 to explore the properties of equilateral triangles.

1. Carefully construct a large equilateral triangle on patty paper

using a straightedge and compass. Label ∆STV.
S V
2. List properties of equilateral triangles and mark the triangle to
indicate the identified properties. Explain how you know these properties from the
constructed triangle.
Participants may write that equilateral triangles have equal side lengths and equal
angle measures. These properties can be verified by folding the angles on top of each
other.

3. Fold, draw or construct the lines of symmetry/reflection on the patty paper triangle.
Label the intersection of the lines of symmetry P. T

4. Label the intersection of the line of symmetry from vertex S

B A
to TV as A, the intersection of the line of symmetry from
P
vertex V to TS as B, and the intersection of the line of
symmetry from vertex T to SV as C. S C V

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-2

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Equilateral Triangles

T
5. Describe the relationship between the lines of symmetry and the vertex
angles of the triangle. Mark these properties on the triangle. Label the 30° 30°

measures of the angles created by the lines of symmetry. Based on B A

these properties, what is another name for the lines of symmetry? P
The lines of symmetry can be called angle bisectors because the 30°
30°
30°
30°
o
segments bisect the vertex angles, forming two 30 angles. S C V

T
6. Describe the relationship between the lines of symmetry and the 30° 30°
sides of the triangle. Mark the relationships on the triangle. B A
The lines of symmetry bisect the sides of the triangle.
TB ≅ SB; SC ≅ VC ; TA ≅ VA. 30°
P
30°
30° 30°
The lines of symmetry are perpendicular to the sides of the S C V
triangle. VB ⊥ TS ; SA ⊥ TV ; TC ⊥ SV .

7. Using the information now marked on the triangle, what are three other names which
can be used to describe the segments lying on the lines of symmetry?
Because the three lines of symmetry bisect the sides of the triangle at right angles, the
segments lying on the lines of symmetry are also medians, altitudes and
perpendicular bisectors. A median of a triangle is a segment connecting a vertex to
the midpoint of the opposite side of the triangle. An altitude is a segment from a
vertex, perpendicular to the opposite side. A perpendicular bisector is a segment that
bisects another segment at a right angle.

8. Use a ruler or patty paper to compare the lengths of the medians.

The medians, which lie on the lines of symmetry, are congruent.

9. Use a ruler or patty paper to compare the lengths of the longer and shorter segments
that make up a median, for example, TP and PC . Find the ratio of their lengths. Why
is the ratio the same for all three medians?
The ratio of the longer to the shorter segment is 2:1. For example, TP = 2 • PC. This
holds true for all of the medians because the symmetry properties ensure congruence
for all of the longer segments and all of the shorter segments.

10. Compare the six smaller right triangles and the six larger T
right triangles formed by the medians. Describe the
relationship between the larger right triangles and the 30° 30°

smaller right triangles. B A

o o
All of the right triangles have angle measures of 30 , 60 , P
and 90o. We call these 30°-60°-90° triangles. The larger 30°
30°
30°
30°
V
and smaller right triangles are similar. Similar shapes S
C
have congruent angles, and proportional side lengths. In
the large 30°-60°-90° triangle, the length of the hypotenuse, a side of the equilateral
triangle, is twice the length of the short side, formed by the bisection of a side of the
equilateral triangle. The relationship must exist for both the small and large
triangles. This explains the 2:1 ratio for the medians.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-3

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Equilateral Triangles

T
11. Using a compass, draw a circle inscribed in ∆TSV, radius PB .
30°30°
Draw a second circle circumscribed about ∆TSV, radius PT .
Record the properties of an inscribed circle and a circumscribed B A
circle for an equilateral triangle. P
ƒ The length of the radius of the circumscribed circle is twice 30° 30°
30° 30°
the length of the radius of the inscribed circle in an S C V
equilateral triangle.
ƒ The two circles have the same center; they are concentric
circles.
ƒ ∠SPV ≅ ∠TPV ≅ ∠TPS . These are central angles for the circumscribed circle,
because their vertices are located at the center of the circle, and their sides are
radii of the circle. ∠STV , ∠TSV , and ∠TVS are inscribed angles, intercepted by
the same chords, SV , TV , and TS , as the central angles, in that order. Note that
the measures of these central angles are 120o, while the measures of the
corresponding inscribed angles are 60o. The measure of the central angle is equal
to twice the measure of the inscribed angle intercepted by the same chord.

12. On a sheet of easel paper, construct and label an equilateral triangle with the lines of
symmetry, and the inscribed and circumscribed circles. List all of the properties of
equilateral triangles.
ƒ Equilateral triangles have congruent sides and congruent angles.
ƒ Equilateral triangles have three lines of reflectional symmetry.
o
ƒ The vertex angles measure 60 .
ƒ The three lines of symmetry bisect the vertex angles.
ƒ The three segments that lie on the lines of symmetry are angle bisectors, altitudes,
medians and perpendicular bisectors.
ƒ The lines of symmetry divide the triangle into six larger and six smaller 30°-60°-
90° triangles.
ƒ The larger and smaller right triangles are similar.
ƒ Within all 30°-60°-90° triangles, the length of the hypotenuse is twice the length
of the short leg.
ƒ The inscribed and circumscribed circles are concentric circles centered at the
intersection of the lines of symmetry.
ƒ The radius of the circumscribed circle is twice as long as the radius of the
inscribed circle.
ƒ The measure of a central angle is two times the measure of the inscribed angle
intercepted by the same chord.

At the end of the activity, facilitate a whole group discussion about the van Hiele levels
used throughout the activity on equilateral triangles. Participants making observations in
1 – 4 are performing on the Visual Level, using quick observation. With 5 – 12, the
questions move participants to the Descriptive Level because an exhaustive list of
properties is developed by further observation and measurement. Although the
relationships between different properties are explored in these problems, the questions
revolve around one triangle, the equilateral triangle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-4

Activity Page: Triangles Equilateral Triangles

Equilateral Triangles

Complete 1 – 12 to explore the properties of equilateral triangles.

1. Carefully construct a large equilateral triangle on patty paper using ruler

and compass. Label ∆STV.

2. List properties of equilateral triangles and mark the triangle to indicate

the identified properties. Explain how you know these properties from
the constructed triangle.

3. Fold, draw or construct the lines of symmetry/reflection on the patty

paper triangle. Label the intersection of the lines of symmetry P.

4. Label the intersection of the line of symmetry from vertex S to TV as A,

the intersection of the line of symmetry from vertex V to TS as B, and the
intersection of the line of symmetry from vertex T to SV as C.

5. Describe the relationship between the lines of symmetry and the vertex
angles of the triangle. Mark these properties on the triangle. Label the
measures of the angles created by the lines of symmetry. Based on these
properties, what is another name for the lines of symmetry?

6. Describe the relationship between the lines of symmetry and the sides of
the triangle. Mark the relationships on the triangle.

7. Using the information now marked on the triangle, what are three other
names which can be used to describe the segments lying on the lines of
symmetry?

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-5

Activity Page: Triangles Equilateral Triangles

8. Use a ruler or patty paper to compare the lengths of the medians.

9. Use a ruler or patty paper to compare the lengths of the longer and
shorter segments that make up a median, for example, TP and PC . Find
the ratio of their lengths. Why is the ratio the same for all three medians?

10. Compare the six smaller right triangles and the six larger right triangles
formed by the medians. Describe the relationship between the larger right
triangles and the smaller right triangles.

11. Using a compass, draw a circle inscribed in ∆TSV with radius PB . Draw
a second circle circumscribed about ∆TSV with radius PT . Record the
properties of an inscribed circle and a circumscribed circle for an
equilateral triangle.

12. On a sheet of easel paper, construct and label an equilateral triangle with
the lines of symmetry and the inscribed and circumscribed circles. List all
of the properties of equilateral triangles.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-6

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Two Congruent Angles

Two Congruent Angles

Overview: Participants construct right, acute, and isosceles obtuse triangles using the
radii of congruent circles to determine properties of isosceles triangles. An
extension introduces and extends properties of circle segments and angles.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons and
their components.
III.013.B. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of circles and the
lines that intersect them.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and properties
(e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about two- and
three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of sides, angles).
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
VI.020.A. The beginning teacher applies research-based theories of
learning mathematics to plan appropriate instructional activities for all
students.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of geometric
figures and to make conjectures about geometric relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a variety
of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
polygons and their component parts.
e.2.C. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
circles and the lines that intersect them.

Background: Participants must understand rotational symmetry.

Materials: patty paper, straightedge, protractor, compass, easel paper, colored

markers

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-7

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Two Congruent Angles

New Terms:

Procedures:

Distribute the activity sheet. Post a large sheet of easel paper headed “Isosceles
Triangles.”

1. The figure represents an isosceles triangle. In your group discuss and write down the
properties of isosceles triangles that can be observed in the given figure. Be prepared
to share these in whole class discussion.

vertex
angle A

leg leg

B C
base

base angles

Allow about 5 minutes for group discussion on 1. Ask a participant to record properties
on the easel paper, while others share their group’s properties. The properties will be
critiqued at the end of the activity.

2. You will need three sheets of patty paper.

ƒ Construct three congruent circles, one on each sheet of patty paper.

ƒ On the first sheet, label the center O1. Draw two radii forming a right angle at the
center of the circle. Draw the chord connecting the endpoints of the radii, I1 and
S1, forming a isosceles right triangle, ∆I1S1O1.

ƒ On the second sheet, label the center O2. Draw two radii forming an acute angle at
the center of the circle. Connect the endpoints of the radii to complete the triangle,
an isosceles acute triangle, ∆I2S2O2.

ƒ On the third sheet, label the center O3. Draw two radii forming an obtuse angle at
the center of the circle. Complete the triangle, an isosceles obtuse triangle,
∆ I 3 S 3 O3 .

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-8

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Two Congruent Angles

O1 O2 O3

S1
I3
S3
S2
I1 I2

ƒ Find and crease the line(s) of symmetry associated with each triangle. Based on
the properties of reflection, determine additional properties of isosceles triangles.
In your group, share your findings. Make a group list of properties shared by all
isosceles triangles and separate lists for properties unique to isosceles right,
isosceles acute and isosceles obtuse triangles.

Allow participants 15-20 minutes to construct the figures and discuss the properties. Then
ask participants to provide additional properties to be added to the easel paper poster.
After all properties have been posted, critique the properties provided at the beginning of
the lesson. Participants justify why the properties are true based on the symmetry
properties within these triangles. If participants are unable to generate properties, try to
prompt with probing questions rather than providing the list of properties.

Possible property statements (justifications in parentheses):

ƒ Any isosceles triangle has one line of symmetry bisecting the vertex angle and the
base. The median to the base lies on the line of symmetry and connects the vertex
angle to the midpoint of the base.
ƒ Isosceles triangles have congruent legs (symmetry property).
ƒ Isosceles triangles have congruent base angles (symmetry property).
ƒ The median to the base is also the altitude to the base and the perpendicular
bisector of the base (the symmetry line); it creates right angles where it intersects
and bisects the base, as well as bisecting the vertex angle (symmetry property).

Isosceles right triangles:

O1

S1

I1

ƒ The median to the base creates two smaller isosceles right triangles (The base
angles of the original triangle each measure 45o. The right vertex angle is bisected
to form two 45o angles.)

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-9

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Two Congruent Angles

ƒ The median is congruent to the two segments formed by the median on the base.
(These are the legs of the smaller isosceles right triangles created by the line of
symmetry.)
ƒ The midpoint of the base is the circumcenter of the triangle. (The three segments
radiating from this point to the vertices of the triangle are all congruent, forming
radii of the circumscribed circle.)
ƒ The length of the base is twice the length of the altitude (the median).

Isosceles acute triangle:

ƒ The length of the base is shorter than two times the length of the altitude.

Isosceles obtuse triangle:

ƒ The length of the base is longer than two times the length of the altitude.

Extension investigations:
3. The bases of the isosceles triangles are chords of congruent circles. The vertex angles
are the central angles subtended by the chords. The lengths of the altitudes to the
bases are the distances from the chords to the centers of the circles. Examine your
figures with this in mind, and in your group make conjectures relating chord length to
the distance from the center of the circle.
The shorter the length of the chord, the greater is its distance from the center of the
circle. The longer the length of the chord, the shorter is its distance is from the center
of the circle. As the measure of the central angle increases, the length of the chord
increases.

If participants are unable to see the chord and distance to center relationships, encourage
them to overlay the centers of the three circles and the lines of symmetry.

O1

S1

I1

Can the chord continue to grow longer indefinitely?

No, the longest chord is the diameter, which passes through the center of the circle.
Its central angle measures 180o.

4. Place points, labeled N1, N2, or N3, respectively on each circle, so that major
arcs I1 N1S1 , I 2 N 2 S 2 , and I 3 N 3 S3 are formed. Draw inscribed angles ∠I1 N1S1 ,
∠I 2 N 2 S 2 , and ∠I 3 N 3 S3 . A conjecture regarding the central angle and the inscribed

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-10

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Two Congruent Angles

angle was made in the activity on equilateral triangles. Use each of your circles to
verify the relationship of the central angle to the inscribed angle that intercepts the
same arcs.

N2
N1
N3

O1 O2 O3

S1
I3
S3
S2
I1 I2

The measure of the central angle is equal to twice the measure of the inscribed angle
intercepted by the same arc.
Participants may offer equivalent statements.

At this time an inductive approach, using a protractor or patty paper, is appropriate

for the van Hiele Descriptive Level of understanding. Participants may be familiar
with the theorem that the measure of the central angle is twice the measure of the
inscribed angle intercepted on the same arc. It is important that they understand that
the deductive process can usually be followed by those proficient at the Relational
Level. This activity guides development of the Descriptive Level, which expects
properties to emerge out of inductive approaches. Discuss the different van Hiele
levels presented in this activity. In 1 and 2 participants are performing at the Visual
Level. Recognition of the figures is all that is needed to do the constructions.

In 2 and 3, the work on the properties moves participants to the Descriptive Level, but
approaches the Relational Level in 4. In 2 and 3, the circle is used to describe the
properties of the isosceles triangle. In 4, properties of circles are connected to those of
isosceles triangles.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-11

Activity Page: Triangles Two Congruent Angles

Two Congruent Angles

1. The figure represents an isosceles triangle. In your group, discuss and

write down the properties of isosceles triangles that can be observed in
the given figure. Be prepared to share these in whole class discussion.

vertex
angle A

leg leg

B C
base

base angles

2. You will need three sheets of patty paper.

ƒ Construct three congruent circles, one on each sheet of patty paper.

ƒ On the first sheet, label the center O1. Draw two radii forming a right
angle at the center of the circle. Draw the chord connecting the
endpoints of the radii, I1 and S1, forming a isosceles right triangle,
∆I1S1O1.

ƒ On the second sheet, label the center O2. Draw two radii forming an
acute angle at the center of the circle. Connect the endpoints of the
radii to complete the triangle, an isosceles acute triangle, ∆I2S2O2.

ƒ On the third sheet, label the center O3. Draw two radii forming an
obtuse angle at the center of the circle. Complete the triangle, an
isosceles obtuse triangle, ∆I3S3O3.

ƒ Find and crease the line(s) of symmetry associated with each triangle.
Based on the properties of reflection, determine additional properties
of isosceles triangles. In your group, share your findings. Make a
group list of properties shared by all isosceles triangles and separate
lists for properties unique to isosceles right, isosceles acute and
isosceles obtuse triangles.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-12

Activity Page: Triangles Two Congruent Angles

Extension investigations:

3. The bases of the isosceles triangles are chords of congruent circles. The
vertex angles are the central angles subtended by the chords. The lengths
of the altitudes to the bases are the distances from the chords to the
centers of the circles. Examine your figures with this in mind, and in your
group make conjectures relating chord length and distance from the
center of the circle.

4. Place points, labeled N1, N2, or N3, respectively on each circle, so that
major arcs I1N1S1 , I 2 N 2 S2 , and I 3 N3S3 are formed. Draw inscribed
angles ∠I1N1S1 , ∠I 2 N 2 S2 , and ∠I 3 N3S3 . A conjecture regarding the
central angle and the inscribed angle was made in the activity on
equilateral triangles. Use each of your circles to verify the relationship of
the central angle to the inscribed angle that intercepts the same arcs.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-13

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Scalene Triangles

Scalene Triangles
Overview: Participants determine properties that apply to all scalene triangles.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.B. The beginning teacher uses properties of points, lines,
planes, angles, lengths, and distances to solve problems.
III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric
constructions made using compass and straightedge, reflection
devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons
and their components.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
polygons and their component parts.

Background: Participants need a knowledge of the properties of isosceles and

equilateral triangles.

Materials: patty paper, centimeter ruler, compass, protractor

New Terms:

Procedures:

Distribute the activity sheet. Participants answer 1-3 regarding the properties of scalene
triangles and triangle inequalities. The following is taken from Discovering Geometry: an
Investigative Approach, 3rd Edition, ©2003, with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-14

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Scalene Triangles

These triangles are scalene triangles.

30°

10 cm 12cm 77°

90° 60° 82 ° 21 °
3cm

These triangles are not scalene triangles.

45° 79°
12 12
79°

90° 45° 12

1. What is a scalene triangle?

A scalene triangle is a triangle with no congruent sides and no congruent angles.

2. Name three types of scalene triangles.

Scalene triangles can be scalene right, scalene acute or scalene obtuse.

3. Using the three scalene triangles above, explore and summarize the properties of
scalene triangles for symmetry.
No properties result from symmetry, because scalene triangles have no symmetry.

4. Investigate the measures of the angles in triangles and the lengths of the sides
opposite those angles. Draw a scalene triangle on your paper. Measure each angle
using a protractor. Using a ruler, measure the length of each side in centimeters,
rounding to the nearest tenth of a centimeter. Label the measures of the angles and
side lengths. What relationship exists among the measures of the angles and the side
lengths of the triangle?
The largest angle is opposite the longest side; the smallest angle is opposite the
shortest side; the remaining angle is opposite the remaining side.

The following is taken from Discovering Geometry: an Investigative Approach, 3rd

Edition, ©2003, p 214, with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

5. Investigate geometric inequalities using either patty paper or a compass and

straightedge. Complete each construction and compare your results with group
members.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-15

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Scalene Triangles

Construct triangles with each set of segments as sides.

a)

L M

M N

N L

These segments do not create a triangle.

b)

Z V

V W

W Z

These segments create a triangle.

c) Describe the relationship among the lengths of the segments needed to create a
triangle.
The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle must be greater than the
length of the third side.

6. In the figure, BC = BD.

C

1 2

3
A B D

a. Why is AD > CA?

In ∆ACD, CA is opposite ∠3 and AD is opposite ∠ACD .
∠2 ≅ ∠3 (∆BCD is an isosceles triangle.)

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-16

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles Scalene Triangles

m∠ACD = m∠1 + m∠2 (The whole must be equal to the sum of its parts.)
By substitution, m∠ACD = m∠1 + m∠3 .
Therefore m∠ACD > m∠3 , and AD > CA (The larger side is opposite the larger
angle; the smaller side is opposite the smaller angle.)

b. Why is AB + BC > CA?

AD = AB + BD.
By substitution, AD = AB + BC, since BC = BD.
Since AD > CA, from part a, AB + BC > CA.

At the end of the activity, discuss the van Hiele levels represented in the activity. In
the first three problems, participants perform at the Visual Level, where the language
of the concept is clarified. In 3-5 participants determine and describe properties of
triangles, at the Descriptive Level. In 6 the steps of the proof are provided, allowing
participants to approach the Relational Level. If the proof had been created with only
the given information, then participants would have been performing on the
Deductive Level.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-17

Activity Page: Triangles Scalene Triangles

Scalene Triangles

These triangles are scalene triangles.

30°

12cm 77°
8cm
90° 60° 82° 21°
3cm
These triangles are not scalene triangles.

45° 79°
12 12
79°

90° 45° 12

1. What is a scalene triangle?

2. Name three types of scalene triangles.

3. Using the three scalene triangles above, explore and summarize the
properties of scalene triangles for symmetry.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-18

Activity Page: Triangles Scalene Triangles

4. Investigate the measures of the angles in triangles and the lengths of the
sides opposite those angles. Draw a scalene triangle on your paper.
Measure each angle using a protractor. Using a ruler, measure the length
of each side in centimeters, rounding to the nearest tenth of a centimeter.
Label the measures of the angles and side lengths. What relationship
exists among the measures of the angles and the side lengths of the
triangle?

5. Investigate geometric inequalities using either patty paper or a compass

and straightedge. Complete each construction and compare your results
with group members.

Construct triangles with each set of segments as sides.

a)
L M

M N

N L

b)
Z V

V W

W Z

c) Describe the relationship among the lengths of the segments

needed to create a triangle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-19

Activity Page: Triangles Scalene Triangles

6. In the figure, BC = BD.

1 2

3
A B D

a. Why is AD > CA?

b. Why is AB + BC > CA?

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-20

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles The Meeting Place

The Meeting Place

Overview: Participants construct the circumcenter, incenter, centroid and orthocenter
in congruent triangles and then determine which points of concurrency lie
on the Euler Line.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.006.B. The beginning teacher writes equations of lines given various
characteristics (e.g., two points, a point and slope, slope and y-intercept).
II.006.G. The beginning teacher models and solves problems involving
linear and quadratic equations and inequalities using a variety of methods,
including technology.
III.012.B. The beginning teacher uses properties of points, lines, angles,
lengths, and distances to solve problems.
III.013.B. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of circles and the
lines that intersect them.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and properties
(e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about two-and three-
dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of sides, angles).
III.014.E. The beginning teacher applies concepts and properties of slope,
midpoint, parallelism, perpendicularity, and distance to explore properties
of geometric figures and solve problems in the coordinate plane.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of geometric
figures and to make conjectures about geometric relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a variety
of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.4. The student uses a variety of representations to describe geometric
relationships and solve problems.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.B. The student uses slopes and equations of lines to investigate
geometric relationships, including parallel lines, perpendicular lines, and
special segments of triangles and other polygons.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
polygons and their component parts.
e.2.C. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
circles and the liens that intersect them.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-21

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles The Meeting Place

Background: Participants must be able to write a linear equation given two points, or a
point and a slope, and to solve systems of linear equations algebraically.

Materials: patty paper, centimeter ruler, compass, calculator

New Terms: centroid, circumcenter, Euler line, incenter, orthocenter

Procedures:

Part 1: Constructions with Patty Paper

Participants use patty paper to construct a perpendicular bisector, a line perpendicular to a

given line from a point not on the line, and an angle bisector.

The directions for the three constructions are given on the activity sheet. Complete each
construction separately. Discuss findings as each construction is completed.

The following constructions will be used in Part 2.

1. Perpendicular Bisector of a Segment

Draw a segment on a sheet of patty paper. Label the endpoints A and B. By folding,
construct the perpendicular bisector of the segment. Mark a point anywhere on the
perpendicular bisector. Label the point C. Draw AC and BC . Measure AC and BC.
Write a conjecture relating C to AB .
All points on a perpendicular bisector are equidistant from the endpoints of the
bisected segment.

C
A

2. Perpendicular to a Segment Through a Point Not on the Segment

Draw a segment on patty paper. Mark a point, E, not on the segment. By folding,
construct a perpendicular line to the segment, passing through E.

3. Angle Bisector
Draw an angle, labeled ∠FGH on patty paper. By folding, construct the angle
bisector. Mark a point, I, on the angle bisector. Using another sheet of patty paper for
a right angle tool, or folding, construct the perpendicular lines from I to the sides of
the angle, GF and GH . Write a conjecture relating the distance from a point on the
angle bisector to the sides of the angle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-22

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles The Meeting Place

G
I

The points on an angle bisector are equidistant from the rays forming the angle.

Part 2: Points of Concurrency

4. On a new sheet of patty paper, draw a scalene triangle covering at least half of the
sheet. Trace the triangle onto four more sheets, so that you have five congruent
triangles. Label each ∆XYZ.

5. On the first triangle, construct the perpendicular bisectors of the three sides by
folding. Label the point of concurrency C. Measure and compare the distances from C
to the vertices of the triangle. Explain why these distances must be equal.
Since C lies on the perpendicular bisector of YZ , from 1, CY = CZ.
Since C lies on the perpendicular bisector of XY , from 1, CX = CY.
By substitution CX = CY = CZ. X

Z Y

Draw the circumscribed circle, centered at C, through the vertices of the triangle.
Point C is called the circumcenter. Label the sheet “Circumcenter – Perpendicular
Bisectors.”

6. On the second triangle, construct the three angle bisectors by folding. Label the point
of concurrency I. Measure and compare the perpendicular distances from I to the
sides of the triangle. Mark the points where the perpendiculars from I intersect the
sides of the triangle. Explain why these distances must be equal.
From 2, I is equidistant from XZ and XY , since XI bisects ∠ZXY . Similarly, I is
equidistant from XZ and YZ . Therefore, I is equidistant from all three sides of the
triangle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-23

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles The Meeting Place
X

Z Y

Draw the inscribed circle, centered at I, through the marked points on the sides of the
triangle. Point I is called the incenter. Label the sheet “Incenter – Angle Bisectors.”

7. On the third triangle, by folding, pinch the midpoints of each of the sides of the
triangle. With a ruler, draw the three medians, the segments connecting each vertex to
the midpoint of the opposite sides. Label the point of concurrency M. Measure and
determine the ratio into which M divides each median. Label the sheet “Centroid –
Medians.”

An example is shown below. X

ZM = 4.42 cm MT = 2.21 cm YM = 6.03 cm MS = 3.02 cm
ZM YM
= 2.00 = 2.00
MT S T MS
XM = 3.92 cm MR = 1.96 cm
M
XM
= 2.00
MR Y
Z
R

8. On the fourth triangle, by folding, construct the three altitudes (the perpendicular
segments from each vertex to the opposite side). If you have an obtuse triangle you
will need to extend two of the sides outside the triangle. Label the point of
concurrency O. Label the sheet “Orthocenter – Altitudes.”
X

Z Y

9. Place the fifth triangle directly on top of the first triangle, so that the vertices coincide
exactly. Mark and label point C. Repeat with the other three points of concurrency, I,

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-24

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles The Meeting Place

M, and O. Which three of the four points are collinear (lie on the same line)? Draw in
the line connecting these three points. Label the sheet “Euler Line.” The Euler line is
named after Leonhard Euler, a Swiss mathematician (1708-1783), who proved that
the three points of concurrency are collinear.

M
C
Z Y

Part 3: Algebraic Connections

The points of concurrency can be found algebraically using knowledge of slope,

y-intercept, perpendicular lines, the writing of linear equations, and the solving of
systems of linear equations.

In the following problems, algebraically find the circumcenter, centroid, orthocenter, and
the equation of the Euler line.

Each problem requires the same algebraic work. Discuss methods for finding each point.

How do we find the circumcenter?

The circumcenter is the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the
triangle. Find the equations of two of the perpendicular bisectors, and then find their
intersection point. To find each equation, use the midpoint of one side of the triangle and
the slope of the perpendicular to that side.

How do we find the centroid?

The centroid is the intersection of the medians. Find the equations of two of the medians,
and then find their intersection point. To find each equation, use the midpoint of a side
and the vertex opposite that side.

How do we find the orthocenter?

The orthocenter is the intersection of the altitudes. Find the equations of two of the
altitudes, and then find their intersection point. To find each equation, use the slope of the
perpendicular to a side and the vertex opposite that side.

How do we find the equation of the Euler Line?

Use two of the points of concurrency to find the equation, and then check by substituting
the coordinates for the third point.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-25

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles The Meeting Place

Each group should be given a different problem (10 – 12). The work for each problem
may be divided among the members of the group. Then the whole group should come
together to share the results and complete the problem. Participants should graph their
triangles to help visualize the figures, and also to check the algebraic work. This section
may be assigned for homework.

The solution for 10 follows. Answers only are given for 11 and 12.

10. Triangle ABC has vertices A (0, 8), B (−3, −1), and C (5, −2).
⎛3 5⎞
Circumcenter: ⎜ , ⎟
⎝2 2⎠
⎛2 5⎞
Centroid: ⎜ , ⎟
⎝3 3⎠
Orthocenter: (−1, 0)
Euler Line: y = x + 1.

11. Triangle DEF has vertices D (−2, 0), E (−6, −2), and F (3, −5).
Circumcenter: (−2, −5)
⎛ 5 7⎞
Centroid: ⎜ − , − ⎟
⎝ 3 3⎠
Orthocenter: (−1, 3)
Euler Line: y = 8x + 11.

12. Triangle GHJ has vertices G (3, 7), H (−1, −1), and J (5, -4).
3
Circumcenter: (4, )
2
⎛ 7 2 ⎞
Centroid: ⎜ , ⎟
⎝3 3⎠
Orthocenter: (−1, −1)
1 1
Euler Line: y = x −
2 2

A possible solution for 10:

A (0, 8), B (–3, −1), C (5, –2).

Circumcenter:
Midpoint of BC : Midpoint of AB :
−3 + 5 −1 − 2 −3 0 −3 8 −1 −3 7
( , ) = (1, ) . ( , )= ( , ).
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
−1 − ( −2 ) 1 8 − ( −1) 9
Slope of BC : =− . Slope of AB : = =3.
−3 − 5 8 0 − ( −3 ) 3

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-26

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles The Meeting Place

1
Perpendicular slope = 8. Perpendicular slope = −
3
Equation: y = 8x + b. 1
Equation: y = − x + b.
3 3
To find b, substitute (1, − ) in the
2 3 7
To find b, substitute ( − , ) in the above
above equation. 2 2
3 equation.
− = 8 + b.
2 7 1 3 1
= − ⋅− +b = +b
3 19 2 3 2 2
b= − –8= − .
2 2 7 1
b= − = 3
The equation of the perpendicular 2 2
19 The equation of the perpendicular
bisector of BC is y = 8x − .
2 1
bisector of AB is y = − x +3
3

Find the intersection point by substitution:

19 1
y = 8x − = − x +3
2 3
1 19
8x + x = 3 +
3 2
25 25 3
x= ; x= .
3 2 2
3 1 1 3 1 5
Substitute for x in y = − x +3. y = − . +3 = − + 3 = .
2 3 3 2 2 2
3 5
x= ,y= .
2 2
19 3 19 24 19 5
Check in the other equation: y = 8x − . 8 ⋅ − = − =
2 2 2 2 2 2
⎛ 3 5 ⎞
The circumcenter is at ⎜ , ⎟
⎝2 2⎠

Centroid:
Median from A to BC : Median from C to AB :
3 3 7
Midpoint of BC : (1, − ) Midpoint of AB : ( − , )
2 2 2
A: (0, 8), which is also the y-intercept. C: (5, −2)
3 3 7
Slope from (0, 8) to (1, − ) : Slope from ( − , ) to (5, −2):
2 2 2

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-27

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles The Meeting Place

3 19 7 −11
8 − (− ) −2 −
2 = 2 = − 19 2 = 2 = − 11
0 −1 −1 2 3 13 13
5 − (− )
2 2
11
y = − x+b.
The equation of the median from A to 13
19 Substitute (5, –2) to solve for b.
BC is y = − x + 8 11
2 −2 = − ⋅ 5 + b
13
29
Simplifying: b = .
13
The equation of the median from C to
11 29
AB is y = − x + .
13 13
Find the intersection point by substitution:
19 11 29
− x+8 = − x+ .
2 13 13
19 11 29
− x+ x = −8.
2 13 13
225 150
− x= − .
26 26
2 2 19
x = . Substitute x = in y = − x + 8 .
3 3 2
19 2 5
y= − ⋅ + 8 = .
2 3 3
11 29
Check in the other equation: y = − x + =
13 13
11 2 29 22 87 65 5
− ⋅ + =− + = = .
13 3 13 39 39 39 3
2 5
The centroid is at ( , ) .
3 3

Orthocenter:
−1 − ( − 2) 1 8 − ( −1) 9
Slope of BC : = . Slope of AB : = =3.
−3 − 5 −8 0 − ( −3 ) 3
1
Perpendicular slope = 8. Perpendicular slope = −
3

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-28

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles The Meeting Place

A (0, 8) is also the y-intercept. 1

Use C (5, –2) and slope = − to find the
The equation of the altitude from A to 3
BC is y = 8x + 8. 1
equation y = − x + b.
3
Substitute C (5, –2).
1
–2 = − ⋅ 5 + b .
3
5 1
b = −2 + = − .
3 3
The equation of the altitude from C to
1 1
AB is y = − x − .
3 3
1 1
Substituting: 8x + 8 = − x −
3 3
1 1
8x + x = −8 − .
3 3
25 25
x= − .
3 3
x = –1.

Substitute x = –1 in y = 8x + 8 = –8 + 8 = 0.
1 1
Check y = − x − = 0.
3 3
The orthocenter is at (–1, 0).

Euler Line:
⎛3 5⎞
Use the orthocenter (–1, 0) and the circumcenter ⎜ , ⎟ .
⎝2 2⎠
5 5
−0
Slope: 2 = 2 =1.
3 5
− (−1)
2 2
Using (–1, 0), y = 0 = 1(–1) + b = –1 + b.
b = 1.
Euler Line: y = x + 1.

Ask participants to add the new terms centroid, circumcenter, Euler line, incenter, and
orthocenter to their glossaries.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-29

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Triangles The Meeting Place

To close the unit, discuss the van Hiele levels represented in the activity. In 1−3
participants are performing at the Descriptive Level since participants use properties
relating to reflectional symmetry. In the remainder of the activity, 4 – 12, participants
apply properties at the Descriptive Level, including some Relational Level elements, such
as justifications for congruence of segments relating to the circumcenter and incenter. In
finding the equation of the Euler Line, participants perform at the Relational Level with
respect to linear functions, since various properties of linear properties are interrelated.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-30

Activity Page: Triangles The Meeting Place

The Meeting Place

Part 1: Constructions with Patty Paper

The following constructions will be used in Part 2.

1. Perpendicular Bisector of a Segment

Draw a segment on a sheet of patty paper. Label the endpoints A and B.
By folding, construct the perpendicular bisector of the segment. Mark a
point anywhere on the perpendicular bisector. Label the point C. Draw
AC and BC . Measure AC and BC. Write a conjecture relating C to AB .

2. Perpendicular to a Segment Through a Point Not on the Segment

Draw a segment on patty paper. Mark a point, E, not on the segment. By
folding, construct a perpendicular line to the segment, passing through E.

3. Angle Bisector
Draw an angle, labeled ∠FGH on patty paper. By folding, construct the
angle bisector. Mark a point, I, on the angle bisector. Using another sheet
of patty paper for a right angle tool, or by folding, construct the
perpendicular lines from I to the sides of the angle, GF and GH . Write a
conjecture relating the distance from a point on the angle bisector to the
sides of the angle.

Part 2: Points of Concurrency

4. On a new sheet of patty paper, draw a scalene triangle covering at least

half of the sheet. Trace the triangle onto four more sheets, so that you
have five congruent triangles. Label each ∆XYZ.

5. On the first triangle, construct the perpendicular bisectors of the three

sides by folding. Label the point of concurrency C. Measure and compare
the distances from C to the vertices of the triangle. Explain why these
distances must be equal. Draw the circumscribed circle, centered at C,
through the vertices of the triangle. Point C is called the circumcenter.
Label the sheet “Circumcenter – Perpendicular Bisectors.”

6. On the second triangle, construct the three angle bisectors by folding.

Label the point of concurrency I. Measure and compare the perpendicular
distances from I to the sides of the triangle. Mark the points where the

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-31

Activity Page: Triangles The Meeting Place

perpendiculars from I intersect the sides of the triangle. Explain why

these distances must be equal. Draw the inscribed circle, centered at I,
through the marked points on the sides of the triangle. Point I is called
the incenter. Label the sheet “Incenter – Angle Bisectors.”

7. On the third triangle, by folding, pinch the midpoints of each of the sides
of the triangle. With a ruler, draw the three medians, the segments
connecting each vertex to the midpoint of the opposite sides. Label the
point of concurrency M. Measure and determine the ratio into which M
divides each median. Label the sheet “Centroid – Medians.”

8. On the fourth triangle, by folding, construct the three altitudes (the

perpendicular segments from each vertex to the opposite side). If you
have an obtuse triangle you will need to extend two of the sides outside
the triangle. Label the point of concurrency O. Label the sheet
“Orthocenter – Altitudes.”

9. Place the fifth triangle directly on top of the first triangle, so that the
vertices coincide exactly. Mark and label point C. Repeat with the other
three points of concurrency, I, M, and O. Which three of the four points
are collinear (lie on the same line)? Draw in the line connecting these
three points. Label the sheet “Euler Line.” The Euler line is named after
Leonhard Euler, a Swiss mathematician (1708-1783), who proved that
three points of concurrency are collinear.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-32

Activity Page: Triangles The Meeting Place

Part 3: Algebraic Connections

The points of concurrency can be found algebraically using knowledge of

slope, y-intercept, perpendicular lines, the writing of linear equations, and
the solving of systems of linear equations.

In the following problems, algebraically find the circumcenter, centroid,

orthocenter, and the equation of the Euler line.

10. Triangle ABC has vertices A (0, 8), B (−3, −1), and C (5, −2).

11. Triangle DEF has vertices D (−2, 0), E (−6, −2), and F (3, −5).

12. Triangle GHJ has vertices G (3, 7), H (−1, −1), and J (5, −4).

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-33

Supplemental Material: Triangles References and Additional Resources

References and Additional Resources

Geddes, D. (1992). Geometry in the middle grades, Addenda Series, Grades 5 - 8 (F. R.

Curcio, Ed.). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Kinsey, L. C., & Moore, T. E. (2002). Symmetry, shape, and space: An introduction to

mathematics through geometry. Emeryville, CA: Key College Publishing.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000). Principles and standards for

school mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Serra, M. (2003). Discovering geometry: An investigative approach (3rd ed.). Emeryville,

CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Geometry Module DRAFT 2-34

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Isosceles Right Triangles Reflections

Unit 3 – Quadrilaterals

Isosceles Right Triangle Reflections

Overview: Participants develop the properties of squares through reflections of
isosceles right triangles.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons
and their components.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
III.014.B. The beginning teacher uses the properties of transformations
and their compositions to solve problems.
III.014.D. The beginning teacher applies transformations in the
coordinate plane.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems
to represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
polygons and their component parts.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make
conjectures and justify properties of geometric figures.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-1

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Isosceles Right Triangles Reflections

f.1. The student uses similarity properties and transformations to

explore and justify conjectures about geometric figures.

Background: Participants need to have a knowledge of transformations.

Materials: colored pencils, easel paper, colored markers, centimeter ruler,

transparency

New Terms: rotational symmetry

Procedures:

In the Quadrilaterals unit, the properties of triangles and transformations are used to
develop the properties of quadrilaterals.

Participants work the activity individually but verify solutions informally with group
members. Facilitate by providing minimal prompts to help participants clarify their
thinking. Try not to answer questions directly.

Bertrand Russell said, “ …what matters in mathematics…is not the intrinsic nature of our
terms but the logical nature of their interrelations.” The quadrilateral unit explores the
interrelations of triangles and quadrilaterals, using transformations as a tool to construct
quadrilaterals.

Mark isosceles right ∆ABC with the known properties in terms of angles and sides, using
tick marks and colors.

Verify the properties of angles and sides with your group members.
The isosceles right triangle has a right angle, ∠ B, two congruent sides, AB and BC ,
AB ⊥ BC , and two congruent angles ∠ A and ∠ C, each 45o.

Reflect ∆ABC across the line containing BC . Label image vertices and properties
appropriately.

1. What type of triangle is ∆ACA′? Justify your answer.

∆ACA′ is an isosceles right triangle.
AC = CA′ C

o
m∠ACA ' = m∠ACB + m∠A ' CB = 90 . 45 ° 45 °

45 ° 45 °
A B A'

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-2

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Isosceles Right Triangles Reflections

2. Reflect ∆ACA' and its component parts across the line containing AA ' . All of the
properties of ∆ACA' apply to the reflected triangle. Label the properties of
quadrilateral ACA'C'.

45 ° 45 °

45 ° 45 °
A 45 ° B 45 ° A'

45 ° 45 °

C'

3. Classify the quadrilateral ACA'C', formed from the composite reflections of an

isosceles right triangle.
ACA'C' is a square. The figure has four right angles and four congruent sides.

4. List the properties of quadrilateral ACA'C' in terms of the sides, angles, diagonals and
symmetry in the table below.

Possible properties follow.

Sides:
ƒ All four sides are congruent.
ƒ Opposite sides are parallel because alternate interior angles are congruent.
Using symbols, AC || A ' C ' and CA ' || AC ' .
ƒ Consecutive sides are perpendicular, because vertex angles of the figure are all
right angles, for example, AC ' ⊥ A ' C ' .

Vertex angles:
ƒ All four angles are congruent right angles.
ƒ The vertex angles are bisected by the diagonals.
ƒ Opposite angles are congruent and supplementary.
ƒ Consecutive angles are congruent and supplementary.

Diagonals:
ƒ There are two diagonals.
ƒ Diagonals are congruent to each other.
ƒ Diagonals bisect each other at right angles.
ƒ Diagonals bisect the vertex angles of the square.
ƒ Diagonals lie on two of the lines of symmetry for the figure.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-3

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Isosceles Right Triangles Reflections

Symmetry:
ƒ There are four lines of symmetry.
ƒ The diagonals lie on two of the lines of symmetry.
ƒ The other two lines of symmetry pass through the midpoints of the sides of the
square.
ƒ 90o (4-fold) rotational symmetry exists. The figure can be rotated 90o
so that the resulting image coincides with the original image. When the figure is
rotated four times through 90o, the original vertices coincide.

In general, a figure has rotational symmetry if there is a rotation that results in the image
superimposing on the pre-image. Remind participants to add the new term rotational
symmetry to their glossaries.

To complete the activity, each group draws the figure and lists its properties on a sheet of
easel paper. The sheet of easel paper is placed on the wall for a gallery walk. Pairs of
groups view each other’s work. Allow groups about 5 minutes to meet and discuss any
differences or errors on the posters.

Bring participants together for a whole class discussion. Summarize the properties of
squares. Leave the posters on the wall. At the conclusion of the quadrilateral unit,
participants can compare the properties of the square, rhombus, kite, rectangle,
parallelogram and trapezoid.

Participants are performing at the van Hiele Descriptive Level because they develop
properties of squares.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-4

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Isosceles Right Triangles Reflections

Isosceles Right Triangle Reflections

Bertrand Russell said, “…what matters in mathematics…is not the intrinsic

nature of our terms but the logical nature of their interrelations.” The
quadrilateral unit explores the interrelations of triangles and quadrilaterals,
using transformations as a tool to construct quadrilaterals.

Mark isosceles right ∆ABC with the known properties in terms of angles and
sides, using tick marks and colors.

A B

Verify the properties of angles and sides with your group members.
Reflect ∆ABC across the line containing BC , and label image vertices and
properties appropriately.

1. What type of triangle is ∆ACA′? Justify your answer.

2. Reflect ∆ACA' and its component parts across the line containing AA ' .
All of the properties of ∆ACA' apply to the reflected triangle. Label the
properties of quadrilateral ACA'C'.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-5

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Isosceles Right Triangles Reflections

3. Classify the quadrilateral ACA'C', formed from the composite reflections

of an isosceles right triangle.

4. List the properties of quadrilateral ACA'C' in terms of the sides, angles,

diagonals and symmetry in the table below.

Sides Vertex Angles

Diagonals Symmetry

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-6

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Scalene Right Triangle Reflections

Scalene Right Triangle Reflections

Overview: Participants develop the properties of rhombi through reflections of
scalene right triangles.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons
and their components.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
III.014.B. The beginning teacher uses the properties of transformations
and their compositions to solve problems.
III.014.D. The beginning teacher applies transformations in the
coordinate plane.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems
to represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties of parallel and
perpendicular lines.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make
conjectures and justify properties of geometric figures.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-7

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Scalene Right Triangle Reflections

f.1. The student uses similarity properties and transformations to

explore and justify conjectures about geometric figures.

Background: Participants need to have a knowledge of transformations.

Materials: colored pencils, easel paper, graph paper, colored markers, centimeter
ruler

New Terms:

Procedures:

Distribute the activity sheet. Ask participants to complete the activity individually but
informally verify with group members. While participants work, walk around the room
listening and facilitating. Try not to directly answer questions, but rather provide minimal
prompts to help participants clarify their thinking.

When the group members complete the activity, each group draws the figure and lists its
properties on a sheet of easel paper. The sheet of easel paper is placed on the wall for a
gallery walk. Allow pairs of groups about 5 minutes to meet and discuss any differences
or errors on the posters.

In this activity, a scalene right triangle is reflected over the line containing one of the legs
of the triangle, then the composite figure is reflected over the line containing the other
leg. Predict which quadrilateral will be created.

In the middle of a sheet of graph paper, draw a scalene right triangle, ∆ABC, with the
right angle at B. Make sure that the legs of the triangle lie along grid lines, and that the
vertices are located on grid line intersections. The legs of the triangle should be 2 to 3
inches long. Mark the sides and angles with known properties of scalene right triangles.
Use different tick marks to indicate non-congruency.

Reflect ∆ABC across the line containing BC . Label image vertices with prime marks.

1. What type of triangle is ∆ACA′ ? Why? Discuss with your group to make sure there is
agreement.
∆ACA′ is an isosceles acute triangle or an isosceles obtuse triangle. The congruent
legs and congruent base angles are formed as a result of the reflection. The base
angles are not 45o angles, and the vertex angle at C is not a right angle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-8

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Scalene Right Triangle Reflections

C A

c c a

Isosceles Isosceles
acute obtuse
triangle triangle
A a a A' C c
B c B

A'

2. Reflect ∆ACA' and its component parts across the line containing AA ' . Label the
properties of quadrilateral ACA'C′. Discuss with your group to make sure there is
agreement.

3. Classify the quadrilateral ACA'C'. Justify.

Quadrilateral ACA'C' is a rhombus because it has four congruent sides.
C A

c c a a

A a a C c c C'
a B a A' c B c

c c a a

C' A'

4. List the properties of quadrilateral ACA'C' in terms of the sides, angles, diagonals and
symmetry in the table below.

Sides:
ƒ All four sides are congruent.
ƒ Opposite sides are parallel because alternate interior angles are congruent.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-9

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Scalene Right Triangle Reflections

Vertex Angles:
ƒ Opposite angles are congruent.
ƒ Consecutive angles are supplementary because the pre-image acute angles are
complementary. The consecutive angles, which are composed of two sets of the
acute complementary angles, must be supplementary.

Diagonals:
ƒ There are two diagonals.
ƒ Diagonals are not congruent to each other.
ƒ Diagonals bisect each other.
ƒ Diagonals intersect at 90o angles.
ƒ Diagonals bisect the vertex angles of the rhombus, because the vertex angles were
formed by reflection.
ƒ Diagonals are lines of symmetry of the figure, because they lie on the original
reflection lines.

Symmetry:
ƒ There are two lines of symmetry.
ƒ The diagonals lie on the two lines of symmetry, passing through opposite vertices
of the rhombus.

Bring participants together for a whole class discussion. Compare the properties of the
rhombus with the properties of the square. Possible comparisons follow:

ƒ Both figures have four congruent sides.

ƒ In both quadrilaterals opposite vertex angles are congruent and consecutive vertex
angles are supplementary.
ƒ In both quadrilaterals the diagonals bisect each other at right angles, and bisect the
vertex angles.
ƒ In both quadrilaterals the diagonals lie on lines of symmetry.

As the properties of each quadrilateral are listed, the posters remain on the wall so that
the properties of squares, kites, rectangles, parallelograms and trapezoids can be
compared and contrasted.

Participants are performing at the van Hiele Descriptive Level because properties of a
rhombus are being developed. In the discussion comparing the properties of the square
and rhombus participants approach the Relational Level.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-10

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Scalene Right Triangles Reflections

Scalene Right Triangle Reflections

In this activity, a scalene right triangle is reflected over the line containing
one of the legs of the triangle, then the composite figure is reflected over the
line containing the other leg. Predict which quadrilateral will be created.

In the middle of a sheet of graph paper, draw a scalene right triangle, ∆ABC,
with the right angle at B. Make sure that the legs of the triangle lie along grid
lines, and that the vertices are located on grid line intersections. The legs of
the triangle should be 2 to 3 inches long. Mark the sides and angles with
known properties of scalene right triangles. Use different tick marks to
indicate non-congruency.

Reflect ∆ABC across the line containing BC . Label image vertices with
prime marks.

1. What type of triangle is ∆ACA′ ? Why? Discuss with your group to make
sure there is agreement.

2. Reflect ∆ACA' and its component parts across the line containing AA ' .
Label the properties of quadrilateral ACA'C′. Discuss with your group to
make sure there is agreement.

3. Classify the quadrilateral ACA'C'. Justify.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-11

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Scalene Right Triangles Reflections

4. List the properties of quadrilateral ACA'C' in terms of the sides, angles,

diagonals and symmetry in the table below.

Sides Vertex Angles

Diagonals Symmetry

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-12

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Scalene Acute/ Obtuse Triangles Reflections

Scalene Acute/Obtuse Triangle Reflections

Overview: Participants develop the properties of kites through reflections of
scalene acute or scalene obtuse triangles.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons
and their components.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
III.014.D. The beginning teacher applies transformations in the
coordinate plane.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems
to represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
polygons and their component parts.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make
conjectures and justify properties of geometric figures.
f.1. The student uses similarity properties and transformations to
explore and justify conjectures about geometric figures.

Background: Participants need to have a knowledge of transformations for this

activity.

Materials: colored pencils, easel paper, colored markers, centimeter ruler

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-13

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Scalene Acute/ Obtuse Triangles Reflections

New Terms:

Procedures:

Distribute the activity sheet. Participants work the activity individually, but informally
verify with group members. Facilitate by providing minimal prompts to help participants
clarify their thinking. Try not to answer questions directly.

Each group draws the figure and lists its properties on a sheet of easel paper. When
completed the sheet of easel paper is posted on the wall for a gallery walk. Give pairs of
groups about 5 minutes to meet and discuss any differences or errors on the posters.

In this activity, a scalene acute triangle or a scalene obtuse triangle is reflected across the
line containing one of its sides. Predict what quadrilateral will be created.

In your group decide who will draw a scalene acute triangle and who will draw a scalene
obtuse triangle. In the middle of a sheet of graph paper, draw ∆ABC so that BC coincides
with a grid line and all three vertices lie at grid line intersections. The sides of the triangle
should be 2 to 3 inches long. Mark the sides and angles using different tick marks to
indicate non-congruency.
B B
Possible examples are shown. A
b
b
a

a
c A
c
C C
B
b

c
C
a
A

Reflect ∆ABC across the line containing BC , and label the image appropriately.

1. Classify quadrilateral ACA'B. Justify.

ACA'B is a kite. A kite is a quadrilateral with exactly two distinct pairs of congruent
consecutive sides. The term diamond is sometimes used at the Visual Level.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-14

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Scalene Acute/ Obtuse Triangles Reflections

B B
b b
A A'
a a b b

A a a A'
c c
c c

C C

B
b b

c c
a C a
A A'

2. List the properties of quadrilateral ACA'B in terms of the sides, angles, diagonals and
symmetry in the table below.

Sides:
ƒ Two pairs of sides are congruent.
ƒ Two sets of consecutive sides are congruent.
ƒ Opposite sides are not congruent.
Note: Opposite sides are not parallel because alternate interior angles are not
congruent.

Vertex angles:
ƒ Only one pair of opposite angles is congruent. One pair of opposite angles is not
congruent.
ƒ Consecutive angles are not congruent.
ƒ The non-congruent vertex angles are bisected by one of the
diagonals. The congruent vertex angles are not bisected by
a diagonal.

Is it possible for a kite to have a pair of right angles?

The figures for this activity were constructed from acute or
obtuse triangles, but if a scalene right triangle is reflected
across the line containing its hypotenuse, then the congruent
pair of vertex angles are right angles.

Diagonals:
ƒ There are two diagonals.
ƒ One diagonal lies on the line of symmetry.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-15

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Scalene Acute/ Obtuse Triangles Reflections

ƒ The diagonal lying on the line of symmetry bisects the other diagonal at right
angles.
ƒ Diagonals may not be congruent to each other. A
AA' = 3 cm
Is it possible for the kite to have congruent diagonals? BC = 3 cm
Yes. The figure to the right is an example of a kite with B C
congruent diagonals.

A'

Note: Ask participants to look at the triangles formed on either side of AA ' , the
diagonal which does not lie on the line of symmetry. These triangles, ∆ABA' and
∆ACA', are both isosceles triangles.

The kites below are both convex. B

B
b b
A a a A' b b

c c A a a A'
c c

C C
The kite below is concave.
B
b b

c c
a C a
A A'

Symmetry:
ƒ There is one line of symmetry.
ƒ The line of symmetry contains one of the diagonals.

Bring participants together for a whole class discussion. Summarize the properties of
kites.

Participants are performing at the van Hiele Descriptive Level because they develop
properties of a kite.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-16

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Scalene Acute/Obtuse Triangle Reflections

Scalene Acute/Obtuse Triangle Reflections

In this activity a scalene acute triangle or a scalene obtuse triangle is

reflected across the line containing one of its sides. Predict what
quadrilateral will be created.

In your group decide who will draw a scalene acute triangle and who will
draw a scalene obtuse triangle. In the middle of a sheet of graph paper, draw
∆ABC so that BC coincides with a grid line and all three vertices lie at grid
line intersections. The sides of the triangle should be 2 to 3 inches long.
Mark the sides and angles using different tick marks to indicate non-
congruency.

Reflect ∆ABC across the line containing BC , and label the image
appropriately.

1. Classify quadrilateral ACA'B. Justify.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-17

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Scalene Acute/Obtuse Triangle Reflections

2. List the properties of quadrilateral ACA'B in terms of the sides, angles,

diagonals and symmetry in the table below.

Sides Vertex Angles

Diagonals Symmetry

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-18

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Rotate a Triangle

Rotate a Triangle
Overview: Participants discover properties of rectangles by rotating a right
triangle around the midpoint of its hypotenuse, and discover the
properties of parallelograms by rotating a non-right triangle around the
midpoint of one of its sides.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons
and their components.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
III.014.D. The beginning teacher applies transformations in the
coordinate plane.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.B. Makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines, polygons,
circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a variety of
approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems
to represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
circles and the lines that intersect them.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make
conjectures and justify properties of geometric figures.
f.1. The student uses similarity properties and transformations to
explore and justify conjectures about geometric figures.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-19

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Rotate a Triangle

Background: Participants need a knowledge of the properties of rotation and parallel

lines.

Materials: easel paper, graph paper, colored markers, patty paper, centimeter
ruler

New Terms:

Procedures:

Distribute the activity sheets. Participants work on all seven items in groups. During the
whole class discussion, ask two volunteers to record properties of rectangles and
parallelograms on separate sheets of easel paper.

1. In the middle of a sheet of graph paper draw scalene right ∆ABC, with the right angle
at vertex C. Draw the legs along grid lines and locate the vertices at grid line
intersections. The lengths of the legs of the triangles should be 2 to 3 inches long.
Locate the midpoint, M, of the hypotenuse. Draw the median to the hypotenuse.
Label the figure appropriately to indicate congruence or non-congruence.

2. Rotate ∆ABC 180o around M. Label the image appropriately.

The figures below represent the process.

B B
C'
a
b b

M M
→
b
a a
A C A C

3. In your group discuss and list the properties of rectangle ACBC′.

The following is a list of possible properties for the rectangle:

Sides:
ƒ Opposite sides are congruent. (Rotation preserves congruence.)
ƒ Opposite sides are parallel. (The consecutive angles are supplementary. If the
interior angles on the same side of a transversal are congruent, then the lines
intersected by the transversal are parallel.)
ƒ Consecutive sides are perpendicular to each other.

Vertex angles:
ƒ All vertex angles are congruent right angles.
ƒ Opposite angles are congruent and supplementary.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-20

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Rotate a Triangle

ƒ Consecutive angles are congruent and supplementary.

Diagonals:
ƒ Diagonals bisect each other.
ƒ Diagonals are congruent.
ƒ The point of intersection of the diagonals is also the center of the circumscribed
circle.

C' B
a
b

C' B
b a
a b
A C
M

b
a
A C
Symmetry:
ƒ The rectangle has two symmetry lines.
ƒ The rectangle has 180o (or 2-fold) rotational symmetry.

Participants may argue that the diagonals are symmetry lines. To clear up this
misconception, trace the figure on patty paper and fold along the diagonals.

4. On a clean sheet of graph paper draw obtuse or acute scalene ∆ABC, with one of its
sides along one of the grid lines. Locate the vertices at grid line intersections. The
sides of the triangle should be 1.5 to 3 inches long. Locate the midpoint, M, of AB .
Draw the median to side AB . Label the figure appropriately indicating congruence or
non-congruence.

5. Rotate ∆ABC 180o around M. Label the image appropriately.

The figures below represent examples.

B C' B
a
b b

M M
→
b
a a
A C A C

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-21

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Rotate a Triangle

6. In your group discuss and list the properties of parallelogram ACBC′ under the given
headings.

Sides:
ƒ Opposite sides are congruent. (Rotation preserves congruence.)
ƒ Opposite sides are parallel. (Alternate interior angles are congruent, because
rotation preserves congruence.)

Vertex angles:
ƒ Opposite vertex angles are congruent. (Rotation preserves congruence.)
ƒ Consecutive angles are supplementary. (Interior angles on the same side of a
transversal that intersects parallel lines are supplementary.)

Diagonals:
ƒ Diagonals bisect each other. (M is the midpoint of AB and MC is mapped
to MC ' , so that M the midpoint of CC′.)

Symmetry:
ƒ The parallelogram has 180o (or 2-fold) rotation. (The figure was produced using
180o rotation.)

Participants may argue that the diagonals are symmetry lines. To clear up this
misconception, trace the figure on patty paper and fold along the diagonals.

7. Compare the properties of the parallelogram with the properties of the rectangle.
In both quadrilaterals opposite sides are parallel and congruent; opposite angles are
congruent; diagonals bisect each other.

Application problems:

8. Calculate the measure of each lettered angle.

a = 38o
b = 48o
c = 90o
e 52º d = 48o
f g e = 90o
f = 142o
k

g = 38o
a
b 94 °
h
j
h = 38o
c
j = 71o
k = 109o

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-22

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Rotate a Triangle

9. RC is a diagonal of rectangle RECT. Where can the other two vertices, E and T, be
located?
The diagonals are congruent and intersect each
other at their respective midpoints. The other T C
diagonal can be any congruent line segment, whose
midpoint is also the midpoint of the given segment.
Find the midpoint of RC . Draw a segment from the
midpoint to a point not on RC , congruent to one
half of RC . Extend the segment an equal distance
R E
on the opposite side of the midpoint.

Alternatively: Draw a circle using RC as the diameter. ET is also a diameter.

E
T

Participants are performing at the van Hiele Descriptive Level because properties of
rectangles and parallelograms are being developed. The comparison of the properties of
the rectangle and parallelogram approaches the Relational Level.

In 7 participants apply the properties of parallelograms and rectangles at the Descriptive

Level.

In 8, the first solution requires the Descriptive Level. In the second solution, participants
combine two figures with related properties, thus approaching the Relational Level.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-23

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Rotate a Triangle

Rotate a Triangle

1. In the middle of a sheet of graph paper draw scalene right ∆ABC, with
the right angle at vertex C. Draw the legs along grid lines and locate the
vertices at grid line intersections. The lengths of the legs of the triangle
should be 2 to 3 inches long. Locate the midpoint, M, of the hypotenuse.
Draw the median to the hypotenuse. Label the figure appropriately to
indicate congruence or non-congruence.

2. Rotate ∆ABC 180o around M. Label the image appropriately.

3. In your group discuss and list the properties of rectangle ACBC′.

Sides Vertex Angles

Diagonals Symmetry

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-24

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Rotate a Triangle

4. On a clean sheet of graph paper draw obtuse or acute scalene ∆ABC, with
one of its sides along one of the grid lines. Locate the vertices at grid line
intersections. The sides of the triangle should be 1.5 to 3 inches long.
Locate the midpoint, M, of AB . Draw the median to side AB . Label the
figure appropriately indicating congruence or non-congruence.

5. Rotate ∆ABC 180o around M. Label the image appropriately.

6. In your group discuss and list the properties of parallelogram ACBC′

under the given headings.

Sides Vertex Angles

Diagonals Symmetry

7. Compare the properties of the parallelogram with the properties of the

rectangle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-25

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Rotate a Triangle

Application problems:

8. Calculate the measure of each lettered angle.

e 52 °
f g
k

a h
b 94 ° j
c

a = ____ b = ____ c = ____ d = ____ e = ____

f = ____ g = ____ h = ____ j = ____ k = ____

9. RC is a diagonal of rectangle RECT. Where can the other two vertices, E

and T, be located?

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-26

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

Overview: Participants discover the properties of trapezoids.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.006.B. The beginning teacher writes equations of lines given various
characteristics (e.g., two points, a point and slope, slope and y-
intercept).
II.006.G. The beginning teacher models and solves problems involving
linear and quadratic equations and inequalities using a variety of
methods, including technology.
III.011.A. The beginning teacher applies dimensional analysis to
derive units and formulas in a variety of situations (e.g., rates of
change of one variable with respect to another) and to find and
evaluate solutions to problems.
III.011.B. The beginning teacher applies formulas for perimeter, area,
surface area, and volume of geometric figures and shapes (e.g.,
polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres) to solve
problems.
III.012.B. The beginning teacher uses properties of points, lines,
planes, angles, lengths, and distances to solve problems.
III.012.C. The beginning teacher applies the properties of parallel and
perpendicular lines to solve problems.
III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric
constructions made using compass and straightedge, reflection
devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons
and their components.
III.014.E. The beginning teacher applies concepts and properties of
slope, midpoint, parallelism, perpendicularity, and distance to explore
properties of geometric figures and solve problems in the coordinate
plane.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.018.F. The beginning teacher evaluates how well a mathematical
model represents a real-world situation.
V.019.B. The beginning teacher understands how mathematics is used
to model and solve problems in other disciplines (e.g., art, music,
science, social science, business).
V.019.D. The beginning teacher communicates mathematical ideas
using a variety of representations (e.g., numeric, verbal, graphical,
pictorial, symbolic, concrete).
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-27

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems
to represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
d.2.B. The student uses slopes and equations of lines to investigate
geometric relationships, including parallel lines, perpendicular lines,
and special segments of triangles and other polygons.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
polygons and their component parts.

Background: Participants need a knowledge of properties of isosceles triangles,

parallel lines, and their associated angles.

Materials: easel paper, graph paper, colored markers, centimeter ruler

New Terms: isosceles trapezoid, midsegment

Procedures:

Distribute the activity sheet. Participants complete 1 – 8. They may work independently
or in groups. 1 and 2 provide information and vocabulary needed to define a trapezoid
and an isosceles trapezoid.

1. Draw a large scalene triangle. Label it ∆MRA. Locate a point T on MR . Construct a

line parallel to RA , through point T, which intersects MA at point P. TRAP is a
trapezoid. The parallel sides RA and TP are called the bases of the trapezoid. In your
figure clearly identify the angle relations within the trapezoid.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-28

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

T P
180º - b 180º - a

b a
R A

2. Draw a large isosceles triangle. Label it ∆QSO with vertex angle ∠ Q. Locate a point
I on SQ . Construct a line parallel to side SO through point I, which intersects QO at
point C. ISOC is an isosceles trapezoid. The congruent pairs of angles in an isosceles
trapezoid are called base angles. In your figure, clearly identify the angle relations
within the trapezoid.

I d d C
180º - d 180º - d

d d
S O

An isosceles trapezoid is a trapezoid with congruent legs.

3. Work with your group to find the angle and side properties of trapezoids and isosceles
trapezoids, using your knowledge of parallel lines, isosceles and scalene triangles. Be
prepared to share and justify the properties during whole class discussion. Note that
some books define a trapezoid as a quadrilateral with “at least one pair of parallel
sides.” Others define a trapezoid as a quadrilateral with “only one pair of parallel
sides”. This module will use the latter definition.

Possible properties:
ƒ A trapezoid has one pair of parallel sides.
ƒ The sum of the angles of a trapezoid is 360o.
ƒ The pairs of consecutive angles at opposite bases are supplementary. (Interior
angles on the same side of a transversal that intersects parallel lines are
supplementary.)
ƒ In an isosceles trapezoid the base angles (two pairs) are congruent.
ƒ In an isosceles trapezoid the non-parallel sides are congruent.

4. Locate the vertices of quadrilateral ABCD on the coordinate plane at A (−7, −3),
B (−3, 3), C (1, 5), and D (5, 3). Explain why ABCD is a trapezoid.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-29

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

Sides BC and AD are

C
parallel because their slopes
L
1
B D are both . The other two
2
sides have unequal slopes.
M

5. Find the midpoints, M and L, of AB and CD respectively. ML is called a midsegment.

M (−5, 0), L (3, 4).

A midsegment is a line segment with endpoints that are the midpoints of the legs of
the trapezoid.

6. How do the coordinates of a midpoint of a segment relate to the coordinates of its

endpoints?
The coordinates of the midpoint are the averages of the coordinates of the endpoints:
⎛ −7 − 3 −3 + 3 ⎞ ⎛ 1+ 5 5 + 3 ⎞
M (−5, 0) = ⎜ , ⎟ ; L (3, 4) = ⎜ , ⎟.
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠

7. How does the slope of the midsegment relate to the slopes of the parallel sides of the
trapezoid?
1
The slope of the midsegment is , which is the same as the slopes of the bases.
2
Therefore the midsegment is parallel to the bases.

8. How does the length of the midsegment relate to the lengths of the parallel sides of
the trapezoid?
The length of midsegment ML is the average of the lengths of BC and AD .

When most groups have completed 1 – 8, conduct a whole class discussion on the
properties of trapezoids. Participants justify each property. Possible properties, with
justifications in parentheses follow:
ƒ A trapezoid has exactly one pair of parallel sides (shown by the construction).

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-30

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

ƒ The sum of the angles is 360o. (There are two sets of interior supplementary angles
between parallel lines.)
ƒ The pairs of consecutive angles at opposite bases are supplementary. (The interior
angles on the same side of a transversal that intersects parallel lines are
supplementary.)
ƒ In an isosceles trapezoid, the two pairs of base angles are congruent. (The two base
angles from the original isosceles triangle are congruent; the other two angles are
supplementary to the original two base angles, and must also be congruent to each
other.)
ƒ In an isosceles trapezoid, the non-parallel sides are congruent. (Using 2 as an
example, the base angles are congruent and congruent to the corresponding base
angles of ∆QIC. Therefore, ∆QIC is isosceles and QI ≅ QC . Since QS ≅ QO , the
congruent sides of ∆QSO, then by subtraction, IS ≅ CO ).
ƒ The midsegment of a trapezoid is the segment connecting the midpoints of the non-
parallel sides.
ƒ The midsegment of a trapezoid is parallel to the bases. Its length is the average of the
lengths of the two bases.

Frequently the bases of a trapezoid are designated by the variables b1 and b2. Write an
expression for the length of the midsegment in terms of b1 and b2.
b + b2
The length of the midsegment is given by 1 .
2

9. Draw a triangle on a coordinate grid. Locate the midpoints of two of the sides. Draw
the midsegment. Why is the midsegment parallel to the third side?
2
In the example shown, the slopes of the base and the midsegment are both , and
3
thus the base and the midsegment are parallel.

Compare the length of the midsegment to

the length of the parallel side of the triangle.

The length of the midsegment is half of the

length of the parallel side.

Use the formula for the length of the midsegment of a trapezoid to justify this
relationship.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-31

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

Since b is the length of the parallel side, or base, of the triangle, then in the formula for
b + b2
the length of the midsegment, 1 , b1 = 0, b2 = b. By substitution, the length of the
2
b
midsegment is .
2

Application problems:
48 cm
10.

j k
h

77° 55°
60 cm

h= 125o
j= 77o
k= 54 cm

11. The perimeter of isosceles trapezoid ADEF is 218 in. BC is the midsegment. Find
AD.
The non-parallel sides of the trapezoid are
D 4x - 1 E congruent. Each non-parallel side measures
2(2x + 1). The longer base is 8 in. longer than the
shorter base.
C B Perimeter of ADEF= 2(4x – 1) + 8 + 2[2(2x+1)]
= 8x −2 + 8 + 8x + 4
2x + 1
= 16x + 10
= 218 in.
A 4 in. F
16x = 208 in.
x = 13 in.
Therefore, AD = 2(2x + 1) = 4x + 2
= 4(13) + 2
= 54 in.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-32

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

12. In the two-dimensional figure, find the angle measure x and y. Explain.

The two quadrilaterals on the left and right sides of the

figure are kites. The lower quadrilateral is a trapezoid, so
the upper base angles are supplementary to the lower
base angles. The measures of the upper trapezoid angles
are both 102o.
Therefore x = 360o – 154o – 102o = 104 o;
y = 360o – 160o – 102o = 98 o.
x y
154° 160°

102°
102°
78°

The following problems are taken from Serra, M. (2003). Discovering Geometry: An
Investigative Approach (3rd ed.). Emeryville, CA: Key Curriculum Press, pp. 271, 283
with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

The Romans used the classical arch design in bridges, aqueducts, and buildings in the
early centuries of the Common Era. The classical semicircular arch is really half of a
regular polygon built with wedge-shaped blocks whose faces are isosceles trapezoids.
Each block supports the blocks surrounding it.

13. The inner edge of the arch in the diagram is half of a regular 18-gon. Calculate the
measures of all the angles in the nine isosceles trapezoids making up the arch.
Keystone

Voussoir

Abutment

80° Rise

80° 20°
Span

Imagine that the isosceles trapezoids become isosceles triangles by regaining their
truncated vertices. There are nine isosceles triangles, whose vertices meet at the
center of a semicircle. The nine vertices each contribute 20o to the 180o at the
center of the span. The sum of the base angles of each isosceles triangle is
180 o – 20 o = 160 o. The trapezoid’s base angles on the outer edge of the arch each
measure 80o. The base angles on the inner edge of the arch are supplementary to
the exterior base angle, and measure 100o each.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-33

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

14. What is the measure of each angle in the isosceles trapezoid face of a voussoir in a
15-stone arch?
As in 13, the vertices of the isosceles triangles created by the 15 trapezoids span
180o. Each vertex spans 12o. The sum of the outer base angles in each trapezoid is
180o – 12o = 168o. Each outer base angle measures 84o. Each supplementary inner
base angle measures 96o.

Remind participants to add the new terms isosceles trapezoid and midsegment to their
glossaries.

Participants are performing at the van Hiele Relational Level as they develop properties
of trapezoids and isosceles trapezoids using deductive reasoning rather than observation
and measurement.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-34

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

1. Draw a large scalene triangle. Label it ∆MRA. Locate a point T on MR .

Construct a line parallel to side RA , through point T, which intersects
MA at P. TRAP is a trapezoid. The parallel sides RA and TP are called
the bases of the trapezoid. In your figure clearly identify the angle
relations within the trapezoid.

2. Draw a large isosceles triangle. Label it ∆QSO with vertex angle ∠ Q.

Locate a point I on SQ . Construct a line parallel to side SO , through
point I, which intersects QO at C. ISOC is an isosceles trapezoid. The
congruent pairs of angles in an isosceles trapezoid are called base angles.
In your figure, clearly identify the angle relations within the trapezoid.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-35

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

3. Work with your group to find the angle and side properties of trapezoids
and isosceles trapezoids, using your knowledge of parallel lines, isosceles
and scalene triangles. Be prepared to share and justify your properties
during whole class discussion. Note that some books define a trapezoid
as a quadrilateral with “at least one pair of parallel sides.” Others define a
trapezoid as a quadrilateral with “only one pair of parallel sides”. This
module will use the latter definition.

4. Locate the vertices of quadrilateral ABCD on the coordinate plane at

A (−7, −3), B (−3, 3), C (1, 5), and D (5, 3). Explain why ABCD is a
trapezoid.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-36

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

5. Find the midpoints, M and L, of AB and CD respectively. ML is called a

midsegment.

6. How do the coordinates of a midpoint of a segment relate to the

coordinates of its endpoints?

7. How does the slope of the midsegment relate to the slopes of the parallel
sides of the trapezoid?

8. How does the length of the midsegment relate to the lengths of the
parallel sides of the trapezoid?

9. Draw a triangle on a coordinate grid. Locate the midpoints of two of the

sides. Draw the midsegment.
Why is the midsegment parallel to the third side?

Compare the length of the midsegment to the length of the parallel side
of the triangle.

Application problems:
48 cm
10.

j k
h

77° 55°
60 cm
h= ____ º
j= ____ º
k= ____ cm

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-37

 Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

11. The perimeter of isosceles trapezoid ADEF is 218 in. BC is the

midsegment. Find AD.

4x − 1 E
D

C B

2x + 1

A 4 in. F

12. In the two-dimensional figure below, find the angle measures x and y.
Explain.

x y
154° 160°

78°

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-38

 Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Truncate a Triangle’s Vertex

The following problems are taken from Serra, M. (2003). Discovering Geometry: An
Investigative Approach (3rd ed.) Emeryville, CA: Key Curriculum Press, pp. 271, 283
with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

The Romans used the classical arch design in bridges,

aqueducts, and buildings in the early centuries of the
Common Era. The classical semicircular arch is really
half of a regular polygon built with wedge-shaped
blocks whose faces are isosceles trapezoids. Each
block supports the blocks surrounding it.

13. The inner edge of the arch in the diagram is half of a regular 18-gon.
Calculate the measures of all the angles in the nine isosceles trapezoids
making up the arch.
Keystone

Voussoir

Abutment
Rise

Span

14. What is the measure of each angle in the isosceles trapezoid face of a
voussoir in a 15-stone arch?

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-39

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Vesica Pisces

Vesica Pisces
Overview: Using properties of the different quadrilaterals, participants determine
the figures within the vesica pisces.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.018.F. The beginning teacher evaluates how well a mathematical
model represents a real-world situation.
V.019.B. The beginning teacher understands how mathematics is used
to model and solve problems in other disciplines (e.g., art, music,
science, social science, business).
V.019.D. The beginning teacher communicates mathematical ideas
using a variety of representations (e.g., numeric, verbal, graphical,
pictorial, symbolic, concrete).

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.E. The student uses deductive reasoning to prove a statement.
b.4. The student uses a variety of representations to describe geometric
relationships and solve problems.

Background: Participants need to be familiar with triangle and quadrilateral

properties.

Materials: compass, easel paper, colored markers, centimeter ruler

New Terms: vesica pisces

Procedures:

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-40

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Vesica Pisces

Distribute the activity sheet.

Circles A and B pass through each others’ centers and intersect at C and D.
Draw the following
C
segments:
AB, AC , AD, BC , BD, CD.

AB intersects circle A at P,
and circle B at Q.
X
P
A B
Q
Draw
PQ , PC , PD , QC , QD.
AB intersects CD at X.

In your group identify and classify triangles and quadrilaterals. Explain why the
properties you have identified are true. For example, if a rhombus is identified on the
basis of four congruent sides, explain why the four sides are congruent.

Allow participants 30 – 45 minutes to work together to complete the activity. Then ask
individuals to share results, while one participant records on a sheet of easel paper.

This figure is called a vesica pisces. A vesica pisces is created by two identical
intersecting circles, the circumference of one intersecting the center of the other.

All of the figures within the vesica pisces can be derived from the congruent radii
AB, AC , AD , BC , and BD. Some properties and figures follow. Many more can be
discerned.

ƒ ADBC is a rhombus. ( AC ≅ AD ≅ BC ≅ BD .)
ƒ AB ⊥ CD . (Diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each other.)
ƒ AX = XB. (Diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other.) PA = BQ (Radii of congruent
circles are congruent.) Therefore, PA + AX = PX = XB + BQ= XQ.
ƒ PCQD is a rhombus. (Diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular bisectors of each
other.)
ƒ ∆ABC is equilateral. (AB = AC = BC.) Similarly, ∆ABD is equilateral.
ƒ m∠PAC =120o.( m∠CAB = 60o, since ∆ABC is equilateral.)
ƒ m∠ACD = 30o. (Diagonal CD of rhombus ACBD bisects ∠ ACB.)
ƒ m∠PCA = 30o. (∆PAC is isosceles since PA = AC; m∠PAC = 120o.)

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-41

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Vesica Pisces

ƒ m∠PCD = 60o. ( m∠ACD + m∠PCA = m∠PCD .)

ƒ ∆PCD is equilateral. ( ∠PCD ≅ ∠PDC , since the diagonals lie on the line of
symmetry.)
ƒ m∠DAC = 120o = 2 m∠DPC . (The measure of the arc is two times the measure of
the inscribed angle intercepting the arc.)
Conclude the unit with the following discussion:

Explain to participants that the vesica pisces is the concept behind the traditional compass
and straight edge construction of the perpendicular bisector of a segment, in this
case, AB . On a clean sheet of paper participants draw a segment and construct the
perpendicular bisector using a compass. They then draw congruent circles with centers at
the ends of the segments and radii equal to the lengths of the segments.

Participants are performing at the van Hiele Relational Level because they use logical
justifications to explore relationships among properties of quadrilaterals.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-42

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Vesica Pisces

Vesica Pisces

The vesica pisces on the lid of Chalice Well was

designed by the excavator of Glastonbury Abbey,
Frederick Bligh Bond, resident archaeologist of
Glastonbury Abbey in the early 1900s. It was
given to the Chalice Well as a thanks-offering for
Peace in 1919, at the end of World War One, by
friends and lovers of the Well and of Glastonbury.

A B

Circles A and B pass through each others’ centers and intersect at C and D.
Draw the following segments: AB, AC , AD, BC , BD, CD.
AB intersects circle A at P and circle B at Q.
Draw PQ, PC , PD, QC , QD.
AB intersects CD at X.

In your group identify and classify triangles and quadrilaterals using side
lengths and angle measurements. Explain why the properties you have
identified are true. For example, if a rhombus is identified on the basis of
four congruent sides, explain why the four sides are congruent.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-43

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Exploring Prisms

Exploring Prisms
Overview: Participants construct prisms by using the polygon as the base and the
translation vectors from its vertices to construct a prism. This is done
in a three-dimensional coordinate system. Participants explore and
describe attributes of prisms.

Objectives: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.004.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and extends patterns and
relationships in data presented tables, sequences, or graphs.
III.011.B. The beginning teacher applies formulas for perimeter, area,
surface area, and volume of geometric figures and shapes (e.g.,
polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders).
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two-and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
III.014.D. The beginning teacher applies transformations in the
coordinate plane.
V.019.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and uses multiple
representations of a mathematical concept (e.g., a point and its
coordinates, the area of a circle as a quadratic function of the radius,
probability as the ratio of two areas, area of a plane region as a definite
integral).
V.019.C. The beginning teacher translates mathematical ideas between
verbal and symbolic forms.
V.019.D. The beginning teacher communicates mathematical ideas
using a variety of representations (e.g., numeric, verbal, graphical,
pictorial, symbolic, concrete).

Geometry TEKS
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.4. The student selects an appropriate representation (concrete,
pictorial, graphical, verbal, or symbolic) in order to solve problems.
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems
to represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
e.2.D. The student analyzes the characteristics of three-dimensional
figures and their component parts.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make
conjectures and justify properties of geometric figures.

Background: Participants should be able to describe and perform a coordinate

translation in two dimensions.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-44

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Exploring Prisms

Materials: cardstock, scissors, floral wire, modeling clay, one-inch grid easel
paper, Flash animation video 3-D.html, computer and projector or
computer lab accessibility

New Terms: prism

Procedures:

Assign a different polygon to each group of participants. After translating the polygons
on grid paper according to the rule ( x, y ) → ( x, y + 5) , each group constructs a prism with
the assigned polygon as its base. Suggestions follow:

Group 1: triangle
Group 2: square
Group 3: rectangle (non-square)
Group 4: regular pentagon
Group 5: regular hexagon
Group 6: regular octagon

Note: A template is provided for the regular pentagon, hexagon, and octagon in the
activity pages.

1. On one-inch grid easel paper plot and label the coordinates of the vertices of your
polygon. Connect the vertices to sketch the polygon.
In a two-dimensional coordinate plane, have participants plot ordered pairs that form
the vertices of the assigned polygon. They then connect the points to sketch the
polygon.

2. Translate the polygon in the xy-plane according to the rule ( x, y ) → ( x, y + 5) . Draw

the image and the pre-image on the same coordinate grid. Draw the translation
vectors.

Have participants translate the polygon according to the rule ( x, y ) → ( x, y + 5) . They

should connect the vertices of the original polygon to the corresponding vertices of its
image. A sample figure with translation vectors is shown on the next page.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-45

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Exploring Prisms

11

10

2 4 6 8 1

3. On a piece of cardstock, construct and cut out two polygons that are congruent to the
one you plotted on the grid paper. Cut equal lengths of floral wire to use to connect
the corresponding vertices of the two polygons. Use small balls of modeling clay to
attach the ends of the floral wire to the corresponding vertices of the two polygons.
Place one cardstock polygon over the original polygon and the other polygon over the
image of the original polygon.

Note: Participants will need to keep their wire-frame prisms for use again in
Exploring Pyramids and Cones.

4. What do the pieces of floral wire represent?

The pieces of floral wire represent the translation vectors. When the translation
vectors are coplanar with the polygon, all parts of the figure are in the plane, in
this case the xy-plane.

5. Keeping the floral wire connected to the polygons, translate the image out of the
plane.
A sample translation is shown on the next page.

Use the Flash animation video 3-D.html to demonstrate the translation.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-46

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Exploring Prisms

T( x, y ) → ( x, y + 5) T( x, y , z ) → ( x, y , z + 5)
0 in the plane 90 out of the plane

6. When the translation vectors no longer lie in the same plane as the two polygons,
describe the resulting figure.
When the translation vectors are not in the xy-plane, the figure becomes a
three-dimensional solid, a prism, generated by translating the polygon along these
vectors. The original polygon and its image then become the bases of the prism and
lie in parallel planes. The figures bounded by the florist wire and the edges of the
bases are rectangles.

Remind participants to add the new term prism to their glossaries.

7. Complete the table below for your wire frame figure.

(Sample answer is shown for a square prism.)

Number of Number of Number of

Height
faces edges vertices
6 12 8 5 in

8. Collect data from the other groups to complete the table below.
Sample data are shown in the table.

Number of Number of
Name of Polygon Number of faces
edges vertices
Triangle 5 9 6
Quadrilateral 6 12 8
Pentagon 7 15 10
Hexagon 8 18 12
Octagon 10 24 16
Decagon 12 30 20

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-47

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Quadrilaterals Exploring Prisms

9. What patterns and relationships do you notice?

Answers will vary but may include the following:
ƒ There are more edges than faces
ƒ The number of vertices on the prism is twice the number of vertices on the
original polygon
ƒ The number of edges on the prism is three times the number of edges on the
original polygon
ƒ The number of faces on the prism is equal to the number of edges on the
original polygon plus two

10. Use your table to discover a rule relating the number of faces, F, number of edges, E,
and number of vertices, V, of a prism.
Answers will vary but may include:
ƒ V+F=E+2
ƒ V+F–2=E
ƒ V–2=E–F
ƒ V+F–E=2
This relationship, V + F − E = 2 , describes the Euler characteristic or Euler number
for convex polyhedra.

Participants are working at the Descriptive Level in describing the properties of a prism.
They are using inductive reasoning throughout this activity.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-48

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Exploring Prisms

Exploring Prisms

Your instructor will assign a polygon to your group. Record the name of
your polygon below.

Polygon:

1. On one-inch grid easel paper plot and label the coordinates of the vertices
of your polygon. Connect the vertices to sketch the polygon.

2. Translate your polygon in the xy-plane according to the rule

( x, y ) → ( x, y + 5) . Draw the image and pre-image on the same coordinate
grid. Draw the translation vectors.

3. On a piece of cardstock, construct and cut out two polygons that are
congruent to the one you plotted on the grid paper. Cut equal lengths of
floral wire to use to connect the corresponding vertices of your two
polygons. Use small balls of modeling clay to attach the ends of the
floral wire to the corresponding vertices of the two polygons. Place one
cardstock polygon over the original polygon and the other polygon over
the image of the original polygon.

4. What do the pieces of floral wire represent?

5. Keeping the floral wire connected to the polygons, translate the image out
of the plane.

6. When the translation vectors no longer lie in the same plane as the two
polygons, describe the resulting figure.

7. Complete the table below for your wire frame figure.

Number of Number of Number

Height
faces edges of vertices

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-49

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Exploring Prisms

8. Collect data from the other groups to complete the table below.

Name of Number of Number of Number of

Polygon faces edges vertices

9. What patterns and relationships do you notice?

10. Use your table to discover a rule relating the number of faces, F, the
number of edges, E, and the number of vertices, V, of a prism.

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-50

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Exploring Prisms

Template – Regular Pentagon

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-51

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Exploring Prisms

Template – Regular Hexagon

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-52

Activity Page: Quadrilaterals Exploring Prisms

Template – Regular Octagon

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-53

Supplemental Material: Quadrilaterals References and Additional Resources

References and Additional Resources

Craine, T. V., & Rubenstein, R. N. (1993). A quadrilateral hierarchy to facilitate learning

in geometry. Mathematics Teacher, 86(1), 30-36.

Exploring quadrilaterals: Sides and angles. (2000). Retrieved April 7, 2004, from M2T2

Web site: http://www.mste.uiuc.edu/m2t2/geometry/quadsInQuads.html

Okolica, S., & Macrina, G. (1992). Integrating transformation geometry into traditional

high school geometry. Mathematics Teacher, 85(9), 716-719.

Serra, M. (1994). Patty paper geometry. Emeryville, CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Serra, M. (2003). Discovering geometry (3rd ed.). Emeryville, CA: Key Curriculum

Press.

TransmoGrapher2. (1997-2004). Retrieved April 6, 2004, from The Shodor Education

Foundation, Inc Web site: http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/

transform2/index.html

Geometry Module DRAFT 3-54

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Informal Language

Unit 4 – Informal Logic/Deductive Reasoning

Informal Language
Overview: Participants learn/review some of the language and notation used in
informal logic.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.3.A. The student determines if the converse of a conditional
statement is true or false.

Background: Presenter will provide background information for participants.

Materials: easel paper, colored markers

New terms: argument, biconditional statement, conditional statement,

contrapositive statement, converse statement, inverse statement

Procedures:

This activity introduces terms and mathematical notation that will be used later in this
unit. Before participants begin work on the activity, define and apply terms with the
example:

A logical argument consists of a set of premises and a conclusion. Example: “Mr. French
is the only calculus teacher. Mr. French, Ms. Anderson, Ms. Allen, and Ms. Short teach
pre-calculus.”

When you write “If I take calculus, then Mr. French is my teacher” you are writing a
conditional statement.

“I take calculus” is the premise and “Mr. French is my teacher” is the conclusion.
To create the converse of a conditional statement, the two parts of the conditional
statement are simply interchanged.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-1

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Informal Language

“If Mr. French is my teacher, then I take calculus.”

Is the converse of a conditional statement always true when the conditional

statement is true?
Not always, because, in our example, I could take pre-calculus from Mr. French.

The negation of a sentence is made by placing the word not in the sentence appropriately.
To create the inverse, the two parts of a conditional are negated.
“If I do not take calculus, then Mr. French is not my teacher.”

Is the inverse of a conditional statement always true when the conditional statement
is true?
Not always, because, in our example, Mr. French could be my pre-calculus teacher.

To create the contrapositive, the two parts of the conditional are reversed and negated.
“If Mr. French is not my teacher, then I don’t take calculus.”

Is the contrapositive of a conditional statement always true when the conditional

statement is true?
Yes, it is true.

Remind participants to add the terms argument, conditional statement, converse

statement, inverse statement, and contrapositive statement to their glossaries.

Have each group work on the activity page. Provide each group with easel paper and
markers. After groups complete the activity page, have each group present a different
problem to the entire group.

Write the given sentences (1−4) as conditional statements. Then find their converses,
inverses, and contrapositives. Assuming the conditional statements are true, determine
whether each of the converse, inverse, and contrapositive statements is true or false. Give
an explanation for each false statement.

1. I use an umbrella when it rains.

Conditional: If it rains, then I use an umbrella.
Converse: If I use an umbrella, then it rains.
Inverse: If it does not rain, then I do not use an umbrella.
Contrapositive: If I do not use an umbrella, then it does not rain.
The converse is not always true, since I may also use my umbrella on a very sunny
day.
The inverse is not always true, because if it does not rain, it may be a very sunny day
and I may use my umbrella.
The contrapositive is true.

2. A rhombus is a quadrilateral with four congruent sides.

Conditional: If a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then it has four congruent sides.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-2

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Informal Language

Converse: If a quadrilateral has four congruent sides, then it is a rhombus.

Inverse: If a quadrilateral is not a rhombus, then it does not have four congruent sides.
Contrapositive: If a quadrilateral does not have four congruent sides, then it is not a
rhombus.
The conditional is true. The converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive are true.

3. The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle is 180 ° .

Conditional: If a polygon is a triangle, then the sum of the measures of the interior
angles is 180°.
Converse: If the sum of the measures of the interior angles is 180°, then the polygon is
a triangle.
Inverse: If a polygon is not a triangle, then the sum of the measures of the interior
angles is not 180°.
Contrapositive: If the sum of the measures of the interior angles is not 180°, then the
polygon is not a triangle.
The conditional is true. The converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive are true.

4. Vertical angles are congruent.

Conditional: If two angles are vertical angles, then they are congruent.
Converse: If two angles are congruent, then they are vertical angles.
Inverse: If two angles are not vertical angles, then they are not congruent.
Contrapositive: If two angles are not congruent, then they are not vertical angles.
The conditional is true. The converse is not always true If an angle is bisected, then
the two smaller angles are congruent but not vertical angles.
The inverse is not always true. If two right angles are adjacent, then they are not
vertical, but they are congruent.
The contrapositive is true.

5. Write a real-world example of a conditional statement with a true converse.

Possible Answer:
My cat and dog always eat together.
Conditional: If my cat eats, then my dog eats.
Converse: If my dog eats, then my cat eats.

6. Write a real-world example of a conditional statement with a false converse.

Possible Answer:
Every Mathlete at Lanier Middle School is an 8th-grade student.
Conditional: If a Lanier Middle School student is a Mathlete, then he/she is an 8th -
grade student.
Converse: If a Lanier Middle School student is an 8th-grade student, then he/she is a
Mathlete.
We do not know that every 8th-grade student is a Mathlete.

7. What conclusions can be made about the truth of the converse, inverse, and
contrapositive statements for a given conditional that is true?
When two statements are either both true or both false they form a biconditional

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-3

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Informal Language

statement. A conditional and its contrapositive form a biconditional statement. The

converse and inverse statements of a conditional statement also form a biconditional
statement.

Remind participants to add the term biconditional statement to their glossaries.

Close the activity with a discussion of the van Hiele levels for this activity. Success in
this activity indicates that participants are working at the Relational Level or approaching
the Deductive Level, because they informally recognize relationships among a
conditional statement and its contrapositive, converse, and inverse statements.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-4

Activity Page: Informal Logic Informal Language

Informal Language

Write the given sentences (1-4) as conditional statements then find their
converses, inverses, and contrapositives. Assuming the conditional
statements are true, determine whether each of the converse, inverse, and
contrapositive statements is true or false. Give an explanation for each false
statement.

1. I use an umbrella when it rains.

2. A rhombus is a quadrilateral with four congruent sides.

3. The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle is 180 ° .

4. Vertical angles are congruent.

5. Write a real-world example of a conditional statement with a true

converse.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4- 5

Activity Page: Informal Logic Informal Language

6. Write a real-world example of a conditional statement with a false

converse.

7. What conclusions can be made about the truth of converse, inverse, and
contrapositive statements when the conditional is true?

Geometry Module DRAFT 4- 6

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Inductive Triangle Congruence

Inductive Triangle Congruence

Overview: This activity develops the triangle congruence theorems using an
inductive approach.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric
constructions made using compass and straight edge, reflection
devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
V.018.A. The beginning teacher understands the nature of proof,
including indirect proof, in mathematics.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
b.3.E. The student uses deductive reasoning to prove a statement.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
polygons and their component parts.
e.3.B. The student justifies and applies triangle congruence
relationships.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4- 7

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Inductive Triangle Congruence

Background: Participants should be familiar with congruent triangle properties.

Materials: unlined 8.5 in. by 11 in. paper, compass, centimeter ruler, protractor,
spaghetti, scissors

New terms: deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning

Procedures:

Begin by explaining the differences between inductive and deductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning is the process of observing data, recognizing patterns, and making
generalizations from your observations. Much of geometry uses inductive reasoning
especially at the lower van Hiele levels. Discovering that the sum of the measures of the
interior angles of a triangle is 180 ° by tearing the angles of different triangles and
observing that the sum of their measures is 180 ° for each of the triangles is an example
of inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is used in geometry to discovery properties of
figures.

Deductive reasoning is the process of proving or demonstrating that if certain statements

are accepted as true, then other statements can be shown to follow. When a lawyer uses
evidence (premises) to prove his/her case (conclusion), he/she is using deductive
reasoning. Deductive reasoning is used in geometry to draw conclusions from given
information. Deductive reasoning is generally used at the higher van Hiele levels.

Remind participants to add the terms inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning to their
glossaries.

We draw conclusions about the congruence relationship of two triangles using both types
of reasoning. This activity uses an inductive approach (with examples taken from
Discovering Geometry: An Investigative Approach, 3rd Edition, © 2003, pp. 100, 219,
220, 221, 225, and 226, with permission from Key Curriculum Press).

The activity will address the question “When are two triangles congruent?” Participants
will complete the activity in groups. Have each member within a group complete all the
constructions. Groups will need white paper, compasses, rulers, protractors, and/or
spaghetti to complete the activity. Then lead a whole-group discussion to formalize the
congruence theorems.

Follow the directions to discover the circumstances under which two triangles are
congruent. Figures may be constructed using compass, ruler, protractor, or spaghetti.

1. Construct a triangle on paper from the three measurements given. Cut strips of paper to
the appropriate lengths or use spaghetti cut to the appropriate lengths. Be sure you
match up the endpoints labeled with the same letter.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4- 8

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Inductive Triangle Congruence

AC = 4 in.
BC = 5 in.
AB = 7 in.

Compare your triangle with the triangles made by others in your group. (One way to
compare them is to place the triangles on top of each other to see if they
coincide.) Is it possible to construct different triangles from the given information or
will all the triangles be congruent?

Remind participants that they cannot arbitrarily select any three lengths for the sides
of a triangle to be assured that those sides will form a triangle.

Side-Side-Side (SSS):
If the three sides of one triangle are congruent to the three sides of another triangle,
what can we conclude?
The triangles are congruent. This is known as the Side-Side-Side Triangle
Congruence Theorem (SSS).

2. Construct a triangle from the measurements given. Be sure to match up the endpoints
labeled with the same letter.

DE = 6 in.
DF = 5 in.
m ∠D = 20 °

Compare your triangle with the triangles made by others in your group. (One way to
compare them is to place the triangles on top of each other to see if they coincide.) Is
it possible to construct different triangles from the given information or will all the
triangles be congruent?

Side-Angle-Side (SAS):
If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are congruent to two sides and the
included angle of another triangle, what can we conclude?
The triangles are congruent. This is known as the Side-Angle-Side Triangle
Congruence Theorem (SAS).

3. Construct a triangle from the three measurements given. Be sure that the side is
included between the given angles.

MT = 8 in.
m ∠M = 30°
m ∠T = 50°

Compare your triangle with the triangles made by others in your group. Is it possible
to construct different triangles from the given information or will all the triangles be
congruent?

Geometry Module DRAFT 4- 9

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Inductive Triangle Congruence

Angle-Side-Angle (ASA):
If two angles and the included side of one triangle are congruent to two angles and the
included side of another triangle, what can we conclude?
The triangles are congruent. This is known as the Angle-Side-Angle Triangle
Congruence Theorem (ASA)

4. Construct a triangle from the three measurements given.

ST = 6 in.
TU = 3 in.
m ∠S = 20°

Compare your triangle with the triangles made by others in your group. Is it possible to
construct different triangles from the given information or will all the triangles be
congruent?

Side-Side-Angle (SSA):
If two sides and a non-included angle of one triangle are congruent to two sides and a
non-included angle of another triangle, what can we conclude?
The triangles are not always congruent, because two different triangles are possible.
Therefore, there is no Side-Side-Angle congruence theorem.

5. Construct a triangle from the three measurements given.

m ∠M = 50°
m ∠N = 60°
m ∠O = 70°

Compare your triangle with the triangles made by others in your group. (One way to
compare them is to place the triangles on top of each other to see if they coincide.) Is it
possible to construct different triangles from the given information or will all the
triangles be congruent?

Angle-Angle-Angle (AAA):
If three angles of one triangle are congruent to three angles of another, what can we
conclude?
The triangles are not always congruent, because there are an infinite number of
possible triangles of different side lengths with those angle measures. Therefore, there
is no Angle-Angle-Angle congruence theorem.

6. In ∆ ABC and ∆ XYZ given below, label ∠ A ≅ ∠ X, ∠ B ≅ ∠ Y, and BC ≅ YZ . Is

∆ ABC ≅ ∆ XYZ? Explain your answer.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-10

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Inductive Triangle Congruence

A X

B C Y Z

If two angles in one triangle are congruent to two angles in another, then the third
pair of angles are congruent, i.e. ∠ C ≅ ∠ Z. So we now have two angles and the
included side of one triangle congruent to two angles and the included side of another.
By the ASA Congruence Theorem, ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ XYZ. The AAS Congruence
Theorem follows directly from the ASA Congruence Theorem.

Angle-Angle-Side Triangle Congruence Theorem (AAS):

If two angles and a non-included side of one triangle are congruent to the
corresponding angles and side of another triangle, what can we conclude?
The triangles are congruent. This is known as the Angle-Angle-Side Triangle
Congruence Theorem (AAS)

Success with this activity indicates that participants are working initially at the
Descriptive Level, as they use inductive methods to determine triangle congruence.
Participants approach the Deductive Level in 6, when they relate properties from
previously determined combinations of properties.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-11

Activity Page: Informal Logic Inductive Triangle Congruence

Inductive Triangle Congruences

Follow the directions to discover the circumstances under which two

triangles are congruent. Figures may be constructed using compass, ruler,
protractor, or spaghetti.

1. Construct a triangle on paper from the three measurements given. Cut

strips of paper to the appropriate lengths or use spaghetti cut to the
appropriate lengths. Be sure you match up the endpoints labeled with the
same letter.

AC = 4 in.
BC = 5 in.
AB = 7 in.

Compare your triangle with the triangles made by others in your group.
(One way to compare them is to place the triangles on top of each other to
see if they coincide.) Is it possible to construct different triangles from
the given information or will all the triangles be congruent?

Side-Side-Side (SSS):
If the three sides of one triangle are congruent to the three sides of another
triangle, what can we conclude?

2. Construct a triangle from the measurements given. Be sure to match up

the endpoints labeled with the same letter.

DE = 6 in.
DF = 5 in.
m ∠D = 20 °

Compare your triangle with the triangles made by others in your group.
(One way to compare them is to place the triangles on top of each other to
see if they coincide.) Is it possible to construct different triangles from the
given information or will all the triangles be congruent?

Side-Angle-Side (SAS):
If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are congruent to two
sides and the included angle of another triangle, what can you conclude?

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-12

Activity Page: Informal Logic Inductive Triangle Congruence

3. Construct a triangle from the three measurements given. Be sure that the
side is included between the given angles.

MT = 8 in.
m ∠M = 30°
m ∠T = 50°

Compare your triangle with the triangles made by others in your group. Is
it possible to construct different triangles from the given information or
will all the triangles be congruent?

Angle-Side-Angle (ASA):
If two angles and the included side of one triangle are congruent to two
angles and the included side of another triangle, what can you conclude?

4. Construct a triangle from the three measurements given.

ST = 6 in.
TU = 3 in.
m ∠S = 20°

Compare your triangle with the triangles made by others in your group. Is
it possible to construct different triangles from the given information, or
will all the triangles be congruent?

Side-Side-Angle (SSA):
If two sides and a non-included angle of one triangle are congruent to two
sides and a non-included angle of another triangle, what can we conclude?

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-13

Activity Page: Informal Logic Inductive Triangle Congruence

5. Construct a triangle from the three measurements given.

m ∠M = 50°
m ∠N = 60°
m ∠O = 70°

Compare your triangle with the triangles made by others in your group.
(One way to compare them is to place the triangles on top of each other to
see if they coincide.) Is it possible to construct different triangles from the
given information or will all the triangles be congruent?

Angle-Angle-Angle (AAA):
If three angles of one triangle are congruent to three angles of another,
what can you conclude?

6. In ∆ ABC and ∆ XYZ given below, label ∠ A ≅ ∠ X, ∠ B ≅ ∠ Y, and

BC ≅ YZ . Is ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ XYZ? Explain your answer.

A X

B C Y Z

Angle-Angle-Side (AAS):
If two angles and a non-included side of one triangle are congruent to the
corresponding angles and side of another triangle, what can we conclude?

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-14

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Deductive Triangle Congruence

Deductive Triangle Congruence

Overview: Participants use the triangle congruence theorems to prove that given
triangles are congruent.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
V.018.A. The beginning teacher understands the nature of proof,
including indirect proof, in mathematics.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
b.3.E. The student uses deductive reasoning to prove a statement.
e.3.B. The student justifies and applies triangle congruence
relationships.

Background: Participants need to know the SSS, SAS, AAS, and ASA triangle
congruence theorems.

Materials:

New Terms: reflexive property

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-15

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Deductive Triangle Congruence

Procedures:

If necessary, review the SSS, SAS, ASA, and AAS triangle congruence theorems. In the
activity, participants will determine if two triangles are congruent, and if they are
congruent, they will deductively prove congruence.

Participants will need to use the reflexive property in this activity. The reflexive property
states that a number is equal to itself. It will be used to describe when two figures share a
common side.
For example, in ∆DEG and ∆EFG shown below, EG ≅ EG by the reflexive property.

G
F

Remind participants to add the term reflexive property to their glossaries.

The following problems are taken from Discovering Geometry: An Investigative

Approach, 3rd Edition, © 2003, pp. 227-228, 231 with permission from Key Curriculum
Press.

Discuss the activity sheet with participants. List all the facts that may help prove that the
two triangles in 1 are congruent. Participants work together to complete 2−14.

Determine if each pair of triangles below is congruent. List facts about the triangles that
help in your determination and mark them in the figures. If they are congruent, state the
congruence theorem used to prove the two triangles congruent.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-16

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Deductive Triangle Congruence

1. 2. B
B

A C
A E
D C

D
F

∠A≅ ∠D (Given) ∠F≅ ∠A (Given)

AC ≅ CD (Given) ∠ D≅ ∠C (Given)

∠ACB ≅ ∠DCE (Vertical angles DF ≅ AC (Given)

are congruent.)
∆ABC ≅ ∆FED (ASA)
∆ACB ≅ ∆DCE (ASA)

3. 4. E
L H
S

W
O I
G F
A
O

AS ≅ LO (Given) HW ≅ FW (Given)

∠A ≅ ∠O (Given) ∠HWO ≅ ∠EWF (Vertical angles are

congruent.)
∠G ≅ ∠I (Given)
Not enough information is given to prove
∆AGS ≅ ∆OIL (AAS) that the two triangles are congruent.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-17

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Deductive Triangle Congruence

5. 6.

H S N
A

T L
I

F I

∠HFS ≅ ∠SFI (Given) IN AL (Given)

HS ≅ SI (Given) ∠ITN ≅ ∠ATL (Vertical angles are

congruent.)

FS ≅ FS (Reflexive property) ∠TAL ≅ ∠TIN , (If two parallel lines

∠TNI ≅ ∠TLA are cut by a
Not enough information is given to prove transversal, then the
that the two triangles are congruent. alternate interior
angles are
congruent.)

Not enough information is given to prove

that the two triangles are congruent.
7. 8.
A
E
F
H

W
T
A
D O

AD ≅ ED , (Given) OH AT , (Given)
AF ≅ EF HW ≅ WT

DF ≅ DF (Reflexive property) ∠WOH ≅ ∠WAT , (If two parallel lines

∠WHO ≅ ∠WTA are cut by a
∆FAD ≅ ∆FED (SSS) transversal, then
the alternate interior
angles are
congruent.)

∆WHO ≅ ∆WTA (ASA)

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-18

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Deductive Triangle Congruence

9. 10.
L F A

A
S M R
∠LAT ≅ ∠TAS (Given) m ∠FMR = 90 ° (Given)
LA ≅ AS (Given) m ∠ARM = 90 ° (Given)
AT ≅ AT (Reflexive property) FM ≅ AR (Given)

∆LAT ≅ ∆SAT (SAS) MR ≅ MR (Reflexive property)

∆RMF ≅ ∆MRA (AAS)

Use the triangle congruence theorems to answer the questions below. Explain your
answers. I

C W
11. 12.
N S R
Y
R O
1 2
C H
Given: CN ≅ WN
∠C ≅ ∠W Given: CS ≅ HR
∠1 ≅ ∠2
Is RN ≅ ON ?
Is CR ≅ HS ?
Yes
This cannot be determined. The congruent
∠RNC ≅ ∠ONW (Vertical angles parts lead to the ambiguous case SSA for
are congruent.) ∆SCH and ∆RHC .

∆CNR ≅ ∆WNO (ASA)

RN ≅ ON (Corresponding
parts of congruent
triangles are
congruent.)

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-19

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Deductive Triangle Congruence

13. 14.
H
I A

T R
F L
Y
A

Given: ∠S ≅ ∠I Given: HALF is a parallelogram.

∠G ≅ ∠A
T is the midpoint of SI Is HA ≅ HF ?

Is SG ≅ IA ? This cannot be determined.

Yes ∆HLF ≅ ∆LHA by ASA. However, HA and

HF are not corresponding sides of
TS ≅ IT (Definition of midpoint) congruent triangles, therefore we know
nothing about the relationship of their
∆TSG ≅ ∆TIA (AAS) lengths.

SG ≅ IA (Corresponding parts
of congruent triangles
are congruent.)

Success with this activity indicates that participants are working at the Deductive Level,
because they produce formal deductive arguments.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-20

Activity Page: Informal Logic Deductive Triangle Congruence

Deductive Triangle Congruence

Determine if each pair of triangles below is congruent. List facts about the
triangles that help in your determination and mark them in the figures. If
they are congruent, state the congruence theorem used to prove the two
triangles congruent.

1. B 2. B

A C

D A E C

D
F
Given: ∠ A ≅ ∠ D Given: ∠ F ≅ ∠ A
AC ≅ CD ∠ D≅ ∠C
DF ≅ AC

3. L 4.
S
E
H

O I
G W
A
F
O

Given: AS ≅ LO Given: HW ≅ FW
∠A ≅ ∠O
∠G ≅ ∠I

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-21

Activity Page: Informal Logic Deductive Triangle Congruence

5. 6.

H S N
A

T L
I

F I

Given: ∠HFS ≅ ∠SFI Given: IN AL

HS ≅ SI

7. 8.
A
E
F
H

W
T
A
D O

Given: AD ≅ ED Given: OH AT
AF ≅ EF HW ≅ WT

9. 10.
L F A

A
S M R
Given: ∠LAT ≅ ∠TAS Given: m ∠FMR = 90 °
LA ≅ AS m ∠ARM = 90 °
FM ≅ AR

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-22

Activity Page: Informal Logic Deductive Triangle Congruence

Use the triangle congruence theorems to answer the questions below.

Explain your answers.

11. 12. I

C W
N S R
Y
R O
1 2
C H

Given: CN ≅ WN Given: CS ≅ HR
∠C ≅ ∠W ∠1 ≅ ∠2
Is RN ≅ ON ? Is CR ≅ HS ?

13. 14.
I H
A
G

T R

Y F L
A

Given: ∠S ≅ ∠I Given: HALF is a parallelogram.

∠G ≅ ∠A Is HA ≅ HF ?
T is the midpoint of SI
Is SG ≅ IA ?

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-23

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Quadrilateral Proofs

Quadrilateral Proofs
Overview: Using definitions of quadrilaterals and triangle congruence theorems,
participants prove properties of quadrilaterals.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
V.018.A. The beginning teacher understands the nature of proof,
including indirect proof, in mathematics.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning and theorems.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
b.3.E. The student uses deductive reasoning to prove a statement.
e.3.B. The student justifies and applies triangle congruence
relationships.

Background: Participants need a knowledge of definitions and rules learned in

previous units.

Materials: easel paper, colored markers

New Terms:

Procedures:

Using the congruence theorems and definitions presented earlier in this module,
participants will prove theorems about quadrilaterals. These activities are taken from

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-24

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Quadrilateral Proofs

Discovering Geometry: An Investigative Approach, 3rd Edition, © 2003, pp. 692-693 with
permission from Key Curriculum Press.

Lead a discussion to prove that a diagonal of a parallelogram divides the parallelogram

into two congruent triangles.

Put the following on a transparency or on easel paper.

D
C

A B

Given: Parallelogram ABCD with diagonal AC

Prove: ∆ABC ≅ ∆CDA

Have participants list facts that they observe from the figure.

Quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram (Given)

AB || DC and AD || BC (Opposite sides of a parallelogram

are parallel.)

∠ CAB ≅ ∠ ACD and ∠ BCA ≅ ∠ DAC (If two parallel lines are cut by
transversal, then the alternate
interior angles are congruent.)

AC ≅ AC (Reflexive property)

∆ABC ≅ ∆CDA (ASA)

This proves that a diagonal of a parallelogram divides the parallelogram into two
congruent triangles.

Participants should work in groups to prove 1 – 6 on the activity sheet. They may use the
above theorem in their proofs. Give each group easel paper and markers. When all the
groups are finished, have each group present on easel paper a different proof to the entire
class.

Work with participants in your group to prove the statements below. Before you try to
prove each statement, draw a diagram and state both what is given and what you are
proving in terms of your diagram.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-25

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Quadrilateral Proofs

1. Prove that the opposite sides of a parallelogram are congruent.

D
C

A B

Given: Parallelogram ABCD with diagonal AC

Prove: AB ≅ DC , AD ≅ BC

Parallelogram ABCD with diagonal AC (Given)

∆ABC ≅ ∆CDA (A diagonal of a parallelogram

divides the parallelogram into two
congruent triangles.)

AB ≅ DC and AD ≅ BC (Corresponding parts of

congruent triangles are congruent.)

2. Prove that the opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent.

D
C

A B
Given: Parallelogram ABCD with diagonal AC
Prove: ∠D ≅ ∠B , ∠DAB ≅ ∠BCD

Parallelogram ABCD with diagonal AC (Given)

∆ABC ≅ ∆CDA (A diagonal of a parallelogram

divides the parallelogram into two
congruent triangles.)

∠D ≅ ∠B (Corresponding parts of
congruent triangles are congruent.)

Similarly if we use BD as the diagonal instead of AC , then the congruent angles

would be ∠DAB and ∠BCD .

3. State and prove the converse of 1 above.

If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the quadrilateral is a

parallelogram.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-26

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Quadrilateral Proofs

D C

A B

Given: Quadrilateral ABCD, AB ≅ DC , AD ≅ BC

Prove: Quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram

Quadrilateral ABCD with a diagonal AC (Given)

AB ≅ DC , AD ≅ BC (Given)

AC ≅ AC (Reflexive property)

∆ADC ≅ ∆CBA (SSS)

∠DCA ≅ ∠BAC and ∠DAC ≅ ∠ACB (Corresponding parts of

congruent triangles are congruent.)

DC AB and DA BC (If two lines are cut by a transversal

so that the alternating angles are
congruent, then the two lines are
parallel.)

Quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram (Definition of parallelogram)

A parallel proof could have been constructed using BD instead of AC as the diagonal
of the quadrilateral to prove ∆BAD ≅ ∆DCB .

4. Prove that each diagonal of a rhombus bisects the two opposite angles.

D C

A B

Given: Rhombus ABCD with diagonal AC

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-27

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Quadrilateral Proofs

Prove: ∠DAC ≅ ∠BAC and ∠DCA ≅ ∠BCA

Rhombus ABCD with diagonal AC (Given)

AB ≅ BC ≅ CD ≅ DA (Definition of rhombus)

AC ≅ AC (Reflexive property)

∆ABC ≅ ∆ADC (SSS)

∠DAC ≅ ∠BAC and ∠DCA ≅ ∠BCA (Corresponding parts of congruent

triangles are congruent.)

∠DAB and ∠DCB are bisected by AC (Definition of angle bisector)

A parallel proof could have been constructed using BD instead of AC as the diagonal
of the rhombus to prove that BD bisects ∠DCB and ∠DAB .

5. Prove that the diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.

D C

A B

Given: Rectangle ABCD with diagonals AC and BD

Prove: AC ≅ BD

∠DAB and ∠CBA are right angles (Definition of rectangle)

∠ADC and ∠BCD are right angles

∠DAB ≅ ∠CBA and ∠ADC ≅ ∠BCD (All right angles are congruent.)

∠DAB and ∠CBA are supplementary angles (Definition of supplementary angles)

∠ADC and ∠BCD are supplementary angles

DA BC and AB DC (If two lines are cut by a transversal

so that the interior angles on the
same side of the transversal are
supplementary, then the lines are
parallel.)

ABCD is a parallelogram (Definition of a parallelogram)

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-28

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Quadrilateral Proofs

AB ≅ CD and AD ≅ BC (Opposite sides of a parallelogram

are congruent.)

AB ≅ AB (Reflexive property)

∆DAB ≅ ∆CBA (SSS)

AC ≅ BD (Corresponding sides of congruent

triangles are congruent.)

6. Prove that the angles between each pair of congruent sides of a kite are bisected by a
diagonal.
B

A C

D
Given: Kite ABCD with diagonals AC and BD
Prove: ∠ABD ≅ ∠CBD and ∠ADB ≅ ∠CDB

Kite ABCD with diagonals AC and BD (Given)

AB ≅ BC and AD ≅ CD (Definition of a kite)

BD ≅ BD (Reflexive property)

∆ABC ≅ ∆CBD (SSS)

∠ABD ≅ ∠CBD and ∠ADB ≅ ∠CDB (Corresponding parts of congruent

triangles are congruent.)

Success with this activity indicates that participants are working at the Deductive Level
because they develop formal deductive proofs.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-29

Activity Page: Informal Logic Quadrilateral Proofs

Quadrilateral Proofs

Work with participants in your group to prove the statements below. Before
you try to prove each statement, draw a diagram, state what is given and
what you are proving in terms of your diagram.

1. Prove that the opposite sides of a parallelogram are congruent.

2. Prove that the opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent.

3. State and prove the converse of 1 above.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-30

Activity Page: Informal Logic Quadrilateral Proofs

4. Prove that each diagonal of a rhombus bisects the two opposite angles.

5. Prove that the diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.

6. Prove that the angles between each pair of congruent sides of a kite are
bisected by a diagonal.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-31

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Alternate Definitions

Alternate Definitions of Quadrilaterals

Overview: Participants write alternative definitions of quadrilaterals based on
their properties.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons
and their components.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning and theorems.
b.3.A. The student determines if the converse of a conditional
statement is true or false.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
b.3.E. The student uses deductive reasoning to prove a statement.

Background: Participants should be familiar with definitions and properties of

quadrilaterals, conditional statements, and biconditional statements.

Materials: easel paper, colored markers

New Terms:

Procedures:

We have an exhaustive list of the properties for each quadrilateral. This exhaustive list
defines the quadrilateral. In this activity we will identify the properties that are sufficient

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-32

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Alternate Definitions

to alternately define the particular quadrilateral. There are many ways of combining
properties to sufficiently define a particular quadrilateral.

Work through the following example with the group.

Consider the rhombus:

1. State the basic definition of the rhombus as a conditional statement.

If a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then it has four congruent sides.

2. List properties of the rhombus as conditional statements.

ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then its opposite sides are parallel.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then its opposite sides are congruent.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then its opposite angles are congruent.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then its consecutive angles are supplementary.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then its diagonals bisect the vertex angles.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then its diagonals are perpendicular to each other.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then its diagonals bisect each other.

3. Select no more than two properties which can be combined to sufficiently define the
rhombus alternately.
In this example we will select perpendicular diagonals and bisecting diagonals.

4. Write a proof to show that the properties selected in 3 sufficiently define the rhombus.

Diagram:
D C

A B

Given: Quadrilateral ABCD with diagonals AC and BD intersecting at point E,

AC ⊥ BD , EA ≅ EC and EB ≅ ED
Prove: Quadrilateral ABCD is a rhombus.

AC ⊥ BD (Given)

∠AEB ≅ ∠BEC ≅ ∠CED ≅ ∠DEA (Perpendicular lines intersect

to form four congruent right
angles.)
EA ≅ EC and EB ≅ ED (Given)

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-33

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Alternate Definitions

∆AEB ≅ ∆AED ≅ ∆CED ≅ ∆CEB (SAS)

AB ≅ DA ≅ CD ≅ BC (Corresponding sides of
congruent triangles are
congruent.)

Quadrilateral ABCD is a rhombus (Definition of a rhombus)

5. If the given properties selected do provide an alternate definition, then rewrite the
alternate definition as a biconditional statement, using “if and only if” which implies
that both the conditional and its converse are true.
A quadrilateral is a rhombus if and only if the diagonals are perpendicular to each
other and bisect each other.

Participants now work in groups, each group focusing on a different quadrilateral from
the activity sheet. Provide each group with easel paper and markers. Participants develop
an alternate definition for their quadrilateral following the method used above. Each
group presents its work on easel paper to the entire group.

The definitions and properties are listed below. Since there are a variety of ways to
combine properties to find alternate definitions, answers may vary. The group which
works on the rhombus should combine different pairs of properties from those used in the
example.

Square
1. State the basic definition of the square as a conditional statement.
If a quadrilateral is a square, then it has four congruent sides and four right angles.

2. List properties of the square as conditional statements.

ƒ If a quadrilateral is a square, then its opposite sides are parallel.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a square, then its sides are congruent.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a square, then its consecutive sides are perpendicular.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a square, then its diagonals are congruent to one another.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a square, then its diagonal bisect each other at right angles.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a square, then its diagonals bisect the vertex angles.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a square, then its angles are congruent right angles.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a square, then its consecutive angles are congruent and
supplementary.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a square, then its opposite angles are congruent and
supplementary.

Kite
1. State the basic definition of the kite as a conditional statement.
If a quadrilateral is a kite, then it has two distinct pairs of consecutive congruent sides.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-34

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Alternate Definitions

2. List properties of the kite as conditional statements.

ƒ If a quadrilateral is a kite, then its opposite sides are not congruent.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a kite, then its diagonals are perpendicular to each other.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a kite, then it has one pair of congruent opposite angles.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a kite, then only one of its diagonals is bisected by the other
diagonal, and the bisected diagonal has its endpoints on the congruent angles’
vertex.

Parallelogram
1. State the basic definition of the parallelogram as a conditional statement.
If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then it has two pairs of parallel sides.

2. List properties of the parallelogram as conditional statements.

ƒ If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its opposite sides are congruent.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its opposite angles are congruent.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its consecutive angles are
supplementary.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its diagonals bisect one another.

Rectangle
1. State the basic definition of the rectangle as a conditional statement.
If a quadrilateral is a rectangle, then it has four right angles.

2. List properties of the rectangle as conditional statements.

ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rectangle, then its opposite sides are congruent.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rectangle, then its opposite sides are parallel.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rectangle, then its opposite angles are congruent.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rectangle, then its opposite angles are supplementary.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rectangle, then its consecutive angles are congruent.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rectangle, then its consecutive angles are supplementary.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rectangle, then its diagonals are congruent.
ƒ If a quadrilateral is a rectangle, then its diagonals bisect one another.

Ask each group to present their work to close the activity.

Success with this activity indicates that participants are working at the Deductive Level,
because they created deductive proofs.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-35

Activity Page: Informal Logic Alternate Definitions

Alternate Definitions

Pick one of the following quadrilaterals: rhombus, square, kite,

parallelogram, or rectangle.

1. State the basic definition of the quadrilateral as a conditional statement.

2. List properties of the quadrilateral as conditional statements.

3. Select no more than two properties which can be combined to sufficiently

define the quadrilateral alternately.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-36

Activity Page: Informal Logic Alternate Definitions

4. Write a proof to show that the properties selected in 3 sufficiently define

the quadrilateral.

Diagram:

Given:

Prove:

Proof:

5. If the given properties selected do provide an alternate definition, then

rewrite the alternate definition as a biconditional statement, using “if and
only if”, which implies that both the conditional and its converse are true.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-37

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Circle Proofs

Circle Proofs
Overview: Participants prove theorems about inscribed angles.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.013.B The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of circles and
the lines that intersect them.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
V.018.A. The beginning teacher understand the nature of proof,
including indirect proof, in mathematics.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning and theorems.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
b.3.E. The student uses deductive reasoning to prove a statement.
e.2.C. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
circles and the lines that intersect them.

Background: Participants need to be familiar with exterior-interior angle

relationships in triangles.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-38

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Circle Proofs

Materials:

New Terms: intercepted arc

Procedures:

We formally introduce circle properties in a later unit, but we will explore them in this
unit with theorems taken from Discovering Geometry: An Investigative Approach, 3rd
Edition, © 2003, pp. 325-327 with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

Participants should recall the definitions of central angle and inscribed angle. A central
angle has its vertex at the center of the circle. An inscribed angle has its vertex on the
circle and its sides are chords.

We define intercepted arc of a circle as the part of a circle whose endpoints are the points
where the segments of a central angle intersect the circle.

In the following proofs, we use the fact that the measure of a central angle is equal to the
measure of its intercepted arc. In the diagram below m ∠BAC = m BC , i.e., if m ∠BAC =
25 ° , then m BC = 25 ° and visa versa.

Remind participants to add the term intercepted arc to their glossaries.

1. Show that the measure of an inscribed angle ( ∠ MDR) in a circle equals half the
measure of its central angle ( ∠ MOR) that intercepts the same arc ( RM ) when a side
of the angle, DR , passes through the center of the circle.
M

D O R

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-39

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Circle Proofs

Given: Circle O with inscribed ∠ MDR on diameter DR

1
Prove: m ∠MDR = m ∠MOR
2
m ∠MOR = m MR (The measure of a central angle is
equal to the measure of its
intercepted arc.)

m ∠MOR = m ∠MDO + m ∠DMO (The measure of the remote exterior

angle of a triangle is equal to the
sum of the measures of the two
opposite interior angles of the
triangle.)

DO ≅ MO (Radii of the same circle are

congruent.)

∆DMO is isosceles (Definition of isosceles triangle.)

m ∠MDO = m ∠DMO (Base angles of an isosceles triangle

are congruent.)

m ∠MOR = m ∠MDO + m ∠MDO (Substitution)

m ∠MOR = 2 m ∠MDO (Combine like terms)

1
m ∠MDO = m ∠MOR (Divide by 2)
2
This proves that the measure of the inscribed angle in a circle equals half the measure
of its central angle that intercepts the same arc.

2. Show that the measure of an inscribed angle in a circle equals half the measure of its
intercepted arc when the center of the circle is outside the angle.

O
D R
M
K

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-40

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Circle Proofs

Given: Circle O with inscribed ∠ MDK on one side of diameter DR

1
Prove: m∠MDK = KM
2

m ∠ KDR = m ∠ MDR + m ∠ MDK (Angle Addition)

m ∠MDK = m ∠ KDR - m ∠ MDR (Subtract m ∠ MDR)

1 1
m ∠ MDR = MR and m ∠ KDR = KR (We proved that the measure of an
2 2
inscribed angle in a circle equals
half the measure of its central angle
when a side of the angle passes
through the center of the circle.)

mKR = mMR + mKM (Arc Addition)

1 1
m∠MDK = ( MR + KM ) − MR (Substitution)
2 2

1
m∠MDK = KM (Simplify)
2
Therefore the measure of an inscribed angle in a circle equals half the measure of its
intercepted arc when the center of the circle is outside the angle.

3. Show that the measure of an inscribed angle in a circle equals half the measure of its
intercepted arc when the center of the circle is inside the angle.
M

O
D R

Given: Circle O with inscribed angle ∠ MDK

1
Prove: m∠MDK = mMRK
2

m∠MDK = m∠MDR + m∠RDK (Angle Addition)

1 1
m∠MDR = mMR and m∠RDK = mRK (The measure of an inscribed angle
2 2

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-41

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Circle Proofs

in a circle equals half the measure of

its central angle when a side of the
angle passes through the center of
the circle.)
1 1
m∠MDK = mMR + mRK (Substitution)
2 2
1
m∠MDK = (mMR + mRK ) (Simplify)
2
mMR + mRK = mMRK (Arc Addition)

1
m∠MDK = mMRK (Substitution)
2
Therefore the measure of an inscribed angle in a circle equals half the measure of its
intercepted arc when the center of the circle is inside the angle.

We have proved all three cases. Therefore we can simply state the theorem as the
measure of an inscribed angle in a circle equals half the measure of its intercepted arc.

4. Show that inscribed angles that intercept the same arc are congruent.
A

C O
D

Given: Circle O with ∠ CAB and ∠ BDC inscribed in BC

Prove: m∠CAB = m∠BDC

1 1
m∠CAB = BC and m∠BDC = BC (The measure of an inscribed angle
2 2
in a circle equals half the measure of
its intercepted arc.)

m∠CAB = m∠BDC (Substitution)

Therefore inscribed angles that intercept the same arc are congruent.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-42

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Informal Logic Circle Proofs

5. Show that the angles inscribed in a semicircle are right angles.

C

A B
D

Given: ∠ACB is an inscribed angle, ADB is a diameter

Prove: m∠ACD =90 °

∠ACB is an inscribed angle (Given)

ADB is a diameter (Given)

m∠ADB = 180 ° (A straight angle measures 180 ° .)

1
m∠ACD = m∠ADB (The measure of an inscribed angle
2
in a circle equals half the measure of
its intercepted arc.)

m∠ACD =90 ° (Substitution)

1
Therefore, the measure of an inscribed angle in a semicircle is ( 180° ) or 90 ° .
2
Success in this activity indicates that participants are at the Deductive Level, because
they formally develop deductive proofs.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-43

Activity Page: Informal Logic Circle Proofs

Circle Proofs

Write the given statements and those that are to be proved. Then write the
proof itself.

1. Show that the measure of an inscribed angle ( ∠ MDR) in a circle equals

half the measure of its central angle ( ∠ MOR) that intercepts the same arc
( RM ) when a side of the angle, DR , passes through the center of the
circle.
M

D O R

2. Show that the measure of an inscribed angle in a circle equals half the
measure of its intercepted arc when the center of the circle is outside the
angle.

O
D R
M
K

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-44

Activity Page: Informal Logic Circle Proofs

3. Show that the measure of an inscribed angle in a circle equals half the
measure of its intercepted arc when the center of the circle is inside the
angle.
M

O
D R

4. Show that inscribed angles that intercept the same arc are congruent.
A

C O
D

5. Show that the angles inscribed in a semicircle are right angles.

A B
D

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-45

Supplemental Material: Informal Logic References and Additional Resources

References and Additional Resources

Aichele, D. (1998). Geometry explorations and applications. Evanston, Illinois:

McDougal Littell.

Crowley, Mary L. (1987). The van Hiele model of the development of geometric

thought. In Learning and teaching geometry, K-12, 1987 Yearbook of the

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, edited by Mary Montgomery

Lindquist. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

de Villiers, M. (1996). The future of secondary school geometry. Paper presented at the

SOSI Geometry Imperfect Conference, 2-4 October 1996, UNISA, Pretoria,

South Africa. Retrieved from http://www.sun.ac.za/mathed/malati

Fuys, D., Geddes, D., & Tischler, D. (1988). The Van Hiele model of thinking in

geometry among adolescents. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education

Monograph Number 3. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of

Mathematics.

Jacobs, H. R. (2001). Geometry (2nd ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

Serra, M. (2003). Discovering geometry: An investigative approach (3rd ed.). Emeryville,

CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Geometry Module DRAFT 4-46

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area What Is Area?

Unit 5 − Area

What Is Area?
Overview: Participants determine the area of a rectangle by counting the number
of square units needed to cover the region. Group discussion deepens
participants’ understanding of area (number of square units needed to
cover a given region) and connects the formula for the area of a
rectangle to the underlying array structure.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.013.D. The beginning teacher computes the perimeter, area, and
volume of figures and shapes created by subdividing and combining
other figures and shapes (e.g., arc length, area of sectors).
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
e.1.A. The student finds area of regular polygons and composite
figures.

Background: No prerequisite knowledge is necessary for this activity.

Materials: index cards, patty paper, straightedge

New Terms: area

Procedures:

Background information: In order to accurately count the units of a given space, it is

necessary to mentally organize the space in a structured manner. However, research
referenced in Schifter, Bastable, and Russell (2002), on how children learn the concept of
area supports the theory that the structure of the rectangular array is not intuitively
obvious to children. When asked to cover a rectangular region, children progress from
incomplete or unsystematic coverings to individually drawn units to the use of a row or
column iteration. Gradually they will rely less on drawing and move towards
multiplication or repeated addition. Covering a rectangular region with unit squares helps
children understand area measure, but they must ultimately be able to formally connect
area, linear measurement, and multiplication in order to truly understand the area formula
A = b ⋅ h . According to Schifter, Bastable, and Russell (2002), the drawing, filling, and
counting that children use in this developmental process are both motor and mental
actions that coordinate to organize spatial structuring.

What implications does this research have for secondary teachers? Many of our students
come to us with an understanding of area at the Visual Level of the van Hiele model of

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-1

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area What Is Area?

geometric development. They recognize figures by their shape and understand area as the
blank space within the boundaries. Others have moved to the Descriptive Level, which
implies that they can mentally see the rectangular array which overlays the shape. This
activity asks participants to draw the grid, rather than giving them a pre-structured grid in
order for them to experience the type of activity necessary to move a student from the
Visual to the Descriptive Level. Secondary students functioning on the Relational Level
are able to compare linear dimensions with grid areas and apply formulas with
understanding. Teachers must be aware that although students may become proficient at
rote application of formulas, they may not be functioning at the Relational Level. If they
have not been given sufficient opportunity to understand the principles behind the
formulas, they will have difficulty modifying a procedure to fit a particular situation as is
necessary to find areas of composite figures and shaded regions.

Distribute index cards to participants and ask them to write a response to the question
“What is area?”. Indicate that they will have an opportunity to share and revise their
responses at the conclusion of this activity. Then, allow time for participants, working
independently or in pairs, to complete the activity using the patty paper or straight edge to
determine the number of square units needed to completely cover the rectangular region.

Note that the given square units are not convenient measures, such as 1 cm2 or 1 in.2.
Consequently, participants will be less likely to simply measure the rectangle and use the
area formula without having the experience of drawing the units. Whether participants
mark off the units on two adjacent sides of the rectangle and multiply or actually draw in
one or more rows and columns of units, they will be counting the units by considering
how many rows of squares are needed to cover the region.

1. Determine the number of square units needed to cover this rectangular region.

1 square unit

The rectangle measures 6 ·8 square units. Therefore, it will take 48 square units to
cover the rectangle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-2

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area What Is Area?

2. Determine the number of square units needed to cover this rectangular region. (Same
rectangle, different square unit)

1 square unit

The rectangle measures 9 · 12 square units. Therefore, it will take 108 square units to
cover the rectangle.

Was it necessary to draw all 108 square units to determine that it would take 108
units to cover the rectangular region?
No. After drawing one row and one column of square units the total number of squares
can be obtained by considering how many rows and columns of squares will be needed to
cover the entire region.

Has the activity caused you to reconsider your definition of area?

Some participants may have responded to the question “What is area?” by stating that
area is the amount of space covered by a particular region. It is important to make the
distinction that area is the number of square units needed to completely cover a particular
region. If the same figure is measured in different units, the number representing the area
of the region will be different, but the area will remain constant.

A more abstract definition of area, provided by Michael Serra (Serra, 2003) states that
area is a function that assigns to each two-dimensional geometric shape a nonnegative
real number so that (1) the area of every point is zero, (2) the areas of congruent figures
are equal, and (3) if a shape is partitioned into sub regions, then the sum of the areas of
those sub regions equals the area of the shape.

If a figure is rotated so that a different side is considered the base, will the area
formula necessarily give the same result?
Yes. Surprisingly, the answer to this question is not evident to all students. According to
the work of Clements and Battista referenced in Schifter, Bastable, and Russell (2002),
orientation, the position of objects in space in relation to an external frame of reference,
is for some children a part of their definition of a particular shape. If secondary students
have not had adequate experience manipulating by rotating, flipping or sliding shapes,
they may be working at the Visual Level with an inadequate understanding of shape. In
developing an understanding of area, students should observe that rotations, reflections
and translations preserve area while dilations do not.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-3

Activity Page: Area What is Area?

What Is Area?

1. Determine the number of square units needed to cover this rectangular

region.

1 square unit

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-4

Activity Page: Area What is Area?

2. Determine the number of square units needed to cover this rectangular

region. (Same rectangle, different square unit)

1 square unit

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-5

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Investigating Area Formulas

Investigating Area Formulas

Overview: Participants cut and rearrange two triangles, a parallelogram, and a kite
to form rectangles with the same areas. Examination of the points at
which figures must be cut will lead to a deeper understanding of the
formula for the area of each figure.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.011.A. The beginning teacher applies dimensional analysis to
derive units and formulas in a variety of situations (e.g., rates of
change of one variable with respect to another and to find and evaluate
solutions to problems.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.

Background: Participants should know the formula for the area of a rectangle and be
able to identify the base and altitude of a triangle, the base and altitude
of a parallelogram, and the diagonals of a kite.

Materials: transparency sheets, colored pencils, glue or tape, patty paper, scissors

New Terms:

Procedures:

Participants sit in groups of 3-4 to work collaboratively. However, each participant

should cut and glue his/her own figures.

Can any parallelogram, triangle or kite be cut and rearranged to form a rectangle
of the same area?
Allow time for discussion within groups and then ask two or three groups to share their
responses with the entire group. It is fairly obvious that any parallelogram can be cut to

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-6

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Investigating Area Formulas

form a rectangle of equal area, but the group may or may not be able to reach a consensus
on the triangle and kite.

Briefly describe the activity. Each of the figures on the activity sheet has the same area as
the rectangle. Using a colored pencil, trace the parallelogram on patty paper. Then, using
the least number of cuts possible, cut the parallelogram and rearrange the pieces to form a
rectangle of equal area. The rectangle will help you determine where to cut. Lay the patty
paper tracing over the rectangle and slide it around to decide where to cut. Using a
different colored pencil, draw the cut line on the patty paper figure and then cut.
Assemble the pieces to form a rectangle and glue it next to the original parallelogram.
Repeat the process for each of the figures.

While the groups are working, assign each of the figures to a different participant to draw
on a transparency for use during the group discussion. When most participants have
completed the task, reconvene as a large group for discussion.

Parallelogram:
b

Can we express the dimensions of the rectangle in terms of the dimensions of the
parallelogram?
Yes. The base of the rectangle is the base of the parallelogram. The height of the
rectangle is the height of the parallelogram.

What does this tell us about the formula for the area of the parallelogram?
Since the area of the parallelogram is equal to the area of the rectangle, the area of the
parallelogram is b ⋅ h .

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-7

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Investigating Area Formulas

Obtuse Triangle:

b= m
h

2b
How would you describe the location of the cut lines on the obtuse triangle?
The cuts must pass through the midpoints of the sides of the triangle as shown.

What do we call the segment that connects the midpoints of the sides of a triangle?
The midsegment.

What do we know about the midsegment of a triangle?

The midsegment is parallel to the base and one half the length of the base of the triangle.

Can we express the dimensions of the rectangle in terms of the dimensions of the
triangle?
Yes. The length of the base of the rectangle is equal to the length of the midsegment of
the triangle, m. The height of the rectangle, h, is the height of the triangle.

Can we use this information to derive the formula for the area of a triangle?
Since we know
Area of triangle = Area of rectangle
=b·h
By substitution,
Area of triangle = m ⋅ h

By the definition of a midsegment,

1
Area of triangle = (2b) ⋅ h
2

1
= (base of triangle) (height)
2

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-8

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Investigating Area Formulas

Acute Triangle:

2h

b
How would you describe the location of the cut lines on the acute triangle?
One cut line goes through the midsegment of the triangle and one cut line is the altitude
joining the midsegment to the opposite vertex of the triangle.

Can we use this information to derive the formula for the area of a triangle?
Since we know
Area of triangle = Area of rectangle
= b⋅h
1
= b ⋅ ( 2h )
2
1
= (base of triangle) (height of triangle)
2

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-9

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Investigating Area Formulas

Kite: h

d2

b
d1

How can we use the formula we have derived for the area of a triangle to derive the
formula for the area of the kite?
d1 lies on the line of symmetry for the kite. The two triangles formed by the line of
symmetry, d1, are congruent.
1 1
(d2) is the length of the altitude of each triangle, and (d 2 ) = h
2 2
1 ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
Area of one triangle = (d1 ) ⋅ h = ⎜ ⎟ (d1) ⎜ ⎟ (d2)
2 ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
1 1 1
Area of kite = 2( )(d1 )( )(d 2 ) = (d1 ⋅ d 2 )
2 2 2
1
= d1 ⋅ d 2
2

Success in this activity indicates that participants are working at the Relational Level
because they must discover the relationship between the area rule for a rectangle and the
area rule for a parallelogram, triangle, or kite. While a participant at the Descriptive
Level will be able to cut the figures to form the rectangle of the same area, he/she will
need prompting to explain “why it works” using informal deductive arguments.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-10

Activity Page: Area Investigating Area Formulas

Investigating Area Formulas

Trace the parallelogram, triangles, and kite on patty paper. Then cut and
arrange the pieces of each figure to form a rectangle congruent to the given
rectangle. Glue each new figure next to the original figure from which it was
made. Label the dimensions of the rectangle b and h. Determine the area for
each figure in terms of b and h.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-11

Activity Page: Area Investigating Area Formulas

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-12

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Area Area of Trapezoids

Area of Trapezoids
Overview: Participants find many different ways to derive the formula for the
area of a trapezoid.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.011.A. The beginning teacher applies dimensional analysis to
derive units and formulas in a variety of situations (e.g., rates of
change of one variable with respect to another and to find and evaluate
solutions to problems.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.

Background: Participants need to know the formulas for areas of triangles,

rectangles, and parallelograms. A clear understanding of the
midsegment of a trapezoid is a prerequisite.

Materials: patty paper, scissors

New Terms:

Procedures:

Distribute the activity sheet and allow about 10 minutes for participants to work on it
individually so that each will have an opportunity for independent discovery. Within
their group of four, allow another 15 minutes for participants to share all of the methods
for deriving the formula for the area of a trapezoid that they have discovered. Then
jigsaw the groups and allow about 20 minutes for the new groups to share their work.
During the final 15 minutes of the activity, participants return to their original groups and
share any new method they have seen during the jigsaw.

Scaffolding questions to help participants who are having difficulty finding multiple
solutions:

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-13

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Area Area of Trapezoids

Can you use a technique from the previous activity on areas of triangles and
parallelograms?
In the previous activity we saw that the midsegment could be used to cut and rearrange a
triangle into a rectangle of the same area.

Can a trapezoid be divided into figures whose area formulas are known?
Yes, it can be divided into a rectangle and two triangles, three triangles, or four triangles.

Can you create a larger figure in which the trapezoid is one of the composite parts?
Yes, the trapezoid can be copied and rotated 180o to create a parallelogram whose area is
equal to twice the area of the original trapezoid. A triangle can be drawn such that a
rectangle is formed from the triangle and the original trapezoid.

Answers will vary. Seven derivations are given below.

1. Base of rectangle = Midsegment of trapezoid

Height of rectangle = Height of trapezoid m
Area of trapezoid = Area of rectangle =
Midsegment of trapezoid ⋅ height of trapezoid

1
2. Area of triangle 1 = ah
2 b
1
Area of triangle 2 = ch
2
Area of rectangle = bh
h
1 1
Area of trapezoid = ah + ch + h
2 2
⎛1 1 ⎞
= h⎜ a + c + b⎟ a b c
⎝2 2 ⎠
1
= h (a + c + 2b)
2
1
= h ( a + c + b) + b
2
1
= (height) (sum of bases)
2

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-14

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Area Area of Trapezoids

3. Area of trapezoid = Area of parallelogram + area of triangle

1
= h · b2 + h (b1 − b2)
2
1 1 b2
= h · b2 + h · b1 − h · b2
2 2
⎛1⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ h (2b2 + b1 − b2)
⎝2⎠ h
⎛1⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ h (b1 + b2)
⎝2⎠
⎛1⎞ b1
= ⎜ ⎟ (height) (sum of bases)
⎝2⎠

⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞

4. Area of trapezoid = ⎜ ⎟ h a + ⎜ ⎟ h · b1 + ⎜ ⎟ hc
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
⎛1⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ h ( a + b1 + c ) b1
⎝2⎠
⎛1⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ h (b1 + b2) h
⎝2⎠ h
h
⎛1⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ (height) (sum of bases)
⎝2⎠
a c

b2

⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞

5. Area of trapezoid = ⎜ ⎟ h1 · b1 + ⎜ ⎟ h1 · b2 + ⎜ ⎟ h1 · m + ⎜ ⎟ h1 · m
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
⎛1⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ h1 (b1 + b2) + h1 · m
⎝2⎠
= h1 · m + h1 · m
= 2hm

b2

h1 h1
h
m

h1 h1

b1

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-15

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Area Area of Trapezoids

⎛1⎞
6. Area of trapezoid = Area of parallelogram = 2 · m · h1 = 2m · ⎜ ⎟ h = mh
⎝2⎠
b2

m m

h1

b1 b2

⎛1⎞
7. Area of trapezoid = ⎜ ⎟ Area of parallelogram
⎝2⎠
⎛1⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ h (b1 + b2)
⎝2⎠
= (midsegment of trapezoid) (height of trapezoid)
b2 b1

b1

b2

Success in this activity indicates that participants are working at the Relational Level
because they must show the relationships among area rules and give informal deductive
arguments to justify the rule determining the area of a trapezoid.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-16

Activity Page: Area Area of Trapezoids

Area of Trapezoids

How many ways can you derive the formula for the area of a trapezoid?

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-17

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Area Area of Circles

Area of Circles
Overview: Participants develop the concept of area of circles by drawing a circle
and then cutting it into sectors. The sectors are rearranged to form a
shape that resembles a parallelogram.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.011.B. The beginning teacher applies formulas for perimeter, area,
surface area, and volume of geometric figures and shapes (e.g.,
polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres) to solve
problems.
III.013.D. The beginning teacher computes the perimeter, area, and
volume of figures and shapes created by subdividing and combining
other figures and shapes (e.g., arc, length, area of sectors).
V.018.E. The beginning teacher understands the problem-solving
process (i.e., recognizing that a mathematical problem can be solved in
a variety of ways, selecting an appropriate strategy, evaluating the
reasonableness of a solution).
V.019.C. The beginning teacher translates mathematical ideas between
verbal and symbolic forms.
V.019.D. The beginning teacher communicates mathematical ideas
using a variety of representations (e.g., numeric, verbal, graphical,
pictorial, symbolic, concrete).

Geometry TEKS
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
b.4. The student selects an appropriate representation (concrete,
pictorial, graphical, verbal, or symbolic) in order to solve problems.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
e.1.B. The student finds areas of sectors and arc lengths of circles
using proportional reasoning.

Background: Participants need to understand area as a covering of a space, pi, and

the circumference of a circle.

Materials: cups (preferably large plastic cups), glue or tape, graphing calculator,
colored markers, patty paper, scissors

New Terms: circumference, sector

Procedures:

Participants work in pairs for both parts of this activity.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-18

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Area Area of Circles

Part 1: Developing the Formula for the Area of a Circle

Using a piece of patty paper, trace the circular rim of the plastic cup. Fold the patty paper
to locate the center of the circle. Fold the circle in half four additional times to create
sixteenths. Firmly crease the folds. Using a marker, color half of the circle in one color
and the other half of the circle in a different color.

Cut out the 16 sectors of the circle. Paste the sectors in one color upside down on a sheet
of paper.

Paste the sectors in the other color between the sectors in an interlocking manner,
forming a parallelogram shaped figure.

Possible scaffolding questions to help participants develop the formula of area:

How is the sum of the sectors related to the area of the circle?
The sum of the areas of the sectors is equal to the area of the circle.

Identify the length of the parallelogram.

The length is half of the circumference of the circle. Because the circumference is
C = 2π r , and the length of the parallelogram is half of the circle, the length is π r . Label
the length π r .

Identify the width of the parallelogram.

The width is the same as the radius of the circle. Label it r.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-19

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Area Area of Circles

What is the area of the parallelogram-shaped figure?

The area is (π r )(r ) = π r 2 .

Is the area of a circle a function of the radius?

Yes; the area depends on the length of the radius.

Part 2: Applying the Formula for the Area of a Circle

1. The circumference of a circle and the perimeter of a square are each 20 in. Which has
the greater area, the circle or the square? How much greater?
C = 2πr
P = 20 in 20 = 2πr
P = 4s 10
r≈
20 = 4s π
5= s A = πr 2
2
A = 5 2 = 25 in 2 ⎡ 10 ⎤
A = π× ⎢ ⎥
⎣π⎦
A ≈ 31.8 in 2

The circle has the greater area. The approximate difference is

31.8 in 2 − 25in 2 = 6.8 in 2 .

2. A rice farmer uses a rotating irrigation system in which 8

sections of 165-foot pipe are connected end to end. The resulting
length of sprinkler pipe travels in a circle around a well, which is
located in the center of the circle.

a. How many acres of the square field are irrigated? (one acre is 43,560 ft2)
There are 8 sections of 165 feet pipe, or 1320 feet of pipe, which is the radius of the
irrigated field. The area is π ⋅13202 or 1742400 π ft2 or 5473911.0 ft2. To find the
number of acres, divide the total square feet by the 43,560 ft2 in one acre.
5473911
≈ 125.7 acres .
43560

b. Broccoli is often planted in the corners of the field, which are not irrigated. How
many acres of broccoli are planted in this field?

Area of square – Area of circle = Area of corners

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-20

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Area Area of Circles

The diameter of the circle is the length of the side of the square. The diameter is 2640
ft. The area of the square is 26402 or 6969600 is ft2.
Area of square – Area of circle = Area of corners

Using Substitution, 6969600 – 5473911 = 1495689 ft2

Changing the area to acres, 1495689

≈ 34.3 acres
43560
3. Ron opened a new restaurant. He asked his wait staff to determine the greatest number
of cylindrical glasses that would fit on a 20 in. by 12 in. tray. Each glass has a radius
of 1.5 inches. Being a math geek, he began to wonder how much area was not being
used on the tray. Make a drawing of the arrangement that fits the most glasses on the
tray. Make a prediction of how many glasses will fit on the tray. What is the area on
the tray not used by the cylindrical glasses?

Area of glass = π (1.5) 2 ≈ 7.1 in 2

Area of 32 glasses = 32(7.1) ≈ 227.2 in 2
Area of tray = 20 (12) = 240 in 2
Area of difference = 240 in 2 − 227.2 in 2 = 12.8 in 2

4. When Ruth’s family moved during her sophomore

year of high school, they stayed in a motel for 3 20 feet
weeks. Their dog, Frosty, was tied at the corner of 40 feet
the motel on a 50 foot rope. If the motel were a 40 30 feet Motel
ft by 30 ft rectangle, how many square feet could
Frosty wander? (Give answer in terms of π .)
The dog could run in a three quarters circle having 10 feet
a radius of 50 feet.
At both ends of the building his path forms a
quarter circle, one with a radius of 20 feet, and the
other with a radius of 10 feet. The dog can wander
2000 π square feet.

5. Circle Pizzeria is changing the size of its circular pizza from 12 inches to 16 inches
and increasing the number of slices per pizza from 8 to 10. What is the percent
increase of the size of each new slice? (Round answer to the nearest tenth of a
percent.)

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-21

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Area Area of Circles

r=6
r=8

12 inch pizza 16 inch pizza

Area of 12 inch pizza = π 62= 36 π Area of 16 inch pizza = π 82= 64 π

36 π 64π
= 4.5π in.2 per slice = 6.4π in.2 per slice
8 slices 10 slices

6.4 π – 4.5 π = 1.9 π difference

1.9π
≈ 42.2 % increase
4.5π

6. Circles of radius 4 with centers at (4,0) and (0,4) overlap in the shaded region shown
in the figure. Find the area of the shaded region in terms of π.
One way to find the area of the shaded region is to draw the diagonal of the square.
1
Area of shaded region = Area of quarter circle – Area of triangle
2
(0,4)
1 2 1
πr − bh
4 2
1 1 (4,0)
Area of sector: π16 − 16
4 2
2(4π −8)
8π −16 units 2

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-22

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Area Area of Circles

7. In the figure shown, all arcs are semicircles, and those that appear to be congruent are.
What is the area of the shaded region? (Give answer in terms of π.)

⎛1 ⎞
2(Area midsized semi-circle) = 2 ⎜ π ⋅ 2 2 ⎟ = 4π
⎝2 ⎠

⎛1 ⎞
4(Area small semi-circle) = 4 ⎜ π ⋅ 12 ⎟ = 2π
⎝2 ⎠

Area midsized semi-circles. Area small semi-circles = 4π - 2π = 2π

Remind participants to add the new terms circumference and sector to the glossaries.

Part 1: Success in this part of the activity indicates that participants are working at the
Relational Level because they must discover the relationship between the formula for the
area of a parallelogram and the formula for the area of a circle.

Part 2: Success in this part of the activity indicates that participants are working at the
Relational Level because they must solve geometric problems by using known properties
of figures and insightful approaches.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-23

Activity Page: Area Area of Circles

Area of Circles

Solve the following problems.

1. The circumference of a circle and the perimeter of a square are each 20 in.
Which has the greater area, the circle or the square? How much greater?

2. A rice farmer uses a rotating irrigation system in which 8 sections of 165

foot pipe are connected end to end. The resulting length of sprinkler pipe
travels in a circle around a well, which is located in the center of the
circle.

a. How many acres of the square field are

irrigated? (One acre is 43,560 ft2.)

b. Broccoli is often planted in the corners of the field, which are not
irrigated. How many acres of broccoli are planted in this field?

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-24

Activity Page: Area Area of Circles

3. Ron opened a new restaurant. He asked the wait staff how many
cylindrical glasses would fit on a 20 in. by 12 in. tray. Each glass has a
radius of 1.5 inches. Being a math geek, he began to wonder how much
area was not being used on the tray. Make a drawing of the arrangement
that fits the most glasses on the tray. Make a prediction of how many
glasses will fit on the tray. What is the area on the tray not used by the
cylindrical glasses?

4. When Ruth’s family moved during her sophomore year of high school,
they stayed in a motel for 3 weeks. Their dog, Frosty, was tied at the corner
of the motel on a 50 foot rope. If the motel was a 40 ft by 30 ft rectangle,
how many square feet could Frosty wander? (Give answer in terms of π .)
40 feet

30 feet Motel

50 feet

5. Circle Pizzeria is changing the size of its circular pizza from 12 inches to
16 inches and increasing the number of slices per pizza from 8 to 10.
What is the percent of increase of the size of each new slice? (Round
answer to nearest tenth of a percent.)

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-25

Activity Page: Area Area of Circles

6. Circles of radius 4 with centers at (4,0) and (0,4) overlap in the shaded
region shown in the figure. Find the area of the shaded region in terms of
π.

(0,4)

(4,0)

7. In the figure shown, all arcs are semicircles, and those that appear to be
congruent are. What is the area of the shaded region? (Give answer in
terms of π .)

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-26

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Applying Area Formulas

Applying Area Formulas

Overview: Participants use the problem solving process to find the area of
composite figures (composite of triangles, quadrilaterals and circles).

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.011.B. The beginning teacher applies formulas for perimeter, area,
surface area, and volume of geometric figures and shapes (e.g.,
polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres) to solve
problems).
III.013.D. The beginning teacher computes the perimeter, area, and
volume of figures and shapes created by subdividing and combining
other figures and shapes (e.g., arc length, area of sectors).
V.018.E. The beginning teacher understands the problem-solving
process (i.e., recognizing that a mathematical problem can be solved in
a variety of ways, selecting an appropriate strategy, evaluating the
reasonableness of a solution).
V.019.C. The beginning teacher translates mathematical ideas between
verbal and symbolic forms.
V.019.D. The beginning teacher communicates mathematical ideas
using a variety of representations (e.g., numerical, verbal, graphical,
pictorial, symbolic, concrete).

Geometry TEKS
b.4. The student selects an appropriate representation (concrete,
pictorial, graphical, verbal, or symbolic) in order to solve problems.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
e.1.A. The student finds the area of regular polygons, and composite
figures.

Background: Participants need to know the area formulas and how to connect the
formulas to models of composite figures (composite of triangles,
quadrilaterals and circles).

Materials: calculator

New Terms: composite figures

Procedures:

Write the word “composite” on the overhead and brainstorm some meanings of this word.
The Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, from http://www.yourdictionary.com,
defines composite, when used as an adjective, as “consisting of separate interconnected
parts.” Remind the participants to add the new term to their glossaries.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-27

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Applying Area Formulas

What are some real world examples of composite figures?

Possible answers are:
Photography: an image or scene made up of two or more original images placed side by
side, overlapped, or superimposed.
Automotive: any material that consists of two or more substances bonded together for
strength, such as fiberglass.
Architecture: architectural drawings, consisting of more than one room or combination of
shapes.

Participants work collaboratively on problems.

1. An interior designer created a plan for the kitchen counters and an island to be located
in the middle of the kitchen, as shown below. The opposite sides of the counter are
parallel and the intersecting straight lines are perpendicular. The curved part of the
countertop is a quarter circle. The island has parallel sides, and the curved end is a
semicircle. What is the total area of the tops of the counter space and island? Use the π
22
key on the graphing calculator instead of or 3.14. Round calculations to the
7
nearest tenth.

120 in
2304
sq.in. 452.4 sq.in.
60 in 1440
sq. in. 864
36 in
sq.in.

720 sq.in. 24 in
24 in 24 in
30 in

452.4 sq.in.

The total areas of the tops of the counter and the island are 6232.8 sq.in.
6232.8
≈ 43.3 sq. ft.
144

The counter tops and the island in the kitchen will be covered with granite. Granite
costs $14.38 per square foot. Find the cost of the countertops and island for this
kitchen? Round the cost to the nearest penny.
$14.38
43.3 sq. ft. ⋅ = $622.654 ≈ $622.65
sq. ft.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-28

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Applying Area Formulas

2. P is a random point on side AY of rectangle ARTY. The shaded area Y T

is what fraction of the area of the rectangle? Why?
The altitude of the triangle, h, is equal to the height of the rectangle.
The base of the triangle is equal to the base of the rectangle. So, the
1 1
area of the triangle = bh or area of the rectangle. P
2 2
A R

3. Kit and Kat are building a kite for the big kite festival. Kit has
already cut his sticks for the diagonals. He wants to position P
so that he will have maximum kite area. He asks Kat for
advice. What should Kat tell him? This problem is taken from
Discovering Geometry: An Investigative Approach, Practice
Your Skills, 3rd Edition, ©2003, p.49, used with permission
from Key Curriculum Press.
The location of the point of intersection of the two diagonals
does not change the area, because the area of the kite is
1
d1 d2 .
2

4. A trapezoid has been created by combining two congruent right triangles and an
isosceles triangle, as shown. Is the isosceles triangle a right triangle? How do you
know? Find the area of the trapezoid two ways: first by using the trapezoid area
formula, and then by finding the sum of the areas of the three triangles. This problem
is taken from Discovering Geometry: An Investigative Approach, 3rd Edition, ©2003,
p.419, 17, used with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

b c
c
a

a b

The isosceles triangle is a right triangle because the angles on either side of the right
angle are complementary. If you use the trapezoid area formula, the area of the
1
trapezoid is (a + b)(a + b). If you add the areas of the three triangles, the area of
2
1
the trapezoid is c2 + ab.
2

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-29

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Applying Area Formulas

5. The rectangle and the square have equal area. The rectangle is
12 ft by 21 ft 4 in. What is the perimeter of the entire hexagon in
feet?
The area of the rectangle is 256 ft2. The area of the square is
256 ft2. The length of the side of the square is 16 ft. The
perimeter of the composite figure is 98.6 ft.

Success in this activity indicates that participants are working at the Relational Level
because they must solve geometric problems by selecting known properties of figures or
formulas and deductive reasoning to solve problems.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-30

Activity Page: Area Applying Area Formulas

Applying Area Formulas

1. An interior designer created a plan for the kitchen counters and an

island to be located in the middle of the kitchen, as shown below. The
opposite sides of the counter are parallel and the intersecting straight
lines are perpendicular. The curved part of the countertop is a quarter
circle. The island has parallel sides, and the curved end is a
semicircle. What is the total area of the tops of the counter space and
island? Use the π key on the graphing calculator instead of 22 or
7
3.14. Round calculations to the nearest tenth.

The counter tops and the island in the kitchen will be covered with
granite. Granite costs $14.38 per square foot. Find the cost of the
countertops and island for this kitchen? Round the cost to the nearest
penny.

120 in
2304
sq.in. 452.4 sq.in.
60 in 1440
sq. in. 864
36 in
sq.in.

720 sq.in. 24 in
24 in 24 in
30 in

452.4 sq.in.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-31

Activity Page: Area Applying Area Formulas

Y T
2. P is a random point on side AY of rectangle ARTY.
The shaded area is what fraction of the area of the
rectangle? Why?
P

A R

3. Kit and Kat are building a kite for the big kite festival. Kit has already
cut his sticks for the diagonals. He wants to position P so that he will
have maximum kite area. He asks Kat for advice. What should Kat tell
him? This problem is taken from Discovering Geometry: An
Investigative Approach, Practice Your Skills, 3rd Edition, ©2003,
p.49, used with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

4. A trapezoid has been created by combining two congruent right

triangles and an isosceles triangle, as shown. Is the isosceles triangle a
right triangle? How do you know? Find the area of the trapezoid two
ways: first by using the trapezoid area formula, and then by finding
the sum of the areas of the three triangles. This problem is taken from
Discovering Geometry: An Investigative Approach, 3rd Edition,
©2003, p.419, 17, used with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

b c
c
a

a b

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-32

Activity Page: Area Applying Area Formulas

5. The rectangle and the square have equal

area. The rectangle is 12 ft by 21 ft 4 in.
What is the perimeter of the entire hexagon
in feet?

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-33

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area What is Surface Area?

What Is Surface Area?

Overview: Participants determine the surface area of a rectangular prism by
counting and then finding the sum of the number of square units
needed to cover each face. Group discussion deepens participants’
understanding of surface area and connects the formula for surface
area to the net of the solid.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.013.E. The beginning teacher analyzes cross-sections and nets of
three-dimensional shapes.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
d.1.B. The student uses nets to represent and construct three-
dimensional objects.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
e.1.A. The student finds area of regular polygons and composite
figures.

Background: No prerequisite knowledge is necessary for this activity.

Materials: centimeter grid paper, linking cubes, scissors, straightedge, tape

New Terms: lateral surface area, net, total surface area

Procedures:

Distribute the activity sheet Intro to Nets to each participant. Tell participants that they
have a two-dimensional paper figure that, when cut out and folded, will yield a solid
object. Ask participants to cut out the figure, fold it, and create the solid.

Describe the solid.

The solid is a triangular prism. It has two congruent, parallel triangular faces that are the
bases of the prism, and each lateral face is a rectangle. By definition, this is a triangular
prism.

Distribute the activity sheet, linking cubes, straightedge, and centimeter grid paper to
participants. Ask participants to answer the question “What is surface area?”

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-34

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area What is Surface Area?

Indicate that they will have an opportunity to share and revise their responses at the
conclusion of this activity.

1. Build the solid below using linking cubes.

2. Cut rectangles from centimeter grid paper so that one rectangle will cover each face
of the solid.

Participants should create and cut out six rectangles that will match the faces of the solid.
They should have three pairs of congruent rectangles.

3. Cover the solid with the grid paper rectangles, matching each rectangle with the
appropriate face. Tape the rectangles together.

The rectangles should completely cover the solid without overlapping.

4. Cut through enough tape connections so that the paper will unfold into a two-
dimensional figure that if refolded would form the original solid. This pattern is
called a net. Sketch the net here.

Participants should cut only enough tape connections to unfold the paper while keeping
each rectangle connected to at least one other rectangle. A possible net is shown below.
Define net as a two-dimensional pattern that can be folded to form a solid.

5. Determine the number of square centimeters on each face of the net. Net is not drawn
to scale.

A = 6 cm2

A = 12 cm2 A = 8 cm2 A = 12 cm2 A = 8 cm2

A = 6 cm2

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-35

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area What is Surface Area?

6. Find the sum of the areas of the six faces. This represents the total surface area of the
solid.

Total Surface Area = 6 cm2 + 6 cm2 + 8 cm2 + 8 cm2 + 12 cm2 + 12 cm2

Total Surface Area = 52 cm2

Define total surface area (surface area) as the sum of the areas of the faces and
curved surfaces of a solid.
Define lateral surface area of a prism as the sum of the areas of the faces excluding
the area of the two parallel faces, bases, of the solid used in naming the prism. Refer
back to the Intro to Nets activity. The lateral surface area of a triangular prism is the
sum of the three parallelograms, rectangular faces, forming the lateral faces of the
solid.

7. Complete the table below.

Solid Net Total Surface Area

40 cm2

66 cm2

80 cm2

8. Describe a method for finding the total surface area of a solid figure.
Answers will vary but should include adding the areas of all the surfaces of a solid,
noting that rectangular prisms have three sets of congruent pairs of rectangular
faces. The congruent pairs lie on parallel planes.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-36

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area What is Surface Area?

Remind participants to add the terms net, lateral surface area, and total surface area to
their glossaries.

In the introductory activity Intro to Nets participants work at the Visual Level. In the
activity What is Surface Area?, participants inductively determine the properties of the
solid which relate to its surface area. Success with this activity indicates that participants
are working at the Descriptive Level with respect to surface area of rectangular prisms.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-37

Activity Page: Area What is Surface Area?

Intro to Nets

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-38

Activity Page: Area What is Surface Area?

What Is Surface Area?

1. Build the solid below using linking cubes.

2. Cut rectangles from centimeter grid paper so that one rectangle will cover
each face of the solid.

3. Cover the solid with the grid paper rectangles, matching each rectangle
with the appropriate face. Tape the rectangles together.

4. Cut through enough tape connections so that the paper will unfold into a
two-dimensional figure that if refolded would form the original solid.
This pattern is called a net. Sketch the net here.

5. Determine the number of square centimeters on each face of the net.

6. Find the sum of the areas of the six faces. This represents the total
surface area of the solid.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-39

Activity Page: Area What is Surface Area?

7. Complete the table below.

Solid Net Total Surface Area

8. Describe a method for finding the total surface area of a solid figure.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-40

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area What is Volume?

What Is Volume?
Overview: Participants determine the volume of a rectangular prism by
constructing the solid from a net then counting the number of cubes
needed to fill the solid. Group discussion deepens participants’
understanding of volume (the amount of space occupied by a solid
measured in cubic units) and connects the formula for volume to the
net of the solid.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.011.B. The beginning teacher applies formulas for perimeter, area,
surface area, and volume of geometric figures and shapes (e.g.,
polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres) to solve
problems.
III.013.E. The beginning teacher analyzes cross-sections and nets of
three-dimensional shapes.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
d.1.B. The student uses nets to represent and construct three-
dimensional objects.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
e.1.A. The student finds area of regular polygons and composite
figures.

Background: No prerequisite knowledge is necessary for this activity.

Materials: centimeter cubes, straightedge, centimeter grid paper, scissors, tape

New Terms:

Procedures:

Distribute the activity sheet, centimeter cubes, straightedge, and centimeter grid paper to
participants. Ask participants to answer the question “What is volume?” Groups should
record their responses to this question for future revision at the conclusion of this activity.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-41

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area What is Volume?

What is Volume?

1. Using centimeter grid paper, build the solid (rectangular prism) from the net below.

2. Predict how many cubes will fit into the prism.

Answers may vary.

3. Check your prediction by completely filling the prism with centimeter cubes.
Participants will find that 16 cubes fill the box.

4. What is the volume of the prism, i.e., what is the total number of cubes necessary to
fill the prism?
The volume of the box is 16 cm3.

5. Complete the table below.

Solid
Net Volume
(Rectangular Prism)

36 cm3

48 cm3

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-42

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area What is Volume?

30 cm3

6. Describe a method to find the number of cubes necessary to fill a rectangular prism
without actually filling it.
Answers may vary. Participants should describe finding the area of the base in
square units and multiplying that number by the height of the prism in units, or the
formula V = Bh .

In groups, participants should review their responses to the question “What is volume?”
Close the activity with a whole-group discussion. The following points should be
addressed:

ƒ To find the volume, in cubic units, multiply the number of cubes that completely
cover one face of the prism by the number of congruent layers of cubes which
completely fill the prism. Or more simply V =lwh.

ƒ When the prism is viewed as a net, find three dimensions which make up the
rectangular parts of the net. Two of the dimensions are used to find the area of
one face; the third dimension determines the third variable in the volume formula.

Participants approach the Relational Level if they are able to describe the concept of
volume directly from the net or the 3-dimensional representation. If they need to build the
prism to find the volume, they are performing at the Descriptive Level. If they are able to
use the formula for volume, V =lwh, but are unable to articulate the concept then they are
probably at the Visual or Descriptive Level. Use of a formula without conceptual
understanding is often misinterpreted to be at the Relational Level. Van Hiele refers to
this as “level reduction”. Conceptual growth cannot occur without further work at the
Descriptive Level.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-43

Activity Page: Area What is Volume?

What is Volume?

1. Using centimeter grid paper, build the solid (rectangular prism) from the
net below.

2. Predict how many cubes will fit into the prism.

3. Check your prediction by filling the prism with centimeter cubes.

4. What is the volume of the prism, i.e., what is the total number of cubes
necessary to fill the prism?

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-44

Activity Page: Area What is Volume?

5. Complete the table below.

Solid
Net Volume
(Rectangular Prism)

6. Describe a method to find the number of cubes necessary to fill a

rectangular prism without actually filling it.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-45

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Net Perspective

Net Perspective
Overview: Participants construct solids from nets and use nets to explore the
effects on the solid’s surface area and volume by changing one, two, or
three dimensions of a solid.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.005.C. The beginning teacher understands when a relation is a
function.
II.006.G. The beginning teacher models and solves problems involving
linear and quadratic equations and inequalities using a variety of
methods, including technology.
II.004.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and extends patterns and
relationships in data presented in tables, sequences, or graphs.
III.011.A. The beginning teacher applies dimensional analysis to
derive units and formulas in a variety of situations (e.g., rates of
change of one variable with respect to another) and to find and
evaluate solutions to problems.
III.011.B. The beginning teacher applies formulas for perimeter, area,
and surface area, and volume of geometric figures and shapes (e.g.,
polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres) to solve
problems.
III.011.C. The beginning teacher recognizes the effects on length, area,
or volume when the linear dimensions of plane figures or solids are
changed.
III.013.E. The beginning teacher analyzes cross-sections and nets of
three-dimensional shapes.
V.018.F. The beginning teacher evaluates how well a mathematical
model represents a real-world situation.
V.019.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and uses multiple
representations of a mathematical concept (e.g., a point and its
coordinates, the area of a circle as a quadratic function of the radius,
probability as the ratio of two areas, area of a plane region as a definite
integral).
V.019.D. The beginning teacher communicates mathematical ideas
using a variety of representations (e.g., numeric, verbal, graphical,
pictorial, symbolic, concrete).

Geometry TEKS
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
d.1.B. The student uses nets to represent and construct
three-dimensional objects.
e.1.D. The student finds surface areas and volumes of prisms,
pyramids, spheres, cones, and cylinders in problem situations.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-46

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Net Perspective

f.1. The student describes the effect on perimeter, area, and volume
when length, width, or height of a three-dimensional solid is changed
and applies this idea in solving problems.

Background: Participants need experience with measurement, nets, surface area, and
volume.

Materials: paper, scissors, tape, rulers, centimeter grid paper (optional),

centimeter cubes

New Terms:

Procedures:

This activity encourages participants to explore patterns in surface area and volume of
rectangular prisms. Often in the middle school classroom, teachers introduce the concepts
of volume and surface area of rectangular prisms by using linking cubes and asking the
students to count the number of cubes to determine the volume and to count the number
of faces to determine the surface area. Participants should be aware that students might
develop the misconception of counting the corner cubes twice in order to find the volume
of a prism.

Construct rectangular prisms with the following dimensions using centimeter cubes.
Complete the table.

Height Dimensions Volume

l × w× h Process
cm cm3
1 3 × 2 ×1 3( 2) 6
2 3× 2 × 2 3(2) + 3(2) 12
3 3× 2 × 3 3(2) + 3(2) + 3(2) 18
4 3× 2 × 4 3(2) + 3(2) + 3(2) + 3(2) 24

1. When the dimensions of the base, the length, l, and the width, w, are fixed, how does
the volume change as the height changes?
The volume increases as the height increases.

2. What function rule, in terms of the area of the base and the height, could you use to
determine the volume? How does this rule relate to the model?
V = Bh , where B represents the area of the base, which in this case is 3 ⋅ 2= 6 and h
represents the height of the prism. Each time the height increases by one unit, another
6 blocks (the area of the base) are added to the solid. Thus, a prism is a stack of
layers whose volume is equal to the area of the base times the height of the prism.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-47

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Net Perspective

Construct rectangular prisms with the following dimensions using centimeter cubes.
Complete the table.

Dimensions Lateral Surface

Height
l × w× h Process Area
cm
cm2
1 3 × 2 ×1 (3+2+3+2) = 2(3)(1) + 2(2)(1) 10
2 3× 2 × 2 (6+4+6+4) = 2(3)(2) + 2(2)(2) 20
3 3× 2 × 3 (9+6+9+6) = 2(3)(3) + 2(2)(3) 30
4 3× 2 × 4 (12+8+12+8) = 2(3)(4) + 2(2)(4) 40
n 3× 2 × n (3n+2n+3n+2n) = 2(3)(n) + 2(2)(n) (2l + 2w)h = Ph

3. When the dimensions of the base, the length, l, and the width, w, are fixed, how does
the lateral surface area change as the height changes?
The lateral surface area increases as the height increases; every increase in height of
one unit results in an increase in the lateral area of 10 square units. In this case,
every increase in height of one centimeter results in an increase in the lateral area of
10 cm2.

4. What function rule, in terms of the base and the height, could you use to determine
the lateral surface area? How does this rule relate to your model?
Lateral Surface Area = Ph , where P is the perimeter of the base and h is the height
of the prism. The lateral faces of a prism are always parallelograms (rectangles if it
is a right prism) whose areas can be found by multiplying the length of the base of the
parallelogram by the height of the parallelogram. The perimeter of the base of the
prism is the sum of the lengths of the bases of these parallelograms.

Construct rectangular prisms with the following dimensions using centimeter cubes.
Complete the table.

Height Dimensions Total Surface Area

l × w× h Process
cm cm2
1 3 × 2 ×1 10 + 6 + 6 22
2 3× 2 × 2 20 + 6 + 6 32
3 3× 2 × 3 30 + 6 + 6 42
4 3× 2 × 4 40 + 6 + 6 52
n 3× 2 × n 10n + 6 + 6 Ph + 2(lw) = Ph + 2B

5. When the dimensions of the base, length, l, and width, w, are fixed, how does the total
surface area change as the height changes?
The total surface area increases as the height increases; every increase in height of
one unit results in an increase in the total surface area of 10 square units. In this

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-48

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Net Perspective

case, every increase in height of one centimeter results in an increase in the total
surface area of 10 cm2.

6. What function rule, in terms of the base and the height, could you use to determine
the total surface area? How does this rule relate to your model?
Total Surface Area = Ph + 2 B . The total surface area is the sum of the lateral
surface area and the areas of both bases of the prism.

Distribute the activity sheet Net Perspective to each participant.

Participants are working at the Relational Level as they formulate relationships among
total surface area, length, width, and height of geometric solids and analyze the effects on
the solid’s surface area and volume when one, two, or three dimensions of a solid are
changed.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-49

Activity Page: Area Net Perspective

Net Perspective

Construct rectangular prisms with the following dimensions using

centimeter cubes. Complete the table.

Height Dimensions Volume

l × w× h Process
cm cm3

1 3 × 2 ×1

2 3× 2 × 2

3 3× 2 × 3

4 3× 2 × 4

1. When the dimensions of the base, the length, l, and the width, w, are
fixed, how does the volume change as the height changes?

2. What function rule, in terms of the area of the base and the height, could
you use to determine the volume? How does this rule relate to the model?

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-50

Activity Page: Area Net Perspective

Construct rectangular prisms with the following dimensions using

centimeter cubes. Complete the table.

Lateral
Height Dimensions
l × w× h Process Surface Area
cm
cm2

1 3 × 2 ×1

2 3× 2 × 2

3 3× 2 × 3

4 3× 2 × 4

3. When the dimensions of the base, the length, l, and the width, w, are
fixed, how does the lateral surface area change as the height changes?

4. What function rule, in terms of the base and the height, could you use to
determine the lateral surface area? How does this rule relate to your
model?

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-51

Activity Page: Area Net Perspective

Construct rectangular prisms with the following dimensions using

centimeter cubes. Complete the table.

Total
Height Dimensions
l × w× h Process Surface Area
cm
cm2

1 3 × 2 ×1

2 3× 2 × 2

3 3× 2 × 3

4 3× 2 × 4

5. When the dimensions of the base, the length, l, and the width, w, are
fixed, how does the total surface area change as the height changes?

6. What function rule, in terms of the base and the height, could you use to
determine the total surface area? How does this rule relate to your model?

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-52

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Area Proofs

Area Proofs
Overview: Participants use area formulas and deductive reasoning in area
problems.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.011.B. The beginning teacher applies formulas for perimeter, area,
surface area, and volume of geometric figures and shapes (e.g.,
polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres) to solve
problems.
III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.013.D. The beginning teacher computes the perimeter, area, and
volume of figures and shapes created by subdividing and combining
other figures and shapes (e.g., arc length, area of sectors).
V.018.A. The beginning teacher understands the nature of proof,
including indirect proof, in mathematics.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.E. The student uses deductive reasoning to prove a statement.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
e.1.A. The student finds areas of regular polygons and composite
figures.

Background: Participants need to be familiar with the formulas for the area of
rectangles, triangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, and kites.

Materials: colored markers, easel paper

New Terms:

Procedures:

Allow time for participants to work independently on proofs. Then assign one proof to
each group to be recorded on easel paper. As time permits, participants can walk the

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-53

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Area Proofs

room, observing similarities and differences in the proofs they have done independently
and the proofs on display. Proofs can be done informally in paragraph form.

1. Given: B is the midpoint of AC E D

ED AC
Prove: Area of ∆ABE = Area of ∆BCD h1 h2

Draw h1 , the height of ∆EAB, and A B C

h2 , the height of ∆DBC.

h1 = h2 ( ED AC )

1
Area of ∆ABE = h1 ⋅ AB
2 1
(Area of triangle = base · height)
1 2
Area of ∆BCD = h2 ⋅ BC
2

AB = BC (B is the midpoint of AC )

1 1
h1 ⋅ AB = h2 ⋅ BC (Substitution)
2 2

Area of ∆ABE = Area of ∆BCD (Substitution)

2. Given: Trapezoid ABCD with diagonals intersecting at P

Prove: Area of ∆APD = Area of ∆BPC

A B

D C

Area of ∆ADC = Area of ∆BCD (∆ADC and ∆BCD have the same base
and height)
Area of ∆ADC – Area of ∆DPC = (Subtraction)
Area of ∆BCD – Area of ∆DPC

Area ∆APD = Area ∆BPC. (Substitution of composite parts)

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-54

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Area Proofs
E
3. Given: AD is a median of ∆ABC C
Prove: Area ∆CAD = Area ∆BAD

Draw AE , the altitude to base CB

A B
of ∆ ABC.

1
Area of ∆CAD = AE ⋅ CD (Area formula)
2

1
Area of ∆BAD = AE ⋅ DB (Area formula)
2

CD = DB (Definition of median)

Area of ∆CAD = Area of ∆BAD (Substitution)

D
4. Given: Diagonals DB and AC of quadrilateral
ABCD are perpendicular.
1
Prove: Area of ABCD = DB ⋅ AC A
E
C
2

Area of quadrilateral ABCD = (Composite parts)

Area of ∆ADC + Area of ∆ABC
1
Area of ∆ADC = DE ⋅ AC
2 (Area formula)
1
Area of ∆ABC = BE ⋅ AC
2

Area of quadrilateral ABCD = (Substitution)

1 1
DE·AC + BE·AC
2 2
1 1 1
DE·AC + BE·AC= ⋅ AC(DE + BE) (Distributive property)
2 2 2
1 1
⋅ AC (DE + BE) = AC · DB (Substitution of composite parts)
2 2

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-55

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Area Area Proofs

R
5. Given: ∆MQR with medians RS and MT
intersecting at P h
Prove: Area ∆PMS = Area ∆PRT
T

M Q
S

1⎛ 1 ⎞
Area of ∆TMQ = ⎜ MQ ⋅ h ⎟ (Area formula)
2⎝ 2 ⎠
1⎛1 ⎞
Area of ∆SRQ = ⎜ ⋅ MQ ⎟ h (Area formula)
2⎝2 ⎠
Area of ∆TMQ = Area of ∆SRQ (Substitution)

Area of ∆TMQ – Area of

quadrilateral TPSQ = (Subtraction)
Area of ∆SRQ – Area of
quadrilateral TPSQ

Area of ∆PMS = Area of ∆PRT (Substitution of composite parts)

Success in this activity indicates that participants are working at or approaching the
Deductive Level. Whereas at the Relational Level deductive argument is informal, proof
at the Deductive Level requires the use of an axiomatic system with formal definitions
and postulates.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-56

Activity Page: Area Area Proofs

Area Proofs

Use area formulas and the properties of triangles and quadrilaterals to prove
each of the following area relationships. Use an informal presentation, such
as a flow chart proof or paragraph proof, to demonstrate your deductive
reasoning.

1. Given: B is the midpoint of AC E D

ED AC
Prove: Area of ∆ABE = Area of ∆BCD
A C
B

2. Given: Trapezoid ABCD with diagonals intersecting at P

Prove: Area of ∆APD = Area of ∆BPC

A B

D C

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-57

Activity Page: Area Area Proofs

3. Given: AD is a median of ∆ABC

Prove: Area of ∆CAD = Area of ∆BAD
C

A B

4. Given: Diagonals DB and AC of quadrilateral ABCD are perpendicular.

1
Prove: Area of ABCD = DB · AC D
2

A C
E

5. Given: ∆MQR with medians

RS and MT intersecting at P
Prove: Area of ∆PMS = Area of ∆PRT
R

M Q
S

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-58

Supplemental Material: Area References and Additional Resources

References and Additional Resources

Connected geometry.(2000). Chicago: Everyday Learning Corporation.

Coxford, A., Usiskin, Z., & Hirschhorn, D. (1991). The University of Chicago School

Mathematics Project geometry. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.

Jacobs, H. (1987). Geometry (2nd ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

Jurgensen., R., Brown, R., & Jurgensen, J. (1990). Geometry. Boston: Houghton Mifflin

Company.

Lehrer, R., & Chazan, D. (1998). Designing learning environments for developing

understanding of geometry and space. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates.

Outhred, L. & Mitchelmore, M. (2000). Young children’s intuitive understanding of

rectangular area measurement. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education,

31(2), 144-167.

Moise, E., & Downs, F. (1975). Geometry. Philippines: Addison-Wesley, Inc.

Schifter, D., Bastable, V., & Russell, S. (2002). Measuring space in one, two, and three

dimensions. Parsippany, NJ: Dale Seymour Publications.

Serra, M. (2003). Discovering geometry: An investigative approach (3rd ed.). Emeryville,

CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Serra, M., Murdock, J., Kamischke, E., & Kamischke, E. (2004). Discovering

mathematics: A guide for teachers. Emeryville, CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-59

Supplemental Material: Area References and Additional Resources

Trimpe, L. E. (1994). College geometry: A problem-solving approach with applications.

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

van Hiele, P. (1999). Developing geometric thinking through activities that begin with

play. Teaching Children Mathematics, 5(6),310-316.

Geometry Module DRAFT 5-60

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Sides of Squares

Unit 6 – Pythagoras

Sides of Squares
Overview: Participants discover the Pythagorean Theorem inductively by finding
the areas of squares.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.004.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and extends patterns and
relationships in data presented in tables, sequences, or graphs.
III.012.A.The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.013.D. The beginning teacher computes the perimeter, area, and
volume of figures and shapes created by subdividing and combining
other figures and shapes (e.g., arc length, area of sectors).
III.014.E. The beginning teacher applies concepts and properties of
slope, midpoint, parallelism, perpendicularity, and distance to explore
properties of geometric figures and solve problems in the coordinate
plane.
V.018.A. The beginning teacher understands the nature of proof,
including indirect proof, in mathematics.
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definition, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems
to represent point, lines, line segments, and figures.
d.2.B. The student uses slopes and equations of lines to investigate
geometric relationships, including parallel lines, perpendicular lines,
and special segments of triangles and other polygons.
e.1.A. The student finds areas of regular polygons and composite
figures.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-1

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Sides of Squares

e.1.C. The student develops, extends, and uses the Pythagorean

Theorem.

Background: Participants need the ability to apply the formulas for the area of
squares and right triangles.

Materials: centimeter grid paper

New Terms:

Procedures:

Conduct a brief discussion with participants regarding the difficulties embedded in

grasping the concept of the Pythagorean Theorem when it is presented as a proven fact
without prior conceptual exploration.

Start with the area problem presented in the area unit, which is a proof of the Pythagorean
Theorem. Participants return to Unit 5, Applying Area Formulas.

A trapezoid was created by combining two congruent right triangles and an isosceles
triangle, as shown. Is the isosceles triangle a right triangle? How do you know? Find the
area of the trapezoid two ways: first by using the trapezoid area formula, and then by
finding the sum of the areas of the three triangles.

This problem is taken from Discovering Geometry: An Investigative Approach, 3rd

Edition, ©2003, p.419, 17, used with permissions from Key Curriculum Press.

2
b c
c a

2 3 1
a b

The isosceles triangle is a right triangle because ∠ 1 and ∠ 2 are complementary and ∠ 1,
∠ 2 and ∠ 3 form a straight angle, therefore m ∠ 3 = 90º. If you use the trapezoid area
1
formula, the area of the trapezoid is (a + b)(a + b). If you add the areas of the three
2
1
triangles, the area of the trapezoid is c2 + ab.
2
Equating the two and simplifying:
1 1
(a + b)(a + b) = c2 + ab.
2 2

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-2

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Sides of Squares

1 1
(a2 + 2ab + b2) = c2 + ab.
2 2
1 1 1
a2 + ab + b2 = c2 + ab.
2 2 2
1 1 1
a2 + b2 = c2.
2 2 2

a2 + b2 = c2.

The above proof is attributed to President Garfield. See Pappas (1986).

Discussion questions:
What can be understood conceptually about the Pythagorean Theorem from the
proof that emerged from the area problem?
The proof provides no conceptual understanding of the meanings of a2, b2, and c2 as
geometric entities.

What van Hiele level is represented by the area problem with respect to the
Pythagorean Theorem?
Success with this problem indicates that a person is working at the Deductive Level. The
relationship is abstract, derived algebraically, and without connection to the geometric or
contextual meanings of a2, b2, and c2.

How is the Pythagorean Theorem usually presented?

In textbooks, often a figure of a right triangle with squares drawn on its sides is presented
with the relationship a2 + b2 = c2. Students are expected to accept the diagram as a
“proof” and then memorize and apply the result. This may be considered to be the final
phase of concept development in the van Hiele model. The guided discovery has been
omitted.

What concepts must be in place for concept development of the Pythagorean

Theorem?
Students must be able to find the side length of a square given its area.

Distribute the activity sheets. Arrange participants in groups of three to complete Part 1
with each participant completing one of the three grids A, B, or C. Participants then
complete Part 2 together. Continue working to complete Part 2 prior to whole class
discussion.

Part 1

For grids A, B and C, complete the following steps for each line segment. Let the slope of
a
each segment be .
b

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-3

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Sides of Squares

ƒ Write the slope, in unsimplified form, next to the segment. In Grid A, a = 1; in Grid
B, a = 2 ; in Grid C, a = 3.
ƒ Using your knowledge of parallel and perpendicular lines, build a square that is on
the upper left side of each segment.
ƒ Divide each square into a composite of right triangles and squares by drawing
segments in from the vertices, along the horizontal or vertical grid lines.
ƒ Find the area of the original square from the sum of the areas of the composite
figures.
ƒ Find the length of each original segment from the area of its square.

1
Grid A Slope =
b

1 1 1 1
Slope = Slope = Slope = Slope =
1 2 3 4
Area of square Area of square Area of square Area of square
1 = (4 ⋅ 1) + 1 ⎛ 3⎞ = (4 ⋅ 2 ) + 9
= 4⋅ = ⎜4 ⋅ ⎟+4
2 =5 ⎝ 2⎠ = 17
=2 = 10
length = 5 ≈ 2.24 length = 17 ≈ 4.12
length = 2 length = 10 ≈ 3.16
2
Grid B Slope =
b

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-4

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Sides of Squares

2 2 2
Slope = Slope = Slope =
2 3 4
Area of square = 4(4) + 4
Area of square Area of square = 20
= 4 (2) = 4 ( 3) + 1 l ength = 20 ≈ 4.47
=8 = 13

length = 8 ≈ 2.83 length = 13 ≈ 3.61

3
Grid C Slope =
b

3 3
Slope = Slope =
3 4
Area of square Area of square
9 = (4 ⋅ 6 ) + 1
=4⋅
2 = 25
= 18
length = 25 = 5
length = 18 ≈ 4.24

Part 2

Complete the following table. Write the length of the original segment in unsimplified
radical form (i.e., 2 , rather than 1.14…)
Slope Area of Original Square Length of Original Segment
Grid A 1 2 2
1 1
Slope =
b 1 5 5
2
1 10 10
3

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-5

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Sides of Squares

1 17 17
4
2 8 8
2
Grid B
2 13 13
2
Slope = 3
b
2 20 20
4
3 18 18
Grid C
3 3
Slope = 25
b
3 25 = 5
4

In your group, using the grid figures and the table, discuss and determine relationships
among slope numbers, area and segment length. Be prepared to share your findings in
whole class discussion.

When most groups have completed Parts 1 and 2, call on a participant to record
relationships on the board or easel paper.

The relationships that must emerge are:

ƒ The area of the square is equal to the sum of the squares of the numbers in the
unsimplified slope ratio. To generalize, if the segment’s slope (in unsimplified form)
a
is , then the area of the square on the segment is a2 + b2.
b
2 2
ƒ The length of the segment is given by a +b .

Other relationships that may emerge:

a
ƒ In the grid figures, when the slopes are of the form , there is no middle square, and
a
the area is given by 2a2.
ƒ When the numbers in the slope ratio differ by 1, the area of the middle square is 12.
ƒ When the numbers in the slope ratio differ by 2, the area of the middle square is 22.
ƒ When the numbers in the slope ratio differ by 3, the area of the middle square is 32.
ƒ The base and the height of each of the four congruent triangles are always the two
numbers in the unsimplified slope ratio.
a
ƒ To generalize, if slope = (in unsimplified form), the area of the middle square is
b
ab
(a – b)2; the area of each of the four congruent triangles is .
2

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-6

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Sides of Squares

2 ab
Total area = ( a − b ) + 4( )
2
2 2
= a − 2 ab + b + 2ab
2 2
=a +b .

Part 3

Note: The activity sheet does not include Part 3. This part is trainer-directed and makes
the connection to the right triangle with squares on the legs and hypotenuse. Using the
vertical and horizontal grid lines, draw the right triangle on an original side of one of the
squares. Continue the discussion as follows:

What is the geometric meaning of a2 or b2?

If a (or b) is a length measurement, then a2 (or b2) is the area of a square with side
measurement a (or b).

Participants draw and shade in the right triangle on one of the sides of the square using
the side of the square as the hypotenuse. Show its legs, which are a and b, as vertical and
horizontal segments. Then draw in the squares that represent the areas a2 and b2.

1 1
1
1
A = 12 + 1 2
4
1
=2
9
2 2
A =1 +2 16
=5
A = 12 + 3 2
= 10
A = 12 + 4 2
= 17

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-7

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Sides of Squares

4 4

A = 22 + 2 2 9
=8
A = 22 + 3 2 16

= 13 A = 22 + 4 2
= 20

When most participants have completed drawing the squares with horizontal and vertical
sides, make sure that they also compute the areas and connect the symbolic statement of
the Pythagorean Theorem, a2 + b2 = c2, to the geometric, pictorial representations in each
figure.

Ask the following question and allow groups a few minutes to share their answers.
How would you express the Pythagorean Theorem in words now that you have a
symbolic and pictorial representation?
Considering a right triangle with squares constructed on the legs and the hypotenuse, the
area of the largest square, the one on the hypotenuse, is equal to the sum of the areas of
the squares on the two legs.

16
A = 32 + 4 2
A = 32 + 3 2 = 25
= 18

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-8

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Sides of Squares

Make a connection to triangle congruence using the correspondence of hypotenuse and

leg, or hypotenuse and acute angle between right triangles.

Are two right triangles congruent if they have congruent hypotenuses and one of the
legs on one triangle is congruent to one of the legs on the other triangle?
If the lengths of the hypotenuse and one leg of a right triangle are known, then, using the
Pythagorean Theorem, the other leg is determined. Since the two triangles now have
three congruent sides congruent to three congruent sides, SSS, the triangles are
congruent. This is referred to as the Hypotenuse-Leg Triangle Congruence Theorem
(HL).

Are two right triangles congruent if they have congruent hypotenuses and one of the
acute angles on one triangle is congruent to one of the acute angles on the other
triangle?
If the measures of two angles are known, namely the right angle and the acute angle, then
the third angle is known. Since one triangle has three angles and the hypotenuse
congruent to three angles and the hypotenuse on the other triangle, ASA, the triangles
must be congruent. This is referred to as the Hypotenuse-Angle Triangle Congruence
Theorem (HA).

Success in Part 1 of the activity indicates that participants are working at the van Hiele
Descriptive Level because the figures are analyzed in terms of their components. The
relationships between the component parts are identified.

In Part 2, success indicates that participants are working at the Relational Level. The
activity requires them to formulate and use definitions and to draw conclusions from
informal arguments.

In Part 3, success indicates that participants are working at the Relational Level, because
algebraic relationships are connected to their geometric counterparts deductively.

In the next activity, participants establish the relationship between the areas of the
squares on the two shorter sides and the area on the longest side of an acute and an obtuse
triangle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-9

Activity Page: Pythagoras Sides of Squares

Sides of Squares

Part 1

For grids A, B and C, complete the following steps for each line segment.
a
Let the slope of each segment be .
b

ƒ Write the slope, in unsimplified form, next to the segment. In Grid A, a =

1; in Grid B, a = 2 ; in Grid C, a = 3.
ƒ Using your knowledge of parallel and perpendicular lines, build a square
that is on the upper left side of each segment.
ƒ Divide each square into a composite of right triangles and squares by
drawing segments in from the vertices, along the horizontal or vertical
grid lines.
ƒ Find the area of the original square from the sum of the areas of the
composite figures.
ƒ Find the length of each original segment from the area of its square.

1
Grid A Slope =
b

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-10

Activity Page: Pythagoras Sides of Squares

2
Grid B Slope =
b

3
Grid C Slope =
b

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-11

Activity Page: Pythagoras Sides of Squares

Part 2

Complete the following table. Write the length of each of the original
segments in unsimplified radical form (i.e., 2 , rather than 1.14…)

Area of Original Length of Original

Slope
Square Segment

Grid A
1
Slope =
b

Grid B
2
Slope =
b

Grid C
3
Slope =
b

In your group, using the grid figures and the table, discuss and determine
relationships among slope numbers, area and segment length. Be prepared to
share your findings in whole class discussion.

Part 3

Conclusions

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-12

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Non-Right Triangles

Squares on the Sides of Acute or Obtuse Triangles

Overview: Participants test the validity of the Pythagorean Theorem inductively
by finding the areas of squares on the sides of acute and obtuse
triangles.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

V.018.A. The beginning teacher understands the nature of proof,
including indirect proof, in mathematics.
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems
to represent point, lines, line segments, and figures.
e.1.C. The student develops, extends, and uses the Pythagorean
Theorem.

Background: Participants need to be able to find side lengths of squares when given
their area.

Materials: centimeter grid paper, centimeter ruler

New Terms:

Procedures:

Distribute centimeter grid paper to participants.

1. Draw a scalene acute triangle in the center of the grid paper, with one of its sides
along the horizontal or vertical lines. Label the longest side of the triangle c and
the other two sides a and b. Make sure each vertex is at the intersection of a
horizontal and a vertical grid line.

Draw the squares on each of the three sides of the triangle. Using the same dividing
process as in the previous activity, find the area of each of the squares, a2, b2, and c2.

Determine the relationship among a2, b2, and c2 for an acute triangle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-13

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Non-Right Triangles

An example is shown below.

b2 = 26 a2 + b2 = 26 + 25 = 51.
c2= 41.
51 > 41.
a2 + b2 > c2.

b c

c2 = 41

a2 = 25

If participants find the process confusing, it may help to cover over most of the acute
triangle, leaving visible only the segment whose square is being constructed.

2. Draw a scalene obtuse triangle in the center of the grid paper with one of its sides
along the horizontal or vertical lines. Label the longest side c, and the other two sides
a and b. Make sure each vertex is at the intersection of a horizontal and a vertical grid
line.

As with the acute triangle, draw the squares on the three sides, and find the areas of
the three squares, a2, b2, and c2.

Determine the relationship among a2, b2, and c2 for an obtuse triangle.

An example is shown.

a2 + b2 = 2 + 10 = 12.
c2 = 16. a2 = 2
12 < 16. a
a2 + b2 < c2.

c
b

c2 = 16 b2 = 10

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-14

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Non-Right Triangles

Does the relationship a2 + b2 = c2 still apply to acute triangles?

No. In acute triangles, if c is the longest side, a2 + b2 > c2.

Does the relationship a2 + b2 = c2 still apply to obtuse triangles?

No. In obtuse triangles, if c is the longest side, a2 + b2 < c2.
The following illustration provides additional support for this result. Consider the three
triangles, ∆ AB1C, ∆ AB2C, and ∆ AB3C. Two sides in each of the three triangles are
congruent. AC is common to all three triangles, and B1C = B2C = B3C, since all are radii
of circle C.
B1
B2

B3

C A

∆ AB1C is a right triangle, with right angle at the center of circle C.

Therefore, (AC)2 + (B1C)2 = (B1A)2.

∆ AB2C is an acute triangle.

Two sides of ∆ AB2C are congruent to two sides of ∆ AB1C (B2C = B1C; AC = AC).
But B1A > B2A, therefore (AC)2 + (B2C)2 > (B2A)2.

∆ AB3C is an obtuse triangle.

Two sides of ∆ AB3C are congruent to two sides of ∆ AB1C (B3C = B1C; AC = AC).
But B1A < B3A, therefore (AC)2 + (B3C)2 < (B3A)2.

Success in the activity indicates that participants are working at the Relational Level,
because they provide informal, deductive arguments for the relationship of the squares of
lengths of sides in a triangle. Moreover, properties of different triangles are interrelated.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-15

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Non-Right Triangles

Squares on the Sides of Acute or Obtuse Triangles

1. Draw a scalene acute triangle in the center of the grid paper, with one of
its sides along the horizontal or vertical lines. Label the longest side of
the triangle c and the other two sides a and b. Make sure each vertex is at
the intersection of a horizontal and a vertical grid line.

Draw the squares on each of the three sides of the triangle. Using the
same dividing process as in the previous activity, find the area of each of
the squares, a2, b2, and c2.

Determine the relationship among a2, b2, and c2 for an acute triangle.

2. Draw a scalene obtuse triangle in the center of the grid paper with one of
its sides along the horizontal or vertical lines. Label the longest side c,
and the other two sides a and b. Make sure each vertex is at the
intersection of a horizontal and a vertical grid line.

As with the acute triangle, draw the squares on the three sides, and find
the areas of the three squares, a2, b2, and c2.

Determine the relationship among a2, b2, and c2 for an obtuse triangle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-16

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part I

Applying Pythagoras, Part I

Overview: Participants apply the Pythagorean Theorem to a variety of problems.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.006.G. The beginning teacher models and solves problems involving
linear and quadratic equations and inequalities using a variety of
methods, including technology.
III.011.D. The beginning teacher applies the Pythagorean Theorem,
proportional reasoning, and right triangle trigonometry to solve
measurement problems.
III.013.D. The beginning teacher computes the perimeter, area, and
volume of figures and shapes created by subdividing and combining
other figures and shapes (e.g., arc length, area of sectors).
V.019.C. The beginning teacher translates mathematical ideas between
verbal and symbolic forms.

Geometry TEKS
b.4. The student uses a variety of representations to describe geometric
relationships and solve problems.
c.3. The student identifies and applies patterns from right triangles to
solve problems, including special right triangles (45-45-90 and 30 -60 -
90 ) and triangles whose sides are Pythagorean triples.
e.1.C. The student develops, extends, and uses the Pythagorean
Theorem.

Background: Participants should be able to apply the Pythagorean Theorem.

Materials: calculator

New Terms:

Procedures:

Distribute the activity sheet. Participants work independently or in small groups to

complete the six problems.

1. Find the area in square units of trapezoid BCDE if the length of AC is 20 units, the
length of DC is 12 units, and the length of BE is 3 units.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-17

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part I

C Applying the Pythagorean Theorem on ∆ACD,

AD = 16 units.
∆ABE~∆ACD. BE is one-fourth of CD; therefore
B AE is one-fourth of AD. AE = 4 units.
12 DE = AD – AE = 12 units.
3 Area of trapezoid BCDE
A D (3 + 12)
E = 12 = 90 square units.
2
2. The diagonals of a rhombus are 6 inches and 8 inches. What is the perimeter, in
inches, of the rhombus?
Applying the Pythagorean Theorem, the
5"
length of each side of the rhombus is 5
3"
inches.
4" 4" The perimeter is 20 inches.
3"

3. What is the area in square units of the quadrilateral FGHJ?

32 The area of ∆FGH is 344 square units.
F G
Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to
∆FGH, FH = 40 units.
24
Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to
H ∆FHJ, FJ = 96 units.
The area of ∆FHJ is 1920 square units.
The area of quadrilateral FGHJ is 2304
square units.
104

4. Find the area of the isosceles trapezoid in square feet. Express your answer in simplest
radical form.
12' Draw the perpendicular segments from the
ends of the short base to the long base,
forming right triangles.
7' 2 10 ' Applying the Pythagorean Theorem, the
height of the triangles and the height of the
trapezoid is 2 10 ft.
3' 12' 3'
The area of the trapezoid is 30 10 ft2.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-18

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part I

5. What is the length of AG ?

Applying the Pythagorean Theorem on
G
1 ∆ABC, AC = 5 units.
A F Applying the Pythagorean Theorem on
1 ∆ACD, AD = 6 units.
E
2
1 Continuing in this fashion
1 D AG = 9 = 3 units.
B 1 C

6. A traveler drove 18 miles north, then 11 miles west, then 6 miles south, and then 6
miles east. In miles, how far “as the crow flies” was the traveler from his original
starting point?
11 mi Sketch the route as shown. The legs of the
right triangle measure 12 miles and 5 miles.
6 mi Using the Pythagorean Theorem, the
6 mi hypotenuse measures 13 miles. The traveler
18 mi
was 13 miles from his original starting
point.

Success in this activity indicates that participants are working at the van Hiele
Relational Level, because they use properties of different figures along with formulas
to solve problems.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-19

Activity Page: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part I

Applying Pythagoras, Part I

1. Find the area in square units of trapezoid BCDE if the length of AC is 20

units, the length of DC is 12 units, and the length of BE is 3 units.
C

B 12
3
A D
E

2. The diagonals of a rhombus are 6 inches and 8 inches. What is the

perimeter, in inches, of the rhombus?

3. What is the area in square units of the quadrilateral FGHJ?

F 32 G

24

104

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-20

Activity Page: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part I

4. Find the area of the isosceles trapezoid in square feet. Express your
answer in simplest radical form.
12'

7'

18'

5. What is the length of AG ?

G
1
A F
1

2 E
1

1 D
B 1 C

6. A traveler drove 18 miles north, then 11 miles west, then 6 miles south,
and then 6 miles east. In miles, how far “as the crow flies” was the
traveler from his original starting point?

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-21

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Pythagorean Triples

Pythagorean Triples
Overview: Participants discover relationships that will enable them to quickly
recall Pythagorean triples.

Objective: TexES Mathematics Competencies

II.004.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and extends patterns and
relationships in data presented in tables, sequences, or graphs.
II.006.G. The beginning teacher models and solves problems involving
linear and quadratic equations and inequalities using a variety of
methods, including technology.

Geometry TEKS
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
c.3. The student identifies and applies patterns from right triangles to
solve problems, including special right triangles (45-45-90 and 30-60-
90) and triangles whose sides are Pythagorean triples.
e.1.C. The student develops, extends, and uses the Pythagorean
Theorem.
f.1. The student develops, applies, and justifies triangle similarity
relationships, such as right triangle ratios, trigonometric ratios, and
Pythagorean triples.

Background: Participants should be able to apply the Pythagorean Theorem.

Materials: transparencies of the tables for the activity, calculator

New Terms: Pythagorean triple

Procedures:

Introduce the activity by referring back to the problem solving section of the last activity.
Problems 1, 2, 3, and 6 include right triangles whose sides are all natural numbers.
When three natural numbers satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem, they are called
Pythagorean triples or triplets. Remind participants to add the new term Pythagorean
triple to their glossaries.

The triples in these problems are in ratios of 3: 4: 5 and 5: 12: 13. Multiples of these
triples appear in 1, 2, and 3 of the current activity sheet.

Interesting patterns and generalizations exist in certain groups of triples. The lengths of
the legs of a right triangle are a and b, and the length of the hypotenuse is c. In the first
table, a is odd; in the second table, a is even.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-22

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Pythagorean Triples

Participants examine patterns within triples to enable them to easily remember and
generate other Pythagorean triples.

Distribute the activity sheet. The activity requires instructor-participant interaction

throughout.

Table 1: a is odd.

Work with your group to complete the three rows where a = 3, 5, and 7. Be prepared to
share in whole class discussion.

Participants complete the row beginning with a = 3. The columns labeled a2, b2, and c2
are for checking that the numbers chosen for a, b, and c are indeed Pythagorean triples.

a b c a2 + b2 = c2

3 4 5 9 16 25
5 12 13 25 144 169
7 24 25 49 576 625

Cover the columns for b2 and c2.

What patterns can be seen in this part of the table?

a b c a2

3 4 5 9
5 12 13 25
7 24 25 49

Several patterns may be discerned, but the following two patterns must emerge:
b + c = a2 and
b and c differ by 1, or c – b = 1.

Using this information, if a = 9, then a2 = 81. What are the values for b and c?
b + c = 81, and c – b = 1.
b = 40, c = 41.

How may one find b and c quickly?

Find one half of a2, which is 40.5. Subtract 0.5 from 40.5 to find b, which is 40. Add 0.5
to 40 to find c, which is 41.
Alternately, subtract 1 from a2 to get 80. Divide 80 by 2 to get b, which is 40. Add 1 to
40 to get c, 41.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-23

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Pythagorean Triples

Write the following numbers in the table. Participants find the missing numbers using the
inductive rule determined above.

a b c a2

3 4 5 9
5 12 13 25
7 24 25 49
9
11
112
221
Do the numbers 9, 40, and 41 form a Pythagorean triple? Test the numbers in the
relationship a2 + b2 = c2.
The numbers 9, 40, and 41 form a Pythagorean triple, because they satisfy a2 + b2 = c2.
92 + 402 = 81 + 1600 = 1681 = 412.

What is the triple for a = 11? Explain.

The numbers 11, 60, and 61 form a Pythagorean triple.
If a = 11, then a2 = 121.
We also know b + c = 121.
To find b and c quickly, find half of 121, which is 60.5.
Then subtract 0.5 from 60.5 to get b, which is 60.
Add 0.5 to 60.5 to get c, which is 61.
Note that 60 + 61 = 121.
To check: 112 + 602 = 121 + 3600 = 3721= 612
Thus, 112 + 602 = 612, which satisfies the Pythagorean Theorem.

What is the triple for b = 112? Explain.

The numbers 15, 112, and 113 form a Pythagorean triple.
If b = 112, then c = 113.
We know a2 = b + c.
Substituting 112 and 113 for b and c, a2 = b + c = 112 + 113 = 225.
Therefore, a = 15.
Check: a2 + b2 = 152 + 1122 = 225 + 12,544 = 12,769.
c2 = 1132 = 12,769.
The answers for a2 + b2 and c2 are the same, 12,769.

What is the triple for c = 221? Explain.

The numbers 21, 220, and 221 form a Pythagorean triple.
If c = 221, then b = 220.
Since a2 = b + c, a2 = 221 + 220 = 441.
We now know that a = 21.
Check: a2 + b2 = 212 + 2202 = 441 + 48,400 = 48,841.
c2 = 2212 =48,841.
Thus, a2 + b2 is the same as c2. Both are 48,841.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-24

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Pythagorean Triples

What is the triple in terms of a?

a b c a2

3 4 5 9
5 12 13 25
7 24 25 49
9 40 41 81
11 60 61 121
15 112 113 225
21 220 221 441
a 1 2 1 2 a2
(a − 1) (a + 1)
2 2

2 2
⎛1 2
2 ⎞ ⎛1 2 ⎞
Confirm the identity a + ⎜ ( a − 1) ⎟ = ⎜ ( a + 1) ⎟ .
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠

2
⎛1 ⎞
a 2 + ⎜ (a 2 − 1) ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
1
= a 2 + (a 4 − 2a 2 +1)
4
1 1 1
= a4 + a2 +
4 2 4
2
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ (a 2 +1) ⎟
⎝2 ⎠

Insert a = 1 in the first row of the table.

What is the triple for a = 1, the first odd whole number? Explain.
The triple is 1, 0, 1.
a2 = 1 and
b + c = 1, or c – b = 1, which results in
b = 0 and c = 1.
Algebraically, a = 1 is valid. However, geometrically there is no triangle with a side
length equal to 0.

a b c a2
1 0 1 1
3 4 5 9
5 12 13 25

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-25

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Pythagorean Triples

Table 2: a is even.

Before participants start Table 2, instruct them to leave the first row blank, and start the
second row with a is 4.Work with your group to complete the three rows where a = 4, 6,
and 8. Be prepared to share in whole class discussion.

a b c a2 + b2 = c2

4 3 5 16 9 25
6 8 10 36 64 100
8 15 17 64 225 289

If needed, mention that the first row, 4, 3, 5, is the only row in which a is greater than b.
Encourage participants to look for patterns in the same way as they did for Table 1.

When almost all participants have found the triples for a = 4, 6, 8, conduct a whole group
discussion about the patterns participants observed, again covering the b2 and c2 columns.

a2
Have participants note that b and c differ by 2, or, c – b = 2, then b + c = .
2
Usually, participants will divide a2 by 2, from the process used in Table 1, and then
discover that they need to divide by 2 again to find a number to determine b and c.
For example, if a2 = 36, then divide 36 by 2 to get 18. Divide 18 by 2 again to get 9. Then
add 1 to 9 to get c = 10, and subtract 1 from 9 to get b = 8.

Write 9 in the space between 8 and 10. Similarly, write 4 in the space between 3 and 5,
and write 16 in the space between 15 and 17.
a b Middle # c a2

4 3 4 5 16
6 8 9 10 36
8 15 16 17 64

What operation performed on a2 produces the number between b and c?

Divide by 4.

What operation performed on the “middle number” produces b and c?

Subtract 1 to get b; add 1 to get c.

Write the following numbers in the table. Participants find the missing values and then
justify the answers.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-26

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Pythagorean Triples

a b Middle # c a2

4 3 4 5 16
6 8 9 10 36
8 15 16 17 64
10
35
50
2
For a = 10, a = 100.
Divide 100 by 4. The “middle number” is 25 and
b = 24, c = 26.
Check: a2 + b2 = 102 + 242
= 100 + 576
= 676.
2
c = 262 = 676.
a2 + b 2 = c 2 .
For b = 35, c = 37.
The “middle number” = 36.
To get a2, multiply by 4.
a2 = 144.
a = 12.
Check: a2 + b2 = 122 + 352
= 144 + 1225
=1369.
c2 = 132 = 1369.
a + b = c2.
2 2

For c = 50, b = c – 2.
b = 48.
The “middle number” = 49.
To get a2, multiply by 4.
a2 = 196.
a = 14.
Check: a2 + b2 = 142 + 482.
= 196 + 2304
= 2500.
c2 = 502 = 2500.
a + b = c2.
2 2

a b Middle # c a2

4 3 4 5 16
6 8 9 10 36
8 15 16 17 64
10 24 25 26 100
12 35 36 37 144
14 48 49 50 196

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-27

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Pythagorean Triples

Participants may point out that the “middle number” is a sequence of perfect squares
2 2
⎛a⎞ a
equal to ⎜ ⎟ , which simplifies to .
⎝2⎠ 4

What is the triple in terms of a?

a b middle # c a2
a 2 2 2 a2
a a a
−1 +1
4 4 4
2 2
2
⎛ a2 ⎞ ⎛ a2 ⎞
Confirm the identity a + ⎜ − 1⎟ = ⎜ + 1⎟ .
⎜ 4 ⎟ ⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2
2
⎛ a2 ⎞
a + ⎜ − 1⎟
⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ a4 a2 ⎞
= a2 + ⎜ − + 1⎟
⎜ 16 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
a4 a2
= + +1
16 2
2
⎛ a2 ⎞
= ⎜ + 1⎟
⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

The table begins with a = 4. The even whole numbers should begin with 2.
Write the value a = 2 in the first row of the table. If participants did not leave the first
row blank, they can enter the a = 2 row above the table headings.

a b middle # c a2
2
4 3 4 5 16

What is the triple for a = 2, the first even whole number?

If a = 2, then a2 = 4, b = 0, and c = 2.
Algebraically 2, 0, 2 is a valid triple, but geometrically 0 is not a valid length
measurement for the side of a triangle.

a b middle # c a2
2 0 1 2 4
4 3 4 5 16

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-28

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Pythagorean Triples

Point out that in Table 1 (a is odd), the triples are all primitive. This means that the three
numbers have no common factors. However, in the second table (a is even), every other
row is primitive, while those in between are all multiples of 2. When 2 is factored out, the
other factor is one of the triples from Table 1.

a b c

Primitive 4 3 5
2[3, 4, 5] 6 8 10
Primitive 8 15 17
2[5, 12, 13] 10 24 26
Primitive 12 35 37
2[7, 24, 25] 14 48 50

Explain why multiples of triples always satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem?

In symbolic terms, explain why a2 + b2 = c2, is (ka)2 + (kb)2 = (kc)2 is always true for
any value of k.
(ka)2 + (kb)2
= k2a2 + k2b2
= k2(a2 + b2)
= k2(c2)
= k2 c2
= (kc)2.

The patterns for “a is odd” and “a is even” represent a few of the infinite numbers of
Pythagorean triples. These also represent a large number of triples that typically appear in
high school texts or test problems. Another common triple is 20, 21, 29, which does not
fit either of the patterns.

Table 3 is provided for participants for optional further investigation and notes.

Set up the triple, 20, 21, 29, in a comparable table.

a b Middle # c a2
20 21 25 29 400

Consider the relationships from Tables 1 and 2. What are the comparable
relationships here?
a2
In Table 1, c − b = 1, and the “middle number” is .
2
a2
In Table 2, c − b = 2, and the “middle number” is .
4
a2
In this problem, c − b = 8, and the “middle number” is .
16

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-29

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Pythagorean Triples

Since the “middle number” is a perfect square, find other triples that fit the 20, 21,
29 pattern.

a b Middle # c a2
20 21 25 29 400
4
9
16
36
49

a b middle # c a2
20 21 25 29 400 Primitive
8 0 4 8 64 Not a triangle
12 5 9 13 144 5, 12, 13 in Table 1
16 12 16 20 256 3[4, 3, 5]
24 32 36 40 576 8[3, 4, 5]
28 45 49 53 784 Primitive

According to Pappas (1991, p. 79), the ancient Greeks discovered:

2 2
⎛ m2 + 1 ⎞ ⎛ m2 − 1 ⎞
If m is an odd natural number, then ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ + m2 .
⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
The patterns in Table 1 satisfy this identity.

Plato’s formula, where m is a natural number is:

(m2 + 1)2 = (m2 – 1)2 + (2m) 2.
The patterns in Table 2, where a = 2m, an even number, satisfy this identity.

Euclid’s method:
If x and y are integers and if a = x2 – y2, b = 2xy, c = x2 + y2, then a, b, and c, are integers,
such that a2 + b2 = c2.
You may interchange a and b in the formula, so that a can be odd for some cases of
a = x2 – y2 or a can be even (a = 2xy).

Further explorations may be conducted by making generalizations for the c – b value and
the corresponding divisibility of a2.

Success in this activity indicates that participants are working at the Relational Level
because they use the Pythagorean Theorem to verify the triples. Since algebraic deductive
reasoning is used to generalize the triples, they may also be working at the Deductive
Level.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-30

Activity Page: Pythagoras Pythagorean Triples

Pythagorean Triples

When three whole numbers satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem, they are called
Pythagorean triples or triplets. Plato and Euclid derived formulas for the
triples. At the end of this activity, you will examine these formulas.
Interesting patterns and generalizations exist in certain groups of triples. Let
a and b represent the lengths of the legs of a right triangle, and let c
represent the length of the hypotenuse. The two tables below are grouped
according to the value of a. In the first table a is odd; in the second table a is
even.

Table 1: a is odd.

Work with your group to complete the three rows where a = 3, 5 and 7.
Be prepared to share in whole class discussion.

a b c a2 + b2 = c2

3 4
5 12
7 25

Notes:

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-31

Activity Page: Pythagoras Pythagorean Triples

Table 2: a is even.

Work with your group to complete the three rows where a = 4, 6, and 8.
Be prepared to share in whole class discussion.

a b middle # c a2 + b2 = c2

Notes:

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-32

Activity Page: Pythagoras Pythagorean Triples

Table 3:

a b c a2 + b2 = c2

Notes:

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-33

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Special Right Triangles

Special Right Triangles

Overview: In this activity participants investigate special right triangles.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.006.G. The beginning teacher models and solves problems involving
linear and quadratic equations and inequalities using a variety of
methods, including technology.
III.011.D. The beginning teacher applies the Pythagorean theorem,
proportional reasoning, and right triangle trigonometry to solve
measurement problems.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and properties
(e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about two- and
three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of sides,
angles).
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove mathematically
that statements are true.
c.3. The student identifies and applies patterns from right triangles to
solve problems, including special right triangles (45-45-90 and 30-60-
90) and triangles whose sides are Pythagorean triples.
e.1.C. The student develops, extends, and uses the Pythagorean
Theorem.
f.3. In a variety of ways, the student develops, applies, and justifies
triangle similarity relationships, such as right triangle ratios,
trigonometric ratios, and Pythagorean triples.

Background: Participants need to have knowledge of the Pythagorean Theorem.

Materials: geoboard or geoboard dot paper (provided in the Appendix), unlined 8.5
in. by 11 in. paper

New Terms:

Procedures:

This activity is taken from Discovering Geometry: An Investigative Approach, 3rd

Edition, © 2003, p. 475 with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-34

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Special Right Triangles

Part 1
h
On your paper, sketch an isosceles right triangle. l
Label the legs l and the hypotenuse h.

1. Pick any positive integer for l, the length of the legs of an isosceles right triangle.
Show this triangle on a geoboard or on geoboard dot paper. Use the Pythagorean
Theorem to find h. Simplify the square root.
l 2 +l 2 = h 2
22 + 22 = h2
4 + 4 = h2
8 = h2
8 =h
2 2=h

2. Repeat 1 with several other values for l. Share results with your group. Do you see a
pattern in the relationship between l and h?
l 2 +l 2 = h 2
32 + 32 = h 2
9 + 9 = h2
18 = h 2
18 = h
3 2=h

3. State your conclusion in words and using a drawing.

In a 45º-45º-90º right triangle, the length of the hypotenuse is 2 times the length of
the leg.

Part 2

On your paper, sketch an equilateral triangle, ∆ABC. Draw the altitude BD from vertex B
to side AC . On your sketch, mark congruent sides and show the measures of all angles in
∆ABD and ∆CBD. B

30° 30°

60° 60°
A D C
Geometry Module DRAFT 6-35
Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Special Right Triangles

4. What is the relationship between AB and AD ? Will this relationship always exist in a
30o-60o-90o triangle? Explain.
1
Since AC = AB, then AD = AB.
2
5. Sketch a 30o-60o-90o triangle. Choose any positive integer for the length of the shorter
leg. Use the relationship from 4 together with the Pythagorean Theorem to find the
length of the other leg. Simplify the square root.
6 2 +l 2 = 12 2 30°
36 +l 2 = 144 12 cm
l
l 2 = 108
l=6 3 60°
6 cm
6. Repeat 5 with several values for the length of the shorter leg. Share results with the
group.
30°
9 2 +l 2 = 18 2
18 cm
81+l 2 = 324 l
l 2 = 243
60°
l=9 3
9 cm

7. Write a generalization for relating the sides of any 30o-60o-90o triangle.

In a 30o-60o-90o right triangle, the length of the hypotenuse is twice the length of the
short leg. The length of the long leg is 3 times the length of the short leg.

8. Use algebra to verify the relationship for any 30o-60o-90o triangle by using the
triangle to the right.
60°
(2a)2 = a2+ b2 2a
4a2 = a2+ b2 a
3a2= b2
a 3=b
b

Success in this activity indicates that participants are working at the Relational Level
because they use both inductive and deductive methods to generalize properties for
special right triangles.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-36

Activity Page: Pythagoras Special Right Triangles

Special Right Triangles

Part 1

On your paper, sketch an isosceles right triangle. Label the legs l and the
hypotenuse h.

1. Pick any positive integer for l, the length of the legs of an isosceles right
triangle. Show this triangle on a geoboard or on geoboard dot paper. Use
the Pythagorean Theorem to find h. Simplify the square root.

2. Repeat 1 with several other values for l. Share results with your group.
Do you see a pattern in the relationship between l and h?

3. State your conclusion in words and using a drawing.

Part 2

On your paper, sketch an equilateral triangle, ∆ABC. Draw the altitude BD

from vertex B to side AC . On your sketch, mark congruent sides and show
the measures of all angles in ∆ABD and ∆CBD.

4. What is the relationship between AB and AD ? Will this relationship

always exist in a 30o-60o-90o triangle? Explain.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-37

Activity Page: Pythagoras Special Right Triangles

5. Sketch a 30o-60o-90o triangle. Choose any positive integer for the length
of the shorter leg. Use the relationship from 4 together with the
Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of the other leg. Simplify the
square root.

6. Repeat 5 with several values for the length of the shorter leg. Share
results with the group.

7. Write a generalization relating the sides of any 30o-60o-90o triangle.

8. Use algebra to verify the relationship for any 30o-60o-90o triangle by

using the triangle to the right.

60°
2a a

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-38

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Distance Formula

Distance Formula
Overview: In this activity participants investigate the length of line segments using
the Pythagorean Theorem.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.011.D. The beginning teacher applies the Pythagorean theorem,
proportional reasoning, and right triangle trigonometry to solve
measurement problems.
III.014.E. The beginning teacher applies concepts and properties of
slope, midpoint, parallelism, perpendicularity, and distance to explore
properties of geometric figures and solve problems in the coordinate
plane.

Geometry TEKS
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems to
represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
e.1.C. The student develops, extends, and uses the Pythagorean
Theorem.

Background: Participants need to be able to understand and use the Pythagorean

Theorem.

Materials: centimeter grid paper, centimeter grid transparency, 3 in. square

adhesive notes in two colors (one of each color per participant)

New Terms: distance formula

Procedures:

Participants find the length of a non-vertical and non-horizontal line segment whose
endpoints lie on a given coordinate plane. A right triangle is drawn using the original line
segment as the hypotenuse. Horizontal and vertical segments drawn along the gridlines
from the endpoints of the original segment form the legs. The lengths of the legs can be
determined by observation. The length of the original segment can be found using the
Pythagorean Theorem.

When the segment has endpoints which do not fit on a given coordinate plane,
participants develop and apply the distance formula, based on an understanding of the
Pythagorean Theorem.

Prior to the training, write an ordered pair on an adhesive note for each participant. On
one color adhesive note write an ordered pair whose x- and y-values vary from -8 to 8. On
the other color adhesive note, write an ordered pair whose x- and y-values lie between 10

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-39

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Distance Formula

and 50 or between -10 and -50. Try to provide a wide variety of ordered pair choices for
the whole class.

Part 1

Begin the activity by distributing an adhesive note in each color to each participant. Each
group of four participants will then have four ordered pairs. On centimeter grid paper,
using the coordinates between -8 and 8, ask participants to create four line segments
using the ordered pairs as endpoints. It is possible to create six segments. Each participant
will find the distances between the endpoints.

Lead a whole class discussion in which participants summarize how they found the
distance. Possible mathematical relationships to highlight are:
ƒ For non-vertical or non-horizontal lines, draw a vertical line segment and horizontal
line segment along the grid lines to form a right triangle. Use the Pythagorean
Theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse.
ƒ To find the lengths of the vertical and horizontal legs, count the grid units from
endpoint to endpoint.
ƒ Irrational numbers should be simplified, e.g., 24 is written 2 6 .

Part 2

Ask participants to repeat the activity using the ordered pairs on the other color adhesive
note, having coordinate values greater than 50 or less than -50. Give participants time to
grapple with the fact that the grid paper is too small to plot the points unless the scale is
changed.

Ask participants to write an expression for the length of the horizontal leg using the x-
coordinates. Then write a similar expression for the length of the vertical leg using the y-
coordinates. Then apply the leg measurements to the Pythagorean Theorem to find the
distance between the points. Use the expressions to write a general formula for distance.

Lead a whole class discussion in which participants summarize how the distance was
found. Ask a participant to describe how his/her group developed the expressions, using
the group’s examples from Part 2.

Given the coordinates of the endpoints of a line segment, ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) , the length
of the line segment is given by (x2 − x1 ) 2 + (y2 − y1 ) 2 . This is commonly known as the
distance formula. Remind participants to add the term distance formula to their
glossaries.

Success with this activity indicates that participants are performing at the Relational
Level since they interrelate algebraic and geometric representations.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-40

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part II

Applying Pythagoras, Part II

Overview: Participants apply the Pythagorean Theorem at various levels of
challenge.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.011.B. The beginning teacher applies formulas for perimeter, area,
surface area, and volume of geometric figures and shapes (e.g.,
polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres) to solve
problems.
III.011.D. The beginning teacher applies the Pythagorean theorem,
proportional reasoning, and right triangle trigonometry to solve
measurement problems.
III.013.D. The beginning teacher computes the perimeter, area, and
volume of figures and shapes created by subdividing and combining
other figures and shapes (e.g., arc length, area of sectors).
III.018.E. The beginning teacher understands the problem-solving
process (i.e., recognizing that a mathematical problem can be solved in
a variety of ways, selecting an appropriate strategy, evaluating the
reasonableness of a solution).
III.019.E. The beginning teacher understands the use of visual media,
such as graphs, tables, diagrams, and animations, to communicate
mathematical information.

Geometry TEKS
b.4. The student selects an appropriate representation (concrete,
pictorial, graphical, verbal, or symbolic) in order to solve problems.
c.1. The student identifies and applies patterns from right triangles to
solve problems, including special right triangles (45-45-90 and 30 -60 -
90) and triangles whose sides are Pythagorean triples.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
e.1.A. The student finds areas of regular polygons and composite
figures.
e.1.C. The student develops, extends, and uses the Pythagorean
Theorem.
f.3. In a variety of ways, the student develops, applies, and justifies
triangle similarity relationships, such as right triangle ratios,
trigonometric ratios, and Pythagorean triples.

Background: Participants need the ability to apply the Pythagorean Theorem in

problems that integrate properties of other planar figures such as
triangles, quadrilaterals, and to some extent circles.

Materials: calculator

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-41

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part II

New Terms:

Procedures:

Participants work independently or in pairs. The problems may be assigned for

homework.

1. What is the area of trapezoid PQRS, whose measures are shown in the diagram?
Q 17 R Draw the perpendicular segment from Q or
R to PS . The height of the trapezoid is the
8 8 same as the height of the 30o-60o-90o
4 3
triangle: 4 3 units. The area of trapezoid
60° 60°
P 25
S PQRS is 84 3 square units.

2. The home plate used in baseball can be produced by adding two isosceles right
triangles to a square as shown. What is the area of home plate in square feet?
The hypotenuses of the isosceles right
triangles measure 1 ft. Using the 1: 1:
2 2 ratio, the legs of the triangles measure
ft
2 2
ft. Therefore the area of each triangle is
1 ft 1 ft 2
1 2 2 1 2
⋅ ⋅ = ft . The area of the home
2 2 2 4
plate is the sum of the areas of the 1 ft by 1
ft square and the two isosceles right
triangles. Therefore, the area is 1.5 ft2.

3. An equilateral triangle has a perimeter of 24 cm. What is the area in square

centimeters of the triangle formed by connecting the midpoints of the sides of the
original triangle? Express your answer in simplest radical form.
Draw an equilateral triangle and the
triangle formed by connecting the midpoints
4 cm of its sides. Draw the altitude. Use the
1: 3 :2 ratio for a 30o-60o-90o triangle to
2 3 cm
find the length of the altitude, 2 3 cm. The
area of the small triangle is
8 cm 1
⋅ 2 3 ⋅ 4 = 4 3 cm2.
2

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-42

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part II

4. A 25-foot support beam leans against a wall as shown. The base of the beam is 7 feet
from the wall. If the top of the beam is lowered 4 feet, how many feet farther away
from the wall will the base of the beam be after it is lowered?
As shown in the diagram, the beam forms a
25 7:24:25 triangle. When it is lowered the
24
beam forms a 15:20:25 triangle. The base of
25
20 the beam has moved 8 feet farther away
7 7
from the wall.
15
5. The diagram consists of three nested squares. Find the ratio of the area of the smallest
square to the area of the largest square.
The side length of the middle square is equal
4 to the length of the hypotenuse of the right
triangle with legs of length 3 and 4 units.
5 2 The side length of the middle square is 5
3
units.
3 The side length of the smallest square is
13 equal to the length of the hypotenuse of a
2
right triangle with legs of length 2 and 3
units, which is 13 .
The ratio of the area of the smallest square
13
to the area of the largest square is .
49

6. Lightning hit a tree one-fourth of the distance up the trunk from the ground, breaking
the tree so that its top landed at a point 60 feet from its base, as shown. How many
feet tall was the tree originally?
Let the height of the upright portion of the
tree be x, then the hypotenuse is 3x. Apply
the Pythagorean Theorem, using leg lengths
x and 60, and hypotenuse length 3x.
2 2 2
3x x + 60 = (3x ) . Solve for x. The original
height of the tree was 4x, approximately
x 84.8 feet.

60 ft

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-43

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part II

7. Find the perimeter of the polygon shown. The triangles are all right triangles.
See the activity sheet for a clear picture of the figure.
The figure is comprised of a series of 30º-60º-90º triangles. The hypotenuse of the
largest triangle measures 64 units. The long leg of the second largest triangle
measures 16 3 units. The long legs of the third, fourth, fifth and sixth triangles
measure 8 3 , 4 3 , 2 3 , and 3 units. The perimeter is 63 + 63 3 , the sum of the
lengths of the long legs of the triangles and the 63 units remaining on the hypotenuse
of the largest triangle.

8. Equilateral triangle QRS is inscribed in circle O. The radius of the circle is 8 units.
The area of the shaded region can be expressed as xπ − y 3 , where x and y are
positive integers. Find the ordered pair (x, y).
Draw an altitude of the triangle. The center
of the circle O divides the altitude into
lengths that are in ratio of 2:1. The length of
the radius is 8 units. The length of the
altitude is 12 units and the length of a side
of the triangle is 8 3 units.
The area of the shaded region is
1
8 2 ⋅ π − ⋅ 12 ⋅ 8 3 or 64π − 48 3 square
2
units.
The ordered pair is (64, 48).

9. A circular table is pushed into the corner of a square room so that a point P on the
edge of the table is 8 inches from one wall and 9 inches from the other wall as shown.
Find the radius of the circular table in inches.
Draw the radius to P, and the horizontal
P and vertical legs of the right triangle. The
r radius is the hypotenuse. The legs are
r−8 shorter than the radius by 8 and 9 inches
r−9 respectively. Use the Pythagorean Theorem,
( r – 9) 2 + ( r – 8) 2 = r2 .
Simplifying: r 2 − 34r + 145 = 0 or
(r − 29)(r − 5) = 0 . This equation has two
solutions r = 29 and r = 5. Only r = 29
makes sense in the context of the problem so
the radius of the table has a length of 29
inches.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-44

 Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part II

10. A square with 6'' sides is shown. If P is a point in the interior of the square such that
the segments PA , PB , and PC are equal in length, and PC is perpendicular to FD ,
what is the area, in square inches, of ∆ APB?
Let CP = x.
F C D
Extend CP to intersect AB at Q.
Altitude PQ = 6 – x.
x AP = x. AQ = 3.
Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to the
P
measures of ∆APQ to solve for x.
x 3
6 x 15
x = 3 or inches.
A 3" − B 4 4
Q
Therefore the area of
1 15
∆APB = ⋅ 3 ⋅ (6 − )
2 4
1 9 27 2
= ⋅3⋅ = in .
2 4 8

11. The square shown is externally tangent to the smaller circle and internally tangent to
the larger circle. Find the ratio of the area of the smaller circle to the area of the larger
circle.
Draw the radius, r, of the small circle to the
midpoint of a side of the square. Draw the
r radius of the large circle to a vertex of the
square, forming a 45o-45o-90o right triangle,
r 2 therefore this radius has a measure of r 2 .
The ratio of the areas of the smaller circle to the
π ⋅ r2 π r2 1
larger circle is = .
( )
2 2
π r 2 π 2r 2

12. A rectangular solid has dimensions 3 cm by 4 cm by 12 cm. What is the length, in

centimeters, of the diagonal AB of the solid?
A 12 Draw a face diagonal along one of the 3 cm by
13 3 4 cm faces. The face diagonal measures 5 cm.
5 The face diagonal, the 12 cm edge, and AB are
4 the sides of a right triangle. AB = 13 cm.
B

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-45

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part II

13. Point A is located in 3-dimensional space at coordinate position (4, 4, 4). Find the
distance from point A to the origin.
z The distance from A to the origin is
4 2 + 4 2 + 4 2 = 4 3 units.

A
(4, 4, 4)

(0, 0, 0) 4

y
4
x

4 3 4 2

14. The semicircle shown has center O and diameter AB . A rectangle whose length is
twice its width has two vertices on the semicircle. Find the ratio of the area of the
semicircle to the area of the rectangle.
A O B Draw the radius to a vertex of the rectangle on
the semicircle. Let the width of the rectangle be
x 2
x x units. The ratio of the area of the semicircle to
π x2 π
2x
the area of the rectangle is = .
2x
2 2

Success with this activity indicated that participants are working at the van Hiele
Relational Level, because they use properties and formulas of various figures to solve
the problems.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-46

Activity Page: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part II

Applying Pythagoras, Part II

1. What is the area of trapezoid PQRS, whose measures are shown in the
diagram?

Q 17 R

8 8

60° 60°
P S
25

2. The home plate used in baseball can be produced by adding two isosceles
right triangles to a square as shown. What is the area of home plate in
square feet?

1 ft 1 ft

3. An equilateral triangle has a perimeter of 24 cm. What is the area in

square centimeters of the triangle formed by connecting the midpoints of
the sides of the original triangle? Express your answer in simplest radical
form.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-47

Activity Page: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part II

4. A 25-foot support beam leans against a wall as shown. The base of the
beam is 7 feet from the wall. If the top of the beam is lowered 4 feet, how
many feet farther away from the wall will the base of the beam be after it
is lowered?

25

5. The diagram consists of three nested squares. Find the ratio of the area of
the smallest square to the area of the largest square.
4
3

6. Lightning hit a tree one-fourth of the distance up the trunk from the
ground, breaking the tree so that its top landed at a point 60 feet from its
base, as shown. How many feet tall was the tree originally?

60 ft

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-48

Activity Page: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part II

7. Find the perimeter of the polygon shown. The triangles are all right
triangles.
4

2
8

32

32 3

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-49

Activity Page: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part II

8. Equilateral triangle QRS is inscribed in circle O. The radius of the circle

is 8 units. The area of the shaded region can be expressed as xπ − y 3 ,
where x and y are positive integers. Find the ordered pair (x, y).

9. A circular table is pushed into the corner of a square room so that a point
P on the edge of the table is 8 inches from one wall and 9 inches from the
other wall as shown. Find the radius of the circular table in inches.

10. A square with 6'' sides is shown. If P is a point in the interior of the
square such that the segments PA , PB , and PC are equal in length, and
PC is perpendicular to FD , what is the area, in square inches, of ∆APB?
F C D

A 6" B

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-50

Activity Page: Pythagoras Applying Pythagoras, Part II

11. The square shown is externally tangent to the smaller circle and
internally tangent to the larger circle. Find the ratio of the area of the
smaller circle to the area of the larger circle.

12. A rectangular solid has dimensions 3 cm by 4 cm by 12 cm. What is the

length, in centimeters, of the diagonal AB of the solid?
A

B
13. Point A is located in 3-dimensional space at coordinate position (4, 4, 4).
Find the distance from point A to the origin.

14. The semicircle shown has center O and diameter AB . A rectangle whose
length is twice its width has two vertices on the semicircle. Find the ratio
of the area of the semicircle to the area of the rectangle.

A O B

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-51

Supplemental Material: Pythagoras References and Additional Resources

References and Additional Resources

Gravemeijer, K. P. (1998). From a different perspective: Building on students' informal

knowledge. In R. Lehrer & D. Chazan (Eds.), Designing learning environments

for developing understanding of geometry and space (pp. 45-66). Mahway, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Mathcounts. (1999). Mathcounts competitions. Alexandria, VA: Mathcounts.

Pappas, T. (1986). The joy of mathematics: Discovering mathematics all around you. San

Carlos, CA: Wide World Publishing.

Pappas, T. (1991). More joy of mathematics: Exploring mathematics all around you. San

Carlos, CA: Wide World Publishing.

Geometry Module DRAFT 6-52

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Diagonals of a Polygon

Unit 7 – Polygons and Circles

Diagonals of a Polygon
Overview: In this activity, participants investigate the number of diagonals from a
given vertex of a polygon.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.004.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and extends patterns and
relationships in data presented in tables, sequences, or graphs.
II.006.G. The beginning teacher models and solves problems
involving linear and quadratic equations and inequalities using a
variety of methods, including technology.
III.011.A. The beginning teacher applies dimensional analysis to
derive units and formulas in a variety of situations (e.g., rates of
change of one variable with respect to another) and to find and
evaluate solutions to problems.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons
and their components.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
IV.015.B. The beginning teacher organizes, displays, and interprets
data in a variety of formats (e.g., tables, frequency distributions,
scatter plots, stem-and-leaf plots, box-and-whisker plots, histograms,
pie charts).
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.D. The beginning teacher communicates mathematical ideas
using a variety of representations (e.g., numeric, verbal, graphical,
pictorial, symbolic, concrete).

Geometry TEKS
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
b.4. The student uses a variety of representations to describe geometric
relationships and solve problems.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-1

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Diagonals of a Polygon

e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student

formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
polygons and their component parts.

Background: Participants should know that the sum of the measures of the angles in
any given triangle is 180º. They should also be familiar with terms
such as vertex, diagonal, and interior angle.

Materials: straightedge, graphing calculator

New Terms:

Procedures:

In this activity, participants will investigate the relationship between the number of sides
of a polygon and the total number of diagonals.

1. Complete the following table relating the numbers of sides of a polygon to the total
number of diagonals.

Number of sides of
3 4 5 6 7 8
the polygon
Number of
diagonals in the 0 2 5 9 14 20
polygon

2 3 4 5 6

1 1 1 1
Participants may need to create the polygons and physically draw the diagonals to be
able to complete the first few columns of the chart.

Create a scatter plot of your data on your graphing calculator. Place the number of
sides of the polygon on the x-axis and the number of diagonals on the y-axis.

For an intensive tutorial on the use of the graphing calculator see Utilizing the
graphing calculator in the secondary mathematics and science classroom at
http://www.esc4.net/math.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-2

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Diagonals of a Polygon

Using the given window the scatter plot should look as follows:

What patterns do you observe?

Graphically and numerically participants should see that the data is not linear. Finite
differences (shown above) illustrate that the first finite differences are not constant;
however the second finite differences have a constant value of one. This indicates that
the data is quadratic, a fact that appears to be confirmed by the scatter plot.

2. How many diagonals are in a 24-gon? How many in an n-gon?

n(n − 3)
A 24-gon will have 252 diagonals. An n-gon will have diagonals.
2

You may need to tell participants that a 24-gon is a polygon with 24 sides and an
n-gon is a polygon with n-sides. Although participants may want to extend the pattern
to find the number of diagonals in a 24-gon, they will soon realize that this is too
tedious and that finding a rule to determine the number of diagonals would be more
efficient. Participants may mistakenly believe from the scatter plot that the equation is
a quadratic function with vertex at (3, 0). Others may attempt to perform a quadratic
regression using the calculator to determine the function. If necessary, encourage
participants to think about the underlying geometry in the situation.

How many diagonals can be drawn from each vertex in an n-gon?

n-3 diagonals can be drawn from each vertex.

How many vertices are there in an n-gon?

An n-gon has n vertices.

Is the total number of diagonals n(n−3)?

No. Multiplying the number of vertices by the number of diagonals that can be drawn
from each vertex “double counts” each diagonal. Therefore the total number of
n(n − 3)
diagonals is .
2

Participants may have other approaches for determining this function. For
example, some may see this as a combination problem. Determining the total number
of segments that can be drawn among n vertices is equivalent to determining the
number of groups of 2 that can be taken from a group of n. This is equivalent
n(n − 1)
to . The number of segments that are not diagonals, the n sides, results in an
2

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-3

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Diagonals of a Polygon

n(n − 1)
expression of − n . If a participant uses this approach, demonstrate that this
2
n(n − 3)
expression is algebraically equivalent to .
2

3. Use your graphing calculator to verify your function for determining the number of
diagonals in an n-gon.

The graphing calculator may be used in several ways to verify the function. We used
the variable n in this activity, because we were dealing with discrete data. To use the
calculator, we will need to use the variable x which is more often associated with
continuous functions. Participants may use a calculator table to see that their
function reproduces their original table. They may also overlay their previously
created scatter plot upon the graph of the function. The continuous function
x( x − 3)
f ( x) = contains all the points of the discrete function for our geometric
2
situation.

4. How many sides does a polygon with 860 diagonals have?

The polygon has 43 sides.

Participants have a variety of methods for finding this solution. They may use the
table of values generated by the calculator to determine the number of sides. Or they
x( x − 3)
may find the intersection point of the function f ( x) = and the
2
x( x − 3)
line g ( x) = 860 . Or they may solve the quadratic equation . = 860 .
2

In this activity participants are working at the van Hiele Descriptive Level as they
determine properties of polygons. When they connect this with algebra, they approach the
Relational Level.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-4

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Diagonals of a Polygon

Diagonals of a Polygon

1. Complete the following table relating the numbers of sides of a polygon

to the total number of diagonals.

Number of
sides of the 3 4 5 6 7 8
polygon
Number of
diagonals in
the polygon

Create a scatter plot of your data on your graphing calculator. Place the
number of sides on the polygon on the x-axis and the number of
diagonals on the y-axis.

What patterns do you observe?

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-5

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Diagonals of a Polygon

2. How many diagonals are in a 24-gon? How many in an n-gon?

3. Use your graphing calculator to verify your function for determining the
number of diagonals in an n-gon.

4. How many sides does a polygon with 860 diagonals have?

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-6

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

Interior and Exterior Angles of a Polygon

Overview: In this activity, participants investigate the sum of the measures of the
interior and exterior angles of a polygon.
.
Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies
II.004.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and extends patterns and
relationships in data presented in tables, sequences, or graphs.
II.006.G. The beginning teacher models and solves problems
involving linear and quadratic equations and inequalities using a
variety of methods, including technology.
II.007.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and translates among
various representations (e.g., written, tabular, graphical, algebraic) of
polynomial, rational, radical, absolute value, and piecewise functions.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons
and their components.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.D. The beginning teacher communicates mathematical ideas
using a variety of representations (e.g., numeric, verbal, graphical,
pictorial, symbolic, concrete).

Geometry TEKS
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
c.1.A. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
polygons and their component parts.

Background: Participants need to have knowledge of the sum of the measures of a

triangle’s interior angles.

Materials: graphing calculator, straightedge, unlined 8.5 in. by 11 in. paper,

scissors, tape, transparencies “Constructing a Polygon’s Exterior
Angles” and “Determining the Sum of a Polygon’s Exterior Angles”

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-7

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

New Terms:

Procedures:

In this activity, participants will use information about the number of diagonals of a
polygon from one vertex to determine the sum of the measures of the interior angles of a
polygon as well as the measure of each interior angle of a regular polygon. Recall the
definition of a regular polygon as a polygon with all sides congruent and all angles
congruent.

Provide participants with unlined 8.5 in. by 11 in. paper.

1. In your group, draw polygons with 3 to 7 sides. Use a straightedge to draw all the
diagonals from one vertex. Share your results to complete the table below.

Number of
sides of the 3 4 5 6 7 … n
polygon
Number of
diagonals 0 1 2 3 4 n− 3
from one
vertex
Number of
triangles 1 2 3 4 5 n− 2
created
Total
measure of 1 ⋅ 180 2 ⋅ 180 3 ⋅ 180 4 ⋅ 180 5 ⋅ 180 (n − 2) ⋅ 180
interior
angles 180 360 540 720 900
(degrees) 180(n−2)

2. Using the formula you derived in 1 for the sum of the measures of the interior angles
of a polygon, complete the table below to determine the measure of each interior
angle of a regular polygon.
Number
of sides of 3 4 5 6 7 … n
the
polygon
Sum of
measures
of 180 360 540 720 900 180(n−2)
interior
angles
(degrees)

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-8

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

Measure
of an 180 360 540 720 900 180(n − 2)
= = = = =
interior 3 4 5 6 7 n
angle
(degrees) 60 90 108 120 128.6

Stress with participants that the formula for the sum of the measures of interior angles
is true for all polygons, but that this formula is applicable only to regular polygons,
since by definition, all of the angles in a regular polygon must be congruent.

3. If n = 50, what is the measure of each interior angle of a regular polygon?

180 o (50 − 2)
The measure of the interior angle of a 50-gon is or 172.8 .
50

4. If n = 100, what is the measure of each interior angle of a regular polygon?

180 (100 − 2)
The measure of the interior angle of a 100-gon is or 176.4 .
100

5. Is it possible for a regular polygon to have an interior angle measure of 175.5 ?

Explain.
180 (n − 2)
175.5 =
n
175.5 n = 180 n − 360
360 = 4.5 n
n = 80

An 80-gon has an interior angle measure of 175.5 .

6. Is it possible for a regular polygon to have an interior angle measure of 169 ?

Explain.

180 (n − 2)
169 =
n
169 n = 180 n − 360
360 = 11 n
n = 32.72

Since n is not a natural number, there is no regular polygon with interior angle
measure of 169 .

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-9

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

7. As n gets very large, ( n → ∞ ), what happens to the measure of an interior angle of a

regular polygon? Illustrate this graphically.
180 (n − 2)
Measure of an interior angle of a regular polygon =
n
180 n
= − 360
n n
360
= 180 −
n

360
As n gets very large, ( n → ∞ ), approaches zero, and the measure of an
n
interior angle approaches 180 .

On the graphing calculator, this appears as asymptotic behavior, with the line y =
180 ( x − 2)
180 serving as the horizontal asymptote to the curve y = .
x

Participants will now investigate the exterior angles of a polygon. It is often difficult for
students to understand intuitively that this sum does not depend on the number of sides of
the polygon. Participants may use the polygons that they have already constructed to
study exterior angles for the next part of the activity.

8. For the polygons that you created earlier, use a straightedge to extend each side
of the polygon as a ray to construct the polygon’s exterior angles as follows. Choose a
vertex from which to begin, and extend the side to the right, thus making the side into
a ray. The angle between the ray just drawn and the consecutive side to the right is
∠1 . Continue in a counter-clockwise direction until all exterior angles have been
drawn. You will construct as many exterior angles as there are sides of the polygon.

You will now carefully cut and tear the polygon so that each exterior angle keeps its
distinct vertex. Cutting from each vertex slightly more than halfway along its
corresponding side and then tearing away from the center will accomplish this
best. When you have finished, you will have as many pieces as there are exterior
angles of the polygon.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-10

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

4
2

Align each exterior angle on the segment below, beginning with the vertex of ∠1 at
the arrow and above the line. Using a common vertex (align the vertex of ∠2 with
the vertex of ∠1 and the edge of ∠2 to the top edge of ∠1 ), move counter-
clockwise as shown by the arrow and align ∠1 with ∠2 . Continue to align the
exterior angles in this manner until all angles have been placed.

2
1

If necessary, use the transparencies provided to illustrate this process for participants.

How many complete revolutions do your combined exterior angles make?

The combined exterior angles make one complete revolution.

What is the sum of the measures of the exterior angles of your polygon? Is this true
for the polygons of all members of your group?
The sum of the measures of the exterior angles of any polygon is 360 .

9. Complete the chart below, obtaining information from other groups. What
conclusion can you draw from the chart?

Number of sides of
the polygon 4 5 6 7 8 9 … n
Sum of the measures
of the exterior angles 360 360 360 360 360 360 360
(degrees)
For any polygon, the sum of the measures of the exterior angles is 360 .

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-11

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

10. Complete the following flowchart proof for the sum of the measures of the
exterior angles of a triangle.

a + b = 180 ; c + d = 180 ; e + f = 180

The sum of the measures of the angles that form a

d
c linear pair equals 180 .

e a b
f

a + b + c + d + e + f = 540

Addition Property of Equality

a + c + e = 180

The sum of the measures of the interior

angles of a triangle equals 180 .

b + d + f = 360

Subtraction Property of
Equality

How may the proof above be extended to prove that the sum of the measures of the
exterior angles of an n-gon is 360o?
Since an interior angle and its related exterior angle form a linear pair at each
vertex, there are n linear pairs of angles, totaling 180n degrees. As we discovered
previously, the sum of the interior angles of a polygon is 180(n−2). Therefore the
exterior angles must have a sum of 180n−[180(n−2)] degrees. Simplifying this
o
expression yields 180n-(180n−360) degrees or 360 .

11. Determine the measure of an exterior angle of a regular polygon. Complete the table
below:

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-12

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

Number of
sides of the 4 5 6 7 8 9 … n
regular
polygon
Sum of the
measures of
the exterior 360 360 360 360 360 360 .. 360
angles
(degrees)
Measure of an 360 360 360 360 360 360 360
exterior angle = = = = = = n
4 5 6 7 8 9
(degrees) ..
90 72 60 51.7 45 40

12. As the number of sides of the polygon increases, what happens to the measures of
each exterior angle of a regular polygon? Explain and illustrate graphically.
As the number of sides of the polygon increases, the measure of each exterior angle
approaches zero. This results because the measure of the supplementary interior
angle approaches 180 .
On the graphing calculator this appears as asymptotic behavior, with the x-axis
360
serving as the horizontal asymptote to the curve y = .
x

In this activity participants are working at the van Hiele Descriptive Level as they
determine properties of polygons, specifically with respect to interior and exterior angles.
They approach the Relational Level as they connect with algebra, and the Deductive
Level if formal reasoning is used in the flowchart proof.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-13

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

Transparency
Constructing a Polygon’s Exterior Angles

4
2

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-14

Transparency: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

Transparency
Sum of the Measures of the Exterior Angles of a Polygon
Determining the Sum of a Polygon’s Exterior Angles

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-15

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

Interior and Exterior Angles of a Polygon

1. In your group, draw polygons with 3 to 7 sides. Use a straightedge

to draw all the diagonals from one vertex. Share your results to complete
the table below.

Number of
sides of the 3 4 5 6 7 … n
polygon
Number of
diagonals
from one
vertex
Number of
triangles
created
Total
number of
degrees in
the
polygon

2. Using the formula you derived for the sum of the measures of the interior
angles of the polygon, complete the table below to determine the measure
of an interior angle of each regular polygon.

Number of
sides of the 3 4 5 6 7 … n
polygon
Sum of
measures of
interior
angles
(degrees)
Measure of
an interior
angle
(degrees)

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-16

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

3. If n = 50, what is the measure of each interior angle of a regular polygon?

4. If n = 100, what is the measure of each interior angle of a regular

polygon?

5. Is it possible for a regular polygon to have an interior angle measure

of 175.5 ? Explain.

6. Is it possible for a regular polygon to have an interior angle measure

of 169 ? Explain.

7. As n gets very large ( n → ∞ ) what happens to the measure of an interior

angle of a regular polygon? Explain. Illustrate this graphically.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-17

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

8. For the polygons that you created earlier, use a straightedge to

extend each side of the polygon as a ray to construct the polygon’s
exterior angles as follows. Choose a vertex from which to begin, and
extend the side to the right, thus making the side into a ray. The angle
between the ray just drawn and the consecutive side to the right is ∠1 .
Continue in a counter-clockwise direction until all exterior angles have
been drawn. You will construct as many exterior angles as there are sides
of the polygon.

You will now carefully cut and tear the polygon so that each exterior
angle keeps its distinct vertex. Cutting from each vertex slightly more
than halfway along its corresponding side and then tearing away from the
center will accomplish this best. When you have finished, you will have
as many pieces as there are exterior angles of the polygon.

4
2

Align each exterior angle on the segment below, beginning with the
vertex of ∠1 at the arrow and above the line. Using a common vertex
(align the vertex of ∠2 with the vertex of ∠1 and the edge of ∠2 to the
top edge of ∠1 ), move counter-clockwise as shown by the arrow and
align ∠1 with ∠2 . Continue to align the exterior angles in this manner
until all angles have been placed.

2
1

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-18

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

9. Complete the chart below, obtaining information from other groups.

What conclusion can you draw from the chart?

Number of 4 5 6 7 8 9 … n
sides of the
polygon
Sum of the
measures of
the exterior
angles
(degrees)

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-19

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

10. Complete the following flowchart proof for the sum of the measures of
the exterior angles of a triangle.
a + b = _____ ; c + d = _____ ;
e + f = _____

d
c

e a b
a + b + c + d + e + f = _____
f

a + c + e = _____

b + d + f = _____

The above is taken from Discovering Geometry: An Inductive Approach:

3rd Edition, ©2003, p. 262, with permission from Key Curriculum Press

How may the proof above be extended to prove that the sum of the
measures of the exterior angles of an n-gon is 360o?

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-20

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Interior and Exterior Angles

11. Determine the measure of an exterior angle of a regular polygon.

Complete the table below:

Number of
sides of the 4 5 6 7 8 9 … n
regular polygon
Sum of the
measures of the
exterior angles
(degrees)
Measure of an
exterior angle
(degrees)

12. As the number of sides of the polygon increases, what happens to the
measure of each exterior angle of a regular polygon? Explain and
illustrate graphically.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-21

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Polygons in Circles

Polygons in Circles
Overview: In this activity, participants determine and apply the area formula for
regular polygons and relate properties of regular polygons and their
circumscribed circles.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.004.A. The beginning teacher Recognizes and extends patterns and
relationships in data presented in tables, sequences, or graphs.
III.011.A. The beginning teacher applies dimensional analysis to
derive units and formulas in a variety of situations (e.g., rates of
change of one variable with respect to another) and to find and
evaluate solutions to problems.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons
and their components.
III.013.D. The beginning teacher computes the perimeter, area, and
volume of figures and shapes created by subdividing and combining
other figures and shapes.
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.D. The beginning teacher communicates mathematical ideas
using a variety of representations (e.g., numeric, verbal, graphical,
pictorial, symbolic, concrete).

Geometry TEKS
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
b.3.E. The student uses deductive reasoning to prove a statement.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
e.1.A. The student finds area of regular polygons and composite
figures.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
polygons and their component parts.

Background: Participants need to know the area and perimeter formulas for triangles
and circles.

Materials: calculator, centimeter ruler

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-22

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Polygons in Circles

New Terms: apothem, radius of a polygon

Procedures:

Participants will derive the formula for the area of a regular polygon in relation to its
circumscribed circle. They will also relate properties and parts of inscribed polygons to
the corresponding parts and properties of circles.

Each group member should complete the activity for one or more different polygons so
that all the polygons are considered. Share your findings with others in your group as you
complete the activity.

1. To construct a regular polygon with n sides, connect n equally spaced points on the
circumference of a circle. Connect the points on the following congruent circles with
a straightedge to complete the regular polygons. Name each polygon.

Triangle Square Pentagon Hexagon

Heptagon Octagon 16-gon

2. Draw segments connecting the center of each circle to the vertices of its inscribed
polygon. The segments are called the radii of the polygons.

The isosceles triangles formed by the radii and the sides of the polygon can be used to
find the area of each polygon. In each polygon draw an altitude to the base of one of
the isosceles triangles. This segment is called the apothem of the polygon.

Remind participants to add the new terms apothem and radius of a polygon to their
glossaries.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-23

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Polygons in Circles

Find the area of a regular polygon in terms of the number of sides, n, the length of a
side, s, and the length of the apothem, a.

Example,

a
s

Area of polygon = n(Area of one triangle)

⎛1 ⎞
Area of polygon = n ⎜ sa ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
1
Area of polygon = ⋅ nsa
2
3. Find the area of a regular polygon in terms of its perimeter, P, and the length of the
apothem, a.
P = ns
1 1
From 2, the area of polygon = nsa = Pa .
2 2

4. Use a ruler to measure, to the nearest millimeter the length of a side and the length of
an apothem for each of the regular polygons. Calculate the area of your polygon(s).
Complete the following table by sharing your measurements and calculations with
members of your group.
Number of sides Side Length Apothem Area
n s (mm) a (mm) (mm2)
3 38 11 627
4 31 16 992
5 26 18 1170
6 22 19 1254
7 19 20 1330
8 17 21 1428
16 8 22 1408

The above measurements are for guidance only. Your actual measurements may vary due
to variation in the module reproduction processes and measurement error.

5. Based on observation, complete the following statements for polygons and circles
with congruent radii.
ƒ As n increases, the length of side s decreases.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-24

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Polygons in Circles

ƒ As n increases, the apothem length a increases.

ƒ As n increases, the area of the polygon increases.
ƒ As the chord length s decreases, the distance, a, of the chord from the center of
the circle increases.
ƒ As the chord length s decreases, the length of its intercepted arc decreases.

As n approaches infinity (n → ∞), determine the limits of P, the perimeter, and a, the
apothem. Then determine the limit of the area of the polygon in terms of the limits of
P and a.

As n → ∞, the length of the perimeter, P, approaches the length of the circumference,

C, of the circle, and the length of the apothem, a, approaches the length of the radius
of the circle, r.
P → C = 2πr.
1
Area of polygon = Pa
2
1 1
Area of polygon → Cr = ( 2π r ) r = πr2.
2 2

The area of a regular polygon approaches the area of its circumscribed circle as the
number of sides of the polygon approaches infinity.

Measure the length of the radius in millimeters and determine the area of the circle.
The radius measures 22 mm. The area of the circle is approximately 1520 mm2.

Note: For the sample data, the lengths of the apothem for the 16-gon and for the radius of
the circle are 22 mm. Increasing the number of sides of the polygon to numbers greater
than sixteen will not change the length of the apothem within measurement tolerance.
The factors which affect the area for large values of n are the value of n and the length of
s. As n increases, s decreases. The area will continue to increase until the limiting value,
the area of the circle, is reached.

Participants are performing at the van Hiele Deductive Level in this activity, because
properties of polygons and parts of polygons are intrarelated and interrelated with the
corresponding properties and parts of circles, and because formulas and conclusions are
determined deductively.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-25

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Polygons in Circles

Polygons in Circles

Each group member should complete the activity for one or more different
polygons so that all the polygons are considered. Share your findings with
others in your group as you complete the activity.

1. To construct a regular polygon with n sides, connect n equally-spaced

points on the circumference of a circle. Connect the points on the
following congruent circles with a straightedge to complete the regular
polygons. Name each polygon.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-26

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Polygons in Circles

2. Draw segments connecting the center of each circle to the vertices of its
inscribed polygon. The segments are called the radii of the polygons.

The isosceles triangles formed by the radii and the sides of the polygon
can be used to find the area of each polygon. In each polygon draw an
altitude to the base of one of the isosceles triangles. This segment is
called the apothem of the polygon.

Find the area of a regular polygon in terms of the number of sides, n, the
length of a side, s, and the length of the apothem, a.

3. Find the area of a regular polygon in terms of its perimeter P and the
length of the apothem, a.

4. Use a ruler to measure, to the nearest millimeter, the length of a side and
the length of an apothem for each of the regular polygons. Calculate the
area of your polygon(s). Complete the following table by sharing your
measurements and calculations with members of your group.

Number of sides Side Length Apothem Length Polygon Area

n s (mm) a (mm) (mm2)
3
4
5
6
7
8
16

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-27

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Polygons in Circles

5. Based on observation, complete the following statements for polygons

and circles with congruent radii.
ƒ As n increases, the side length s __________.
ƒ As n increases, the apothem length a __________.
ƒ As n increases, the area of the polygon __________.
ƒ As the chord length s decreases, the distance a of the chord from the
center of the circle __________.
ƒ As the chord length s decreases, the length of its intercepted arc
__________.

As n approaches infinity (n → ∞), determine the limits of P, the perimeter,

and a, the apothem. Then determine the limit of the area of the polygon in
terms of the limits of P and a.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-28

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

Angles Associated with a Circle

Overview: This activity illustrates the properties of angles, chords, and tangents
of a circle.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.013.B. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of circles and
the lines that intersect them.
V.018.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and uses multiple
representations of a mathematical concept (e.g., a point and its
coordinates, the area of a circle as a quadratic function of the radius,
probability as the ratio of two areas, area of a plane region as a definite
integral).
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
b.3.E. The student uses deductive reasoning to prove a statement.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
e.2.C. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
circles and the lines that intersect them.

Background: Participants need to know circle terms such as central and inscribed
angle.

Materials: protractor, centimeter ruler

New Terms: cyclic quadrilateral, major arc, minor arc

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-29

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

Procedures:

Have participants recall the definitions of a central angle and an inscribed angle and that
the measure of an inscribed angle is equal to half the measure of the central angle that
intercepts the same arc. Also participants should recall what is meant by a secant line and
a tangent line to a circle.

We will define two new terms. A minor arc is an arc of a circle that is smaller than a
semicircle. A major arc is an arc of a circle that is larger than a semicircle. Remind
participants to add these terms to their glossaries.

Participants will use deduction to prove relationships among angles formed by secant and
tangent lines to a circle and the associated arcs that are intercepted by these arcs. For that
reason many of the solutions are written as proofs.

1. Determine mFJ and mGH in circle A below. Explain.

Angle H intercepts FG .
F
Since m∠H = 40 , then mFG = 80 o
Together, FG and GH form a semicircle. G
Therefore, mGH is 180 − 80 , or 100 . A
J
FJ and FH also form a semicircle. 40°
Therefore, mFJ is 180 − 108 , or 72 .
108° H

2. In the figure, which is drawn to scale, BA is tangent to circle C at A; BF is tangent

to circle C at F. Confirm that ∠CAB and ∠CFB are right angles. Use this fact to
prove that AB ≅ FB .

B
C

Participants may use the corner of a sheet of paper or a protractor to confirm that
∠CAB and ∠CFB are right angles.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-30

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

Draw BC (Through any two points a unique

line can be drawn.)

∆CFB and ∆CAB are right triangles (Definition of right triangles)

AC ≅ CF (All radii in a circle are congruent.)

BC ≅ BC (Reflexive Property of Equality)

∆CFB ≅ ∆CAB (If the hypotenuse and a leg of one

right triangle are congruent to the
corresponding hypotenuse and leg
of another right triangle, then the
triangles are congruent.)

AB ≅ FB (Corresponding sides of congruent

triangles are congruent.)

This problem has two important results that need to be emphasized: 1) the tangent line is
perpendicular to the radius at the point of tangency and 2) tangent segments to a circle
from a point outside the circle are congruent.

3. GF and GH are tangent to circle J. Determine m∠FGH .

Angle GFJ and ∠GHJ are right angles. Since the sum of the measures of the interior
angles of a quadrilateral is 360 o , ∠FGH and ∠FJH are supplementary.
Therefore, m∠FGH =70 .

G 110° J

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-31

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

4. AC is tangent to circle F at A and to circle D at C. EB is tangent to circles D and F

at E. Determine m∠ABE and m∠CDE . Explain.

A
B
C

78°

F E D

m∠ABE and m∠CDE are equal. ∠ABE and ∠CDE are each angles in two
quadrilaterals that have a 78 o angle and two 90 o angles. Since the sum of the
measures of the interior angles equals to 360 o in each quadrilateral then,

m∠ABE = 360 o − (2 ⋅ 90 o + 78 o ) m∠CDE = 360 o − (2 ⋅ 90 o + 78 o )

and
m∠ABE = 102o m∠CDE = 102 o

5. AB is tangent to circle C at point A(−5, 12). Determine the equation of AB in slope-

intercept form.
B

Draw the radius from the origin to the point of tangency, A. CA is perpendicular to
AB . Determine the slope of CA .
12 − 0
m=
−5 − 0
−12
m=
5
The slope of tangent AB is the negative reciprocal of this slope. Write the equation
of AB in slope-intercept form. Use point A(−5,12) to determine the y-intercept.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-32

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

5
y= x+b
12
5
12 = ( −5) + b
12
−25
12 = +b
12
169
b=
12
5 169
The equation of AB is y = x+ .
12 12

In 6 and 7, determine m∠AGB in terms of AB and CD .

6. Hint: Construct BD . A G
∠ADB and ∠CBD are inscribed angles.
D

1 (The measure of an inscribed angle is half

m∠ADB = ⋅ m AB
2 of the measure of its intercepted arc.)
1
and m∠DBC = ⋅ mCD
2

m∠DBC = m∠ADB + m∠G (The measure of the exterior angle of a

triangle is equal to the sum of the
measures of the two remote interior
angles.)

1 1 (Substitution)
⋅ mCD = ⋅ m AB + m∠G
2 2

1 1
m∠G = ⋅ mCD − ⋅ m AB (Subtraction)
2 2
or m∠G =
1
2
(
mCD − m AB )

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-33

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

B
7. Hint: Construct BC .
A

C
D

1 (The measure of an inscribed angle is half

m∠ACB = ⋅ m AB
2 of the measure of its intercepted arc.)
1
m∠CBD = ⋅ mCD
2

m∠AGB = m∠ACB + m∠DBC (The measure of an exterior angle of a

triangle is equal to the sum of the measures
of the remote interior angles.)

1 1
m∠AGB = ⋅ m AB + ⋅ mCD (Substitution)
2 2
or m∠AGB =
1
2
(
m AB + mCD )

8. AG and BG are tangent to circle F. Determine m∠G in terms of AB alone and

then in terms of AB and ACB .

C
F

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-34

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

FB ⊥ BG ; FA ⊥ AG (A tangent line is perpendicular to the

radius at the point of tangency.)

∠A and ∠B are right angles (Definition of perpendicular lines)

m∠A = m∠B = 90 o (Definition of right angles)

m∠F = m AB (A central angle has a measure equal to

that of its intercepted arc.)

m∠A + m∠F + m∠G + m∠B = 360 o (The sum of the measures of the angles in a
quadrilateral is 360 o .)

90 o + m∠G + 90 o + m AB = 360 o (Substitution Property)

m∠G = 180 o − m AB (Subtraction)

This leads to the conclusion that ∠G and ∠F are supplementary.

In addition,

m AB = 360 o − m ACB (The sum of the arcs in a circle is

360 o .)

(
m∠G = 180 o − 360 o − m ACB ) (Substitution)
m∠G = m ACB − 180 o

m∠G + m∠G = m ACB − 180 o +180 o − m AB

2 ⋅ m∠G = m ACB − m AB (Addition)

1
m∠G = (m ACB − m AB) (Division)
2

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-35

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

9. CD is tangent to circle F at C. Determine the relationship between the measures of

∠BCD and ∠BAC .

B
D

A C

FC ⊥ CD (A tangent line is perpendicular

to the radius at the point of
tangency.)

∠FCD is a right angle (Definition of perpendicular

lines)

m∠FCD = 90 o (Definition of right angle)

m∠FCD = m∠FCB + m∠BCD (Angle Addition)

m∠FCB + ∠BCD = 90 o (Substitution)

m∠FCB = 90 o − m∠BCD (Subtraction)

FC ≅ FB (All radii in a circle are

congruent.)

∠FBC ≅ ∠FCB (If two sides of a triangle are

congruent, then the angles
opposite those sides are
congruent.)

m∠FBC = 90 o − m∠BCD (Substitution)

m∠FBC + m∠FCB + m∠CFB = 180 o (The sum of the measures of the

angles in a triangle is 180 o .)

90 o − m∠BCD + 90 o − m∠BCD + m∠CFB = 180 o (Substitution)

m∠CFB = 2 ⋅ m∠BCD (Subtraction)

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-36

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

m∠CFB = mBC (A central angle has a measure

equal to that of its intercepted
arc.)

1 (The measure of an inscribed

m∠BAC = ⋅ mBC angle is half of the measure of
2
its intercepted arc.)

mBC = 2 ⋅ m∠BAC (Multiplication)

2 ⋅ m∠BAC = 2 ⋅ m∠BCD (Substitution)

m∠BAC = m∠BCD (Division)

1
In addition, we can see that m∠BCD = ⋅ mBC .
2
10. BG is tangent to circle D at B. Determine the measure of ∠G in terms of the
G
intercepted arcs AB and CB .

C
D

∠ABG ≅ ∠ACB (The angle between a tangent and a

chord is congruent to the inscribed
angle intercepted by the arc on the
same side as the tangent.)

1 1 (The measure of an inscribed angle

m∠ACB = m AB and m∠BAC = mBC is equal to half of the measure of its
2 2 intercepted arc.)

m∠BAC = m∠G + m∠ABG (The measure of the exterior angle

of a triangle is equal to the sum of
the measures of the interior remote
angles.)

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-37

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

m∠BAC = m∠G + m∠ACB (Substitution)

1 1 (Substitution)
mBC = m∠G + m AB
2 2

m∠G =
1
2
mBC −
1
2
m AB =
1
2
( mBC − m AB ) (Subtraction)

11. A quadrilateral inscribed in a circle is a cyclic quadrilateral. Determine the

relationships among the various arcs and inscribed angles.

C
B

D
A

Draw FC and FA .
1 (The measure of an inscribed angle
m∠CDA = m ABC is equal to half of the measure of its
2 intercepted arc.)
1
and m∠ABC = mCDA
2

o (The sum of the measures of the arcs

m ABC + mCDA = 360 .
in a circle is 360o)

m∠CDA + m∠ABC =
1
2
( m ABC + mCDA) (Substitution)

o (Substitution)
m∠CDA + m∠ABC = 180

o
Similarly, m∠BCD + m∠BAD = 180

Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-38

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

Determine the relationship between the exterior angle to the diagonally opposite
interior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral.
C
B

K
D
A

o
m∠CDA + m∠ABC = 180 and (Linear pair)
o
m∠CDA + m∠CDK = 180

m∠CDK = m∠ABC (Substitution)

An exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is congruent to the diagonally opposite

interior angle.

Remind participants to add the term cyclic quadrilateral to their glossaries.

12. AD is a tangent segment to circle O at A. AB is a diameter. BD intersects the

circumference at F. m AF = 80o. E is a point on AB , on the opposite arc to AFB ,
such that mEB = 70o. Find the measures of the marked angles.

a = 50o b = 45o c= 50o d= 550 e= 35o f = 40o

g= 55o h=50o j = 5o k= 70o l= 75o m = 105o

One possible starting point is to determine m AE and m BF using diameter AB . Then,

determine the measures of central ∠BOE and inscribed angles FAB, AFE, BFE,
ABE, ABF, and BEF. Then, determine m ∠FAD . The remaining angles may be
determined using the sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle as well
as the definition of a linear pair.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-39

Trainer/ Instructor Notes: Polygons and Circles Polygons in Circles
D
A c
b
a
80°

d F
k O e

l m
j

E h

g f
70°
B

Participants are performing at the van Hiele Deductive Level in this activity, because they
are asked to provide deductive arguments.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-40

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

Angles Associated with a Circle

1. Determine mFJ and mGH in circle A below. Explain.

F

J A
40°

108° H

2. In the figure, which is drawn to scale BA is tangent to circle C at A; BF

is tangent to circle C at F. Confirm that ∠CAB and ∠CFB are right
angles. Use this fact to prove that AB ≅ FB .

B
C

3. GF and GH are tangent to circle J. Determine m∠FGH .

J
G
110°

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-41

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

4. AC is tangent to circle F at A and to circle D at C. EB is tangent to

circles D and F at E. Determine m∠ABE and m∠CDE . Explain.

A
B
C

78°

F E D

5. AB is tangent to circle C at point A(−5, 12). Determine the equation of

AB in slope-intercept form.

In 6 and 7, determine m∠AGB in terms of AB and CD .

6. Hint: Construct BD .

A G

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-42

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

7. Hint: Construct BC .
B

C
D

8. AG and BG are tangent to circle F. Determine m∠G in terms of AB

alone and then in terms of AB and ACB .

C
F

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-43

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

9. CD is tangent to circle F at C. Determine the relationship between the

measures of ∠BCD and ∠BAC .

B
D

A C

10. BG is tangent to circle D at B. Determine the measure of ∠G in terms

of the intercepted arcs AB and CB .

C
D

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-44

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

11. A quadrilateral inscribed in a circle is a cyclic quadrilateral. Determine

the relationships among the various arcs and inscribed angles.
C
B

A D

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-45

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Angles Associated with a Circle

12. AD is a tangent segment to circle O at A. AB is a diameter. BD

intersects the circumference at F. m AF = 80o. E is a point on AB , on the
opposite arc to AFB , such that mEB = 70o. Find the measures of the
marked angles.

a = ____ b = ____ c = ____ d = ____ e = ____ f = ____

g = ____ h = ____ j = ____ k = ____ l = ____ m = ____

D
A c
b
a
80°

d F
k O e

l m
j

E h

g f
70°
B

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-46

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Parts of a Circle

Parts of a Circle
Overview: In this activity, participants determine the areas of sectors as
proportional parts of the area of the whole circle, areas of segments as
parts of the areas of sectors, and the areas of annuli as the difference
between concentric circles.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.011.A. The beginning teacher applies dimensional analysis to
derive units and formulas in a variety of situations (e.g., rates of
change of one variable with respect to another) and to find and
evaluate solutions to problems.
III.011.D. The beginning teacher applies the Pythagorean theorem,
proportional reasoning, and right triangle trigonometry to solve
measurement problems.
III.012.B. The beginning teacher uses properties of points, lines,
planes, angles, lengths, and distances to solve problems.
III.013.B. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of circles and
the lines that intersect them.
III.013.D. The beginning teacher computes the perimeter, area, and
volume of figures and shapes created by subdividing and combining
other figures and shapes.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
e.1.A. The student finds area of regular polygons and composite
figures.
e.1.B. The student finds area of sectors and arc lengths of circles using
proportional reasoning.
e.2.C. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student
formulates and tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of
circles and the lines that intersect them.
f.2. The student uses ratios to solve problems involving similar
figures.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-47

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Parts of a Circle

Background: Participants need to know circle terms, such as the various angles of a
circle, properties of chords, and tangent properties, and the formula for
the area of a circle.

Materials: compass, centimeter ruler, calculator, easel paper, colored markers

New Terms: annulus (plural is annuli), sector of a circle, segment of a circle

Procedures:

Participants will define and determine methods for finding areas of sectors, segments of
circles, and annuli. Participants complete 1 – 5 in their groups (about ten minutes).
During whole-group discussion, ask participants to share their strategies for completing
1-5. The remaining items may be completed in groups and presented on easel paper if
desired. These problems are also suitable for a homework assignment.

1. The shaded region in the circle is called a sector. Define sector of a circle.
A sector is the region bounded by an arc
and the two radii to the endpoints of the arc.
r

2. The length of the arc and the area of the sector may be related to the length of the
circumference and the area of the circle, respectively. Find the length of the arc and
the area of the sector in terms of the radius of the circle, r, and the central angle, θ,
measured in degrees, which determines the sector.
The ratio of the measure of the central angle to 360o is equal to the ratio of the arc
length to the length of the circumference, and also to the ratio of the area of the
sector to the area of the circle.
θ arc length area of sector
= = .
360
o 2π r πr 2

θ
Arc length = 2π r .
o
360
θ
Area of sector = π r2 .
o
360

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-48

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Parts of a Circle

3. The shaded region is a segment of a circle. Define segment of a circle.

A segment of a circle is the region between a
chord of a circle and the included arc.
r
Explain how to find the area of the segment of a
θ circle.
The area of a segment can be determined by
subtracting the area of the triangle bounded by
the two radii and the chord from the area of the
sector.

4. Determine the areas of the shaded segment and the sector for each circle.
Circle A:
o
90 25π 2
Area of sector = π ⋅ 52 = cm .
5 cm o 4
360
A Area of segment =Area of sector – Area of
triangle.
25π 25 2
Area of segment = − cm .
4 2

7 Circle B:
3 cm o
2 7 cm 120 49π 2
Area of sector = π ⋅72 = cm .
o 3
360
60 °
B Area of segment =Area of sector – Area of
triangle.
7 7 ⎛7 ⎞ 49 3 cm 2 .
cm Area of triangle = ⎜ 3⎟=
2 2⎝ 2 ⎠ 4
49π 7 ⎛ 7
Area of segment = − ⎜ 3 ⎞⎟
3 2⎝ 2 ⎠
49π 49 3 2
== − cm .
3 4

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-49

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Parts of a Circle

5. The cross section of a doughnut or bagel is a real-world example of an annulus

(plural, annuli). Using your compass, draw an annulus. Label the radius of the smaller
(inner) circle r and the radius of the larger (outer) circle R. Define annulus. Explain
how to find the area of an annulus.
An annulus is the region bounded by two
concentric circles.

Area of annulus = πR2 – πr2

Area of annulus = π(R2 – r2).

Remind participants to add the new terms sector of a circle, segment of a circle, and
annulus to their glossaries.

6. Determine the area of an annulus with the radius, r, of the smaller circle
6 cm and the radius, R, of the larger circle 10 cm.
Area of annulus = π(R2 – r2)
= π(102 –62)
= 64 π cm2.

7. Determine the measure of the central angle in the shaded region given that the area of
the shaded sector is 15π cm2 and the radius is 6 cm.
θ
Area of sector = ⋅π r 2
360
θ 6 cm
15π = ⋅π 6 2
360
πθ
15π =
10
θ = 150 o

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-50

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Parts of a Circle

8. Determine r, the radius of the smaller circle, given the shaded area is 30 π cm2 and the
radius of the larger circle is 18 cm.
2 2
Area of annulus = πR −πr
2 2
30π = π 18 − π r
2
30π = 324π − π r

π r2 = 294π
r ≈ 17.15 cm

9. Determine the radius of each circle given that the area of the shaded region is 15π
2
cm2 and r = R .
3
5
Area of annulus (
= π R2 − π r 2
6
)
5π ⎡ 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎤
2

150π = ⎢R − ⎜ R ⎟ ⎥
6 ⎢⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
4R 2
180 = R 2 −
9
2
5R
180 =
9
324 = R 2
R = 18 cm
2
r = ⋅ 18 cm
3
r = 12 cm

10. In the figure, US is a chord of the larger concentric circle and tangent to the smaller
concentric circle. US = 20 cm. Find the area of the annulus.
U Chord US is bisected at the point of tangency, since
∆STU is an isosceles triangle.
R Area of annulus = π(R2 – r2).
Using the Pythagorean Theorem,
R2 – r2 = 102 or R2 – r2 = 100.
T r 20 cm Area of annulus = 100 π cm2.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-51

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Polygons & Circles Parts of a Circle

11. A circle circumscribes a hexagon with side length of 8 meters. Find the area of the
region between the hexagon and the circle.

Area of shaded region = Area of circle – Area of

hexagon.
1
Area of shaded region = πr2 − Pa
2
8 3 m 1
=64π − 48(8 3 )
8m
2
=64π − 192 3 m2.
8m

12. Circle O is inscribed in the square ABCD with sides of length 12 inches. The
diameters shown are perpendicular bisectors of AB and AD . Find the area of the
unshaded region inside the square.
The length of the radius of O is 6 in.
A 12 in. B
Shaded area = Area of semi-circle – Area of ∆PQR

O π ⋅ 62 1
Shaded area = − (12)(3)
2 2

= 18π − 18 in 2
D C

Area of square ABCD = (12)2 = 144 in 2

Area of unshaded region = 144 − (18π − 18)
= 162 − 18π in 2 .

Participants are performing at the van Hiele Relational Level in this activity since they
are required to select from the various properties and formulas among different figures in
order to solve the problems.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7-52

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Parts of a Circle

Parts of a Circle

1. The shaded region in the circle is called a sector. Define sector of a

circle.

2. The length of the arc and the area of the sector may be related to the
length of the circumference and the area of the circle respectively. Find
the length of the arc and the area of the sector in terms of the radius of
the circle, r, and the central angle, θ, measured in degrees, which
determines the sector.

3. The shaded region is a segment of a circle. Define segment of a circle.

Explain how to find the area of the segment of a circle.

Geometry Module Draft 7-53

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Parts of a Circle

4. Determine the areas of the shaded segment and the sector for each circle.

7 cm
5 cm

A 120° B

5. The cross section of a doughnut or bagel is a real-world example of an

annulus (plural, annuli). Using your compass, draw an annulus. Label the
radius of the smaller (inner) circle r and the radius of the larger (outer)
circle R. Define annulus. Explain how to find the area of an annulus.

6. Determine the area of an annulus with the radius, r, of the smaller circle
6 cm and the radius, R, of the larger circle 10 cm.

Geometry Module Draft 7-54

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Parts of a Circle

7. Determine the measure of the central angle in the shaded region given
that the area of the shaded sector is 15π cm2 and the radius is 6 cm.

6 cm

8. Determine r, the radius of the smaller circle, given the shaded area is
30 π cm2 and the radius of the larger circle is 18 cm.

9. Determine the radius of each circle given that the area of the shaded
2
region is 15π cm2 and r = R .
3

10. In the figure, US is a chord of the larger concentric circle and tangent to
the smaller concentric circle. US = 20 cm. Find the area of the annulus.
U

T 20 cm

Geometry Module Draft 7-55

Activity Page: Polygons & Circles Parts of a Circle

11. A circle circumscribes a hexagon with side length of 8 meters. Find the
area of the region between the hexagon and the circle.

8m

12. Circle O is inscribed in the square ABCD with sides of length 12 inches.
The diameters shown are perpendicular bisectors of AB and AD . Find
the area of the unshaded region inside the square.
A 12 in. B

D C

Geometry Module Draft 7-56

Supplemental Material: Polygons & Circle References and Additional Resources

References and Additional Resources

Beslin, S. J., & Simmons, L. L. (1993). An isometric problem revisited. Mathematics

Teacher, 86(3), 207-210.

Burke, M. (1992). Circles revisited. Mathematics Teacher, 85(7), 573-577.

DeTemple, D. W. (1989). Simple constructions for the regular pentagon and

heptadecagon. Mathematics Teacher, 82(5), 361-365.

Mathcounts. (1999). Mathcounts competitions. Alexandria, VA: Mathcounts.

Naraine, B. & Hoosain, E. (1998). Investigating polygonal areas: Making conjectures and

proving theorems. Mathematics Teacher, 91(2), 135-142, 148-150.

Region IV Education Service Center (2003). Utilizing the graphing calculator in the

secondary mathematics and science classroom, Retrieved April 15, 2004, from

Region IV Education Service Center: http://www.esc4.net/math

Serra, M. (2003). Discovering geometry: An investigative approach (3rd ed.). Emeryville,

CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Geometry Module DRAFT 7 - 57

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Magnification Ratio

Unit 8 – Similarity and Trigonometry

Magnification Ratio

Overview: In this activity participants use coordinate geometry, distance, angle

measure, and inductive reasoning to investigate the attributes of
similar figures to formalize the definition of similar figures.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.011.B. The beginning teacher applies formulas for perimeter, area,
surface area, and volume of geometric figures and shapes (e.g.,
polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres) to solve
problems.
III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.014.E. The beginning teacher applies concepts and properties of
slope, midpoint, parallelism, perpendicularity, and distance to explore
properties of geometric figures and solve problems in the coordinate
plane.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two- dimensional coordinate systems
to represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
d.2.B. The student uses slopes and equations of lines to investigate
geometric relationships, including parallel lines, perpendicular lines,
and special segments of triangles and other polygons.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-1

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Magnification Ratio

e.1.A. The student finds areas of regular polygons and composite

figures.
f.1. In a variety of ways, the student develops, applies, and justifies
triangle similarity relationships, such as right triangle ratios,
trigonometric ratios, and Pythagorean triples.

Background: Participants should have some experience with translations on the

coordinate plane prior to this activity.

Materials: graphing calculator, compass, centimeter grid paper, protractor, patty

paper, straightedge

New Terms:

Procedures:

Distribute the activity page to each participant. Engage participants in a brief discussion
about congruent figures using the following questions.

What are congruent figures?

Responses should include figures that have the same shape and size.

Are the two figures in 1 congruent? Explain.

No. The two figures are the same shape with congruent corresponding angles; however,
corresponding sides are not the same length.

Participants will develop the formal definition of similar polygons. Two polygons are
similar if and only if the corresponding angles are congruent and corresponding sides are
proportional.

Use the activity to explore attributes of geometric figures to create a definition for similar
polygons.

Ask participants to list the geometric features of the two figures drawn in 1.

1. Trace ∆ ABC onto a piece of patty paper. Place the tracing of ∆ ABC over ∆ DEF so
that ∠A corresponds to ∠D . Describe what you observe about the two triangles.
Repeat this process for the remaining angles.
The corresponding angles are congruent, and the side lengths of ∆ DEF appear to be
twice as long as the side lengths of ∆ ABC .

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-2

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Magnification Ratio

2. Use coordinate geometry to determine and describe the relationships between the two
triangles above.

Location of triangle vertices:

A (1, 1); B (2, 1); C (2, 3); D (3, 2); E (5, 2); F (5, 6)
ƒ The x-coordinate of each vertex in ∆ DEF is 2 times the corresponding x-
coordinate in ∆ ABC and translated one unit to the right.
ƒ The y-coordinate of each vertex in ∆ DEF is 2 times the corresponding y-
coordinate in ∆ ABC.

Segment lengths:
AB = 1; BC = 2; AC = 5 ; DE = 2; EF =
4; DF = (5 − 3) + (6 − 2)2 =
2
20 = 2 5
DE is 2 times longer than AB .
ƒ EF is 2 times longer than BC .
ƒ DF is 2 times longer than DE .
ƒ The lengths of the sides of ∆ DEF are 2 times longer than the lengths of the sides
of ∆ ABC.
ƒ ∆ DEF is an enlargement of ∆ ABC by a factor of 2. ∆ABC has been magnified
2 times to produce ∆ DEF.

Slopes of corresponding sides:

3−1 6−2
Slope of AC = =2 Slope of DF = =2
2 −1 5−3
Slope of CB = undefined Slope of EF = undefined
Slope of AB = 0 Slope of DE = 0
The slopes of corresponding sides of ∆ ABC and ∆ DEF are equal.

Coordinate rule or mapping of corresponding vertices:

A (x, y) → D (2x + 1, 2y)
B (x, y) → E (2x + 1, 2y)
C (x, y) → F (2x + 1, 2y)

Angle Measures:
m∠CAB ≈ 63 m∠FDE ≈ 63
m∠ABC ≈ 90 m∠DEF ≈ 90
m∠BCA ≈ 27 m∠EFD ≈ 27
Corresponding angles of ∆ ABC and ∆ DEF are congruent.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-3

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Magnification Ratio

Perimeter:
Perimeter of ∆ ABC is equal to 3 + 5
Perimeter of ∆ DEF is equal to 6 + 2 5 = 2(3 + 5 )
The perimeter of ∆ DEF is 2 times as long as the perimeter of ∆ ABC. The perimeter
of ∆ ABC has been magnified 2 times.

Area:
Area of ∆ ABC is equal to 1 square unit
Area of ∆ DEF is equal to 4 square units
The area of ∆ DEF is the square of the magnification ratio, 4 times larger than the
area of ∆ ABC.

3. Draw any polygon on the coordinate plane below. Select a magnification ratio. Draw
a second polygon that preserves the shape of the original polygon but whose size is
determined by the magnification ratio you selected.
Ask participants to draw different polygons.

4. Describe the relationships between the pairs of corresponding sides, perimeters of the
polygons, coordinate points of corresponding vertices, measures of corresponding
angles, and areas of the two polygons you drew in 3.
Responses should reflect the discussion similar to 2 above.

5. Compare results within your group and make a conjecture about similarity for
geometric shapes.
Responses will vary and may include:
ƒ Similar polygons are polygons whose corresponding sides are proportional and
whose corresponding angles are congruent.
ƒ Similarity is a transformation that preserves angles and changes all distances in
the same ratio. This ratio is referred to as a ratio of magnification or a scale
factor.
ƒ Congruency is a special case of similarity when the scale factor is one.

6. Describe ∆ GHJ if ∆ ABC is mapped to ∆ GHJ according to the coordinate mapping

of corresponding vertices:
A (x, y) → G (1.5 x + 2, 1.5 y)
B (x, y) → H (1.5 x + 2, 1.5 y)
C (x, y) → J (1.5 x + 2, 1.5 y)

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-4

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Magnification Ratio

ƒ ∆ GHJ is an enlargement of ∆ ABC by a scale factor of 1.5. ∆ ABC has been

magnified 1.5 times to produce ∆ GHJ.
ƒ This transformation is a result of increasing the side lengths of ∆ ABC by a scale
factor of 1.5 and adding two units to the x-coordinates.

7. What information is required in order to prove that two triangles are similar?
In order to prove that two triangles are similar one must prove that the
corresponding angles of the triangles are congruent and that the corresponding sides
of the triangles are proportional. There are some shortcuts that can be used.

Have participants complete the three investigations for shortcuts to determine when two
triangles are similar. Participants should work in groups of four or five. Each group
should complete the steps in the investigation with a different triangle. Group members
should share their results to arrive at three results.

The following is taken from Discovering Geometry: An Investigative Approach, 3rd

Edition, © 2003, p. 572-574 with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

8. Investigation 1
Is AA a Similarity Shortcut?

Step 1 Draw any triangle ABC.

Step 2 Construct a second triangle, DEF with ∠D ≅ ∠A and ∠E ≅ ∠B . What will

be true about ∠C and ∠F ? Why?
This step reviews the Triangle Sum Theorem. It is why AAA can be reduced to AA.
∠ F must be congruent to ∠C because three angles of each triangle must add up to
180°.

Step 3 Carefully measure the lengths of the sides of both triangles. Compare the
AB AC BC
lengths of the corresponding sides. Is ≈ ≈ ?
DE DF EF
The approximation symbols are important. Measurement error, and any conversion
to decimals, might yield slightly unequal ratios. The ratios should be equal.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-5

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Magnification Ratio

Step 4 Compare the results of others near you. You should be ready to state a
theorem.

AA Similarity Theorem

If 2 angles of one triangle are congruent to 2 angles of another triangle then the
triangles are similar.

Note: There is no need to investigate the AAA Similarity Theorem, since it is

equivalent to the AA Similarity Theorem.

9. Investigation 2
Is SSS a Similarity Shortcut?

If three sides of one triangle are proportional to three sides of another triangle, must
the two triangles be similar?

Draw any triangle ABC. Then construct a second triangle DEF, whose side lengths
are a multiple of the original triangle. (Your second triangle may be larger or smaller
than ∆ABC .)

Compare the corresponding angles of the two triangles. Compare your results with
the results of others near you and state a theorem.
Corresponding angles should be congruent.

SSS Similarity Theorem

If the three sides of one triangle are proportional to the three sides of another triangle,
then the triangles are similar.

10. Investigation 3
Is SAS a Similarity Shortcut?

Is SAS a shortcut for similarity? Try to construct two different triangles that are not
similar but have two pairs of sides proportional and the pair of included angles equal
in measure.
Corresponding sides should be proportional, and corresponding angles congruent.

Compare the measures of the corresponding sides and the measures of the
corresponding angles. Share your results with others near you and state a theorem.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-6

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Magnification Ratio

SAS Similarity Theorem

If two sides of one triangle are proportional to two corresponding sides of another
triangle and the included angles are congruent then the triangles are similar.

To summarize:
ƒ Angle – Angle Similarity Theorem or AA Similarity Theorem: If two angles of
one triangle are congruent to two angles of another triangle then the triangles are
similar.
If two angles of a triangle are congruent to two angles of another triangle then the
third angles of the triangles are congruent. Since we know that two triangles are
similar by the AAA Similarity Theorem we can now say that two triangles are
similar when we know that they have two angles congruent.

ƒ Side – Side – Side Similarity Theorem or SSS Similarity Theorem: If three sides
of one triangle are proportional to the three sides of another triangle, then the
triangles are similar.

ƒ Side – Angle – Side Similarity Theorem or SAS Similarity Theorem: If two sides
of one triangle are proportional to two sides of another triangle and the
included angles are congruent, then the triangles are similar.

11. The following is taken from Discovering Geometry: An Investigative Approach, 3rd
Edition, © 2003, p. 583 with permission from Key Curriculum Press.
While vacationing in Egypt, the Greek Mathematician Thales calculated the height of
the Great Pyramid. According to legend, Thales placed a pole at the tip of the
pyramid’s shadow and used similar triangles to calculate its height. This involved
some estimating since he was unable to measure the distance from directly beneath
the height of the pyramid to the tip of the shadow. From the diagram, explain his
method. Calculate the height of the pyramid from the information given in the
diagram.

H
6.2 m

10 m
240 m

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-7

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Magnification Ratio

Thales used similar right triangles to calculate the height of the pyramid. The height
of the pyramid and 240 m are the lengths of the legs of one triangle: 6.2 m and 10 m
are the lengths of the corresponding legs of the other triangle.
6.2 m H
Solving the proportion =
10 m 240 m

results in 10 m ⋅ H = 6.2 m ⋅ 240 m

1488 m 2
or H=
10 m

H = 148.8 m

In this activity participants are working at the Descriptive Level in the first part of the
activity since measurement and inductive comparison methods are used. Participants
approach the Relational Level in identifying and applying the properties of similar figures
in an unusual problem.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-8

Activity Page: Similarity Magnification Ratio

Magnification Ratio

Explore the attributes of geometric figures to create a definition for similar

polygons.

1. Trace ∆ABC onto a piece of patty paper. Place the tracing of ∆ABC over
∆DEF so that ∠A corresponds to ∠D . Describe what you observe about
the two triangles. Repeat this process for the remaining angles.

2. Use coordinate geometry to determine and describe the relationships

between the two triangles above.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-9

Activity Page: Similarity Magnification Ratio

3. Draw any polygon on the coordinate plane below. Select a magnification

ratio. Draw a second polygon that preserves the shape of the original
polygon but whose size is determined by the magnification ratio you
selected.

4. Describe the relationships between the pairs of corresponding sides,

perimeters of the polygons, coordinate points of corresponding vertices,
measures of corresponding angles, and areas of the two polygons you
drew in 3.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-10

Activity Page: Similarity Magnification Ratio

5. Compare results with your group and make a conjecture about similarity
for geometric shapes.

6. Describe ∆ GHJ if ∆ ABC is mapped to ∆ GHJ according to the

coordinate mapping of corresponding vertices:
A (x, y) → G (1.5 x + 2, 1.5 y)
B (x, y) → H (1.5 x + 2, 1.5 y)
C (x, y) → J (1.5 x + 2, 1.5 y)

7. What information is required in order to prove that two triangles are

similar?

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-11

Activity Page: Similarity Magnification Ratio

8. Investigation 1
Is AA a Similarity Shortcut?

Step 1 Draw any triangle ABC.

Step 2 Construct a second triangle, DEF with ∠D ≅ ∠A and

∠E ≅ ∠B . What will be true about ∠C and ∠F ? Why?

Step 3 Carefully measure the lengths of the sides of both triangles.

AB AC BC
Compare the lengths of the corresponding sides. Is ≈ ≈ ?
DE DF EF

Step 4 Compare the results of others near you. You should be ready to
state a theorem.

AA Similarity Theorem

If ______ angles of one triangle are congruent to ______ angles of

another triangle then ____________________________________.

There is no need to investigate the AAA Similarity Theorem, since it is

equivalent to the AA Similarity Theorem.

9. Investigation 2
Is SSS a Similarity Shortcut?

If three sides of one triangle are proportional to three sides of another

triangle, must the two triangles be similar?

Draw any triangle ABC. Then construct a second triangle DEF, whose
side lengths are a multiple of the original triangle. (Your second
triangle may be larger or smaller than ∆ABC.)

Compare the corresponding angles of the two triangles. Compare your

results with the results of others near you and state a theorem.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-12

Activity Page: Similarity Magnification Ratio

SSS Similarity Theorem

If the three sides of one triangle are proportional to the three sides of
another triangle, then the triangles are __________________.

10. Investigation 3
Is SAS a Similarity Shortcut?

Is SAS a shortcut for similarity? Try to construct two different

triangles that are not similar but have two pairs of sides proportional
and the pair of included angles equal in measure.

Compare the measures of the corresponding sides and the measures of

the corresponding angles. Share your results with others near you and
state a theorem.

SAS Similarity Theorem

If two sides of one triangle are proportional to two corresponding sides

of another triangle and ______________________________________
then the _____________________________________________.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-13

Activity Page: Similarity Magnification Ratio

11. While vacationing in Egypt, the Greek Mathematician Thales calculated

the height of the Great Pyramid. According to legend, Thales placed a
pole at the tip of the pyramid’s shadow and used similar triangles to
calculate its height. This involved some estimating since he was unable
to measure the distance from directly beneath the height of the pyramid
to the tip of the shadow. From the diagram, explain his method.
Calculate the height of the pyramid from the information given in the
diagram.

H
6.2 m

10 m
240 m

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-14

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity What Do You Mean?

What Do You Mean?

Overview: In this activity, participants use their knowledge of similarity to formulate

conjectures about the proportional relationships in the right triangles
formed when the geometric mean is constructed.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric
constructions made using compass and straightedge, reflection devices,
and other appropriate technologies.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and properties
(e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about two- and
three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of sides, angles).
III.014.C. The beginning teacher uses transformations to explore and
describe reflectional, rotational, and translational symmetry.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical reasoning to
derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of geometric
figures and to make conjectures about geometric relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a variety
of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or axiomatic.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems to
represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
d.2.B. The student uses slopes and equations of lines to investigate
geometric relationships, including parallel lines, perpendicular lines, and
special segments of triangles and other polygons.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
f.3. In a variety of ways, the student develops, applies, and justifies
triangle similarity relationships, such as right triangle ratios, trigonometric
ratios, and Pythagorean triples.

Background: Participants should have reviewed proportional relationships in similar

figures.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-15

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity What Do You Mean?

Materials: compass, centimeter grid paper, patty paper, centimeter ruler

New Terms: geometric mean

Procedures:
1. Guide participants through the construction of a geometric mean.
Step 1 Construct a circle with center (0, 0) Step 2 Construct a diameter, AC , of the
on a coordinate grid. circle along the x-axis.
5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

-4 -2

-1
2 4
A -4 -2

-1
2 4
C
-2 -2

-3 -3

-4 -4

5 5

Step 3 Construct a perpendicular through D Step 4 Construct segments from the endpoints
on the diameter. D should have an integer of the diameter to one of the intersections, B, of
value x-coordinate that is not the center of the perpendicular and the circle.
the circle. Label the intersection of the 5

perpendicular and the circle with a positive B

4

y-coordinate, B. 3

5
2

B 3
1

2 A -4
D -2

-1
2 4
C
1
-2

A -4
D
-2

-1
2 4
C -3

-4

-2
5

-3

-4
Step 5 Determine AB, BC, AD, DC, and
-5
AC. Use the radius to determine the exact
coordinates of B.
5

B
4

What kind of triangle is ∆ ABC? 2

The triangle is a right triangle.

1

C
A
-4 -2
D -1 C
2 4

-2

-3

-4

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-16

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity What Do You Mean?

In this example, Coordinates of B are (-2, 2 3 )

BD = CB 2 − CD 2 = 4 2 − 2 2 = 12 = 2 3

( )
2
( −4 − (−2) )
2
AD = 2 , DC = 6 , AC = 8 , AB = + 0−2 3 = 4,

( )
2
( 4 − (−2) )
2
BC = + 0−2 3 =4 3
Note that BD is an altitude of ∆ ABC.
Step 6 – Trace the triangles onto another sheet of paper and cut apart ∆ ABD and ∆ DBC. Cut
out the original ∆ ABC and determine whether the three triangles are similar. Justify your
answer.
∆ ABD and ∆ BCD can be rotated and translated to show
B B ∠ ABD ≅ ∠BCD, ∠DAB ≅ ∠DBC , and ∠BDA ≅ ∠CDB .
Using the lengths that were calculated earlier, ∆ ABD and
4 2 3 4 3
∆ BCD are similar with a scale factor of 3 . ∆ BCD and
2 3
A ∆ ACB can be rotated and translated to show
2 D D 6 C ∠CBD ≅ ∠CAB, ∠BDC ≅ ∠ABC , and ∠DCB ≅ ∠BCA .
B Using the lengths that were calculated earlier, ∆ BCD and
2 3
4 3 ∆ ACB are similar with a scale factor of .
4 3
∆ ABD and ∆ ACB can be rotated and translated to show
C ∠DAB ≅ ∠BAC , ∠ADB ≅ ∠ABC , and ∠ABD ≅ ∠ACB .
A 8
Using the lengths that were calculated earlier, ∆ ABD and
∆ ACB are similar with a scale factor of 2.
∴ ∆ ABD ∼ ∆ BCD ∼ ∆ ACB.

2. Describe the proportional relationship that includes BD in ∆ ABD and ∆ BCD.

B
4

C
A
-4 -2
D -1
2 4

-2

-3

AD in ∆ ABD corresponds to BD in ∆ BCD. DB in ∆ ABD corresponds to DC in

∆ BCD.
AD BD
From the proportion = , BD = AD ⋅ DC
BD DC

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-17

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity What Do You Mean?

Explain to participants that BD is the geometric mean of AD and DC. The definition of
the geometric mean is as follows: the number b is the geometric mean between the
a b
numbers a and c ⇔ a, b, c are positive and = or b = ac .
b c
Remind participants to add the new term geometric mean to their glossaries.

How is the arithmetic mean determined?

Find the sum of the terms and divide by the number of terms.

3. How can the construction in 1 be altered so that BD represents the arithmetic mean?
Construct BD so that it lies on the perpendicular bisector of AC .
This relationship can be shown algebraically as follows:
AD + DC
If BD = AD ⋅ DC and BD =
2
AD + DC
then AD ⋅ DC =
2
2
⎛ AD + DC ⎞
AD ⋅ DC = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
AD + 2 AD ⋅ DC + DC 2
2
AD ⋅ DC =
4
4 AD ⋅ DC = AD + 2 AD ⋅ DC + DC 2
2

0 = AD 2 − 2 AD ⋅ DC + DC 2
0 = ( AD − DC ) 2
0 = AD − DC
AD = DC
∴ D is the midpoint of AC .

4. What type of triangle is formed when the arithmetic mean is constructed?

An isosceles right triangle is formed by the construction.

5. Describe the point on the hypotenuse where the arithmetic mean is equal to the
geometric mean of the lengths of the segments formed.
The midpoint of the hypotenuse satisfies this condition.

Participants successful with this activity are working at the van Hiele Relational Level
because they interrelate properties of right triangles, including the Pythagorean Theorem,
with properties of similar figures. In 3 participants justify a relationship using deductive
algebraic methods, which requires Deductive Level ability.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-18

Activity Page: Similarity What Do You Mean?

What Do You Mean?

1. Construct a geometric mean.

Step 1 Construct a circle with center (0, 0) on a coordinate grid.
Step 2 Construct a diameter, AC , of the circle along the x-axis.
Step 3 Construct a perpendicular through D on the diameter. D should
have an integer value x-coordinate that is not the center of the
circle. Label the intersection of the perpendicular and the circle
with a positive y-coordinate, B.
Step 4 Construct segments from the endpoints of the diameter to one of
the intersections, B, of the perpendicular and the circle.
Step 5 Determine AB, BC, AD, DC, and AC. Use the radius to determine
the exact coordinates of B.
Step 6 Trace the triangles onto another sheet of paper and cut apart
∆ ABD and ∆ DBC. Cut out the original ∆ ABC and determine
whether the three triangles are similar. Justify your answer.

2. Describe the proportional relationship including BD in ∆ ABD and

∆ BCD.
B
4

C
A
-4 -2
D -1
2 4

-2

-3

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-19

Activity Page: Similarity What Do You Mean?

3. How can the construction in 1 be altered so that BD represents the

arithmetic mean?

4. What type of triangle is formed when the arithmetic mean is constructed?

5. Describe the point on the hypotenuse where the arithmetic mean is equal
to the geometric mean of the lengths of the segments formed.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-20

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Dilations

Dilations
Overview: This activity invites participants to use coordinate geometry, distance,
angle measure, and inductive reasoning to generalize the attributes of
similar figures to formalize the definition of dilation.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.B. The beginning teacher uses properties of points, lines, planes,
angles, lengths, and distances to solve problems.
III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric
constructions made using compass and straightedge, reflection devices,
and other appropriate technologies.
III.014.D. The beginning teacher applies transformations in the coordinate
plane.
III.014.E. The beginning teacher applies concepts and properties of slope,
midpoint, parallelism, perpendicularity, and distance to explore properties
of geometric figures and solve problems in the coordinate plane.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical reasoning to
derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of geometric
figures and to make conjectures about geometric relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a variety
of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or axiomatic.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
d.2.A. The student uses one- and two- dimensional coordinate systems to
represent points, lines, line segments, and figures.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.

Background: Participants should have some experience with translations on the

coordinate plane prior to this activity.

Materials: compass, The Geometer’s Sketchpad, The Geometer’s Sketchpad sketch:

Dilation Investigation, centimeter grid paper, straightedge

New Terms: center of dilation, contraction, dilation, expansion

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-21

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Dilations

Procedures:

1. ∆ ABC is drawn in the coordinate plane below. What are the coordinates of
∆A′B′C ′ after a transformation of ( x, y ) → (2 x, 2 y ) ? What is the relationship
between ∆ ABC and ∆ A′B′C ′ ?

A (1, 3) → A′ (2, 6 )
B (3, 1) → B′ (6, 2)
C (4, 4 ) → C ′ (8, 8 )
∆ A′B′C ′ is similar to ∆ ABC
with a scale factor of 2.

2. Draw ∆ A′B′C ′ and plot O at the origin. Draw OA, OB, and OC. Describe rays
OA, OB, and OC.
OA is a ray beginning at the origin and containing the points A and A′ .
OB is a ray beginning at the origin and containing the points B and B′ .
OC is a ray beginning at the origin and containing the points C and C ′ .

3. What is the relationship between OA′ and OA; OB′ and OB; and OC ′ and OC ?
OA′ (2 − 0 ) 2 + (6 − 0 ) 2 40
= = =2
OA (1 − 0 ) 2 + (3 − 0 ) 2 10

OB′ (6 − 0 ) 2 + (2 − 0 ) 2 40
= = =2
OB (3 − 0 ) 2 + (1 − 0 ) 2 10

OC ′ (8 − 0 ) 2 + (8 − 0 ) 2 128 (4 )(32)
= = = =2
OC (4 − 0 ) + (4 − 0 )
2 2
32 32

The distances between O and the vertices of the image are twice the distance between
O and the corresponding vertices of the pre-image. Corresponding distances along
the rays connecting the vertices of the triangles preserve the constant of
proportionality and the magnification ratio or scale factor.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-22

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Dilations

Discuss the center of dilation with participants.

In previous problems you found that there was a point O in which the vectors connecting
the vertices of the triangles intersected. This point O is called a center of dilation.

4. ∆ DEF is drawn below. Using only a straightedge and a compass, draw ∆ D′E ′F ′
such that ∆ DEF ∼ ∆ D′E ′F ′ with a scale factor of 3.
Sketches will vary depending upon the selection of the center. Participants should
select a center, O, and draw three rays from that point through the vertices of
∆ DEF. Use a compass to mark OD. Mark this distance off two times from D along
OD so that OD′ is three times OD. Repeat this process for E and F. Draw the sides
of ∆ D′E ′F ′ .

Introduce the formal definition of a dilation to participants.

Let O be a point and k be a positive real number. For any point A, let A′ be the point
on OA whose distance from O is k times OA, i.e., OA′ = k ⋅ OA . Then the correspondence
A → A′ is a dilation with scale factor k and center O.

Remind participants to add the terms center of dilation and dilation to their glossaries.

5. Using only a straightedge and a compass, draw ∆D′E ′F ′ such that ∆ DEF ∼ ∆ D′E′F′
with a scale factor of 0.5.
Strategies will vary. One method is to find the midpoint of each segment from O to
the vertices of triangle ∆ DEF. Connect the midpoints of the segments along the
translation vector to draw ∆ D′E ′F ′ with side lengths one-half the length of the side
lengths of ∆ DEF .

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-23

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Dilations

Explain to participants that when the scale factor k is greater than one the dilation is
called an expansion and when k is less than one but greater than zero the dilation is called
a contraction.

Remind participants to add the terms expansion and contraction to their glossaries.

6. Describe as many properties of dilations as possible.

Under dilation, collinearity, betweenness, angles, and angle measure are
preserved. All pre-image segments are parallel to their image segments. Distance is
not preserved.

Participants are working at the van Hiele Descriptive and Relational Levels on this
activity since the Pythagorean Theorem is used to determine exact length measurements,
but inductive approaches are used to make generalizations.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-24

Activity Page: Similarity Dilations

Dilations

1. ∆ ABC is drawn in the coordinate plane below. What are the coordinates
of ∆ A′B′C ′ after a transformation of ( x, y ) → (2 x, 2 y ) ? What is the
relationship between ∆ ABC and ∆ A′B′C ′ ?

2. Draw ∆ A′B′C ′ and plot O at the origin. Draw OA, OB, and OC.
Describe rays OA, OB, and OC.

3. What is the relationship between

OA′ and OA; OB′ and OB; and OC ′ and OC ?

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-25

Activity Page: Similarity Dilations

4. ∆ DEF is drawn below. Using only a straightedge and a compass,

draw ∆ D′E ′F ′ such that ∆ DEF ∼ ∆ D′E ′F ′ with a scale factor of 3.

5. Using only a straightedge and a compass, draw ∆ D′E′F ′ such that

∆ DEF ∼ ∆ D′E ′F ′ with a scale factor of 0.5.

6. Describe as many properties of dilations as possible.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-26

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

Similarity and the Golden Ratio

Overview: In this activity, participants examine the golden ratio as it applies to
similar rectangles and other geometric figures.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

I.001.H. The beginning teacher demonstrates how some problems that
have no solution in the integer or rational number systems have
solutions in the real number system.
II.004.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and extends patterns and
relationships in data presented in tables, sequences and graphs.
II.006.G. The beginning teacher models and solves problems involving
linear and quadratic equations and inequalities using a variety of
methods, including technology.
II.008.E. The beginning teacher models and solves problems involving
exponential growth and decay.
III.011.D. The beginning teacher applies the Pythagorean theorem,
proportional reasoning, and right triangle trigonometry to solve
measurement problems.
III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and
similarity to explore geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and
prove theorems.
III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric
constructions made using compass and straightedge, reflection
devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.012.F. The beginning teacher demonstrates an understanding of the
use of appropriate software to explore attributes of geometric figures
and to make and evaluate conjectures about geometric relationships.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusions from a set of premises.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and uses multiple
representations of a mathematical concept (e.g., a point and its
coordinates, the area of a circle as a quadratic function of the radius,
probability as the ratio of two areas, area of a plane region as a definite
integral).
V.019.B. The beginning teacher understands how mathematics is used
to model and solve problems in other disciplines (e.g., art, music,
science, social science, business).

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-27

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

V.019.D. The beginning teacher communicates mathematical ideas

using a variety of representations (e.g., numeric, verbal, graphical,
pictorial, symbolic, concrete).

Geometry TEKS
b.1.B. Through the historical development of geometric systems, the
student recognizes that mathematics is developed for a variety of
purposes.
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
b.4. The student uses a variety of representations to describe geometric
relationships and solve problems.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
d.2.B. The student uses slopes and equations of lines to investigate
geometric relationships, including parallel lines, perpendicular lines,
and special segments of triangles and other polygons.
e.1.C. The student develops, extends, and uses the Pythagorean
Theorem.
f.2. The student uses ratios to solve problems involving similar figures.

Background: Participants need a basic understanding of similarity and

proportionality. They should be able to solve a proportion, a quadratic
equation, and possess an understanding of exponential functions.

Materials: compass, The Geometer’s Sketchpad, The Geometer’s Sketchpad

Sketches: Mona Lisa, Golden Construction, Spiral, graphing
calculator, centimeter grid paper, patty paper, straightedge

New Terms: gnomon, golden ratio, golden rectangle, logarithmic spiral

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-28

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

Procedures:

Part A

Throughout history artists, architects, and engineers have used the golden rectangle
because of its eye-pleasing proportions.

Introduce the golden ratio through an investigation of similar rectangles in the Mona
Lisa. Use The Geometer’s Sketchpad sketch Mona Lisa or the picture in the participant
handout to determine the ratio of the length of the long side to the length of the short side
of the rectangles in the picture.

The purpose of this activity is for participants to determine the similarity of the
rectangles. All of the rectangles in the picture are golden, the ratio of the length of the
long side to the length of the short side of the rectangles is Φ . In The Geometer’s
Sketchpad sketch, the rectangle is constructed to remain golden throughout the
investigation.

1. Measure the length of the long side and the length of the short side of the rectangles
in the picture.
C

Musee du Louvre, Mona Lisa,

B'
j'

Leonardo DaVinci

2. Describe the ratio of the length of the long side to the length of the short side of the
rectangles.
The rectangles are different sizes but all have the same ratio of long side to short
side, approximately 1.62.

Explain to participants that this ratio of the long side to the short side of the rectangles is
a special number called Φ (phi, pronounced “fee”). This number not only occurs in the
golden rectangle but throughout nature as well. For example, the function that

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-29

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

determines the logarithmic spiral shape of the chambered nautilus is based on Φ . The
three bones of the middle finger of a human form a Φ progression.

Remind participants to add the terms golden ratio and golden rectangle to their glossaries.

Part B

3. Construct a golden rectangle either with The Geometer’s Sketchpad or with a

compass and straightedge.
Guide participants as they construct the golden rectangle using The Geometer’s
Sketchpad Golden Construction or compass and straightedge. A large and small
rectangle will be created in the construction.

4. Are the two rectangles created in the construction similar? Explain.

Yes. By measuring we can determine that the rectangles have congruent
corresponding angles and proportional corresponding segments.

5. Describe the ratio of the long side to the short side in each rectangle and the scale
factor that relates them.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-30

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

The ratio of the long side to the short side and the scale factor are both
approximately equal to 1.62. This number is an approximation of Φ .

6. Use your knowledge of the construction to determine an exact value for Φ , the ratio
relating the sides of the rectangle. (Hint: let one side of the square be x.)

B C E

x 5
2
radius
x

A
x M
x D F

2 2

x 5
2

2
⎛ x⎞
radius = x + ⎜ ⎟
2

⎝2⎠ x x 5
AF = +
2 2
x2
= x + 2
x+ x 5
4 =
2
4x 2 x 2
=
4
+
4 =
(
x 1+ 5 )
2
5x 2
=
4 (
x 1+ 5 )
AF 2 1+ 5
x 5 ∴ = = =Φ
= EF x 2
2

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-31

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

Part C

Another way to determine the exact value for Φ is to solve a proportion relating the
corresponding sides of two golden rectangles, one of which is formed by creating a
square by folding in the short side of the original rectangle.

7. Setup and solve this proportional situation for x. How is your result related to the
results you found in 6?
1 x
=
B C E

x −1 1
x2 − x = 1
x2 − x − 1 = 0
1
1 ± 12 − (4 )(1)(−1)
x=
2
1+ 5 1 x-1
x= =Φ A D F
2
x x
The ratio, long side to short side, equals , which is Φ .
1

Show that Φ 2 = Φ + 1
2
⎛ 1+ 5 ⎞ 1+ 5
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = +1
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
1+ 2 5 + 5 1+ 5 2
= +
4 2 2
6 +2 5 3+ 5
=
4 2
3+ 5 3+ 5
=
2 2

8. Plot the graphical solution to x 2 = x + 1 . Use your graphing calculator to find the
solution in the first quadrant.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-32

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

9. Draw a rectangle whose diagonal endpoints are at the origin and at the point of
intersection of y = x 2 and y = x + 1 in the first quadrant. Describe the ratio of the
length of the long side to the length of the short side in this rectangle.

The ratio is Φ .

10. Draw a rectangle with consecutive vertices at the origin and at point (0, 1) inside the
original rectangle. Describe the ratio of the length of the long side to the length of the
short side in this smaller rectangle. Describe the scale factor between the two
rectangles.

The ratio is Φ .
The scale factor is Φ .

11. Draw a rectangle whose diagonal endpoints are at the origin and at the point (1, 1).
Describe the ratio of the length of the long side to the length of the short side in this
smaller rectangle. Describe the scale factor between this rectangle and the
previous rectangle.

The ratio is Φ .
The scale factor is Φ .

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-33

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

Part D

Introduce the term gnomon to participants at this time. A gnomon is a region added to a
geometrical figure to make a similar larger figure. Gnomons are of great interest since
many living organisms exhibit gnomonic growth. The golden spiral formed by the
gnomonic growth of golden rectangles is an example of a logarithmic spiral that can be
used to model the chambered nautilus.

Remind participants to add the new terms gnomon and logarithmic spiral to their
glossaries.

12. Begin with the construction performed in Part B. Create subsequent rectangles by
creating a square with side lengths equal to the length of the short leg of the rectangle.
Repeat this process to create a golden spiral. An arc of the spiral is the arc of the
circle that has a radius equal to the side of the square. See below. Use The
Geometer’s Sketchpad sketch Spiral.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-34

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

13. Measure the long side of each golden rectangle. Create a data table beginning with
the longest side. The data can also be found in The Geometer’s Sketchpad sketch
Spiral. Plot your data using your graphing calculator.
Sample Data
Term Side
Number Length
1 6.02
2 3.72
3 2.30
4 1.42
5 0.88
6 0.54
7 0.34
8 0.21
9 0.13
10 0.08
11 0.05
12 0.03

14. Determine a function rule that models your data.

If every rectangle in the construction is related to the next larger rectangle by the
1+ 5
scale factor Φ = , then a larger rectangle is related to a smaller one by the
2
1 1 2 2 1 − 5 2 − 2 5 −1 + 5
scale factor = = = ⋅ = = ≈ .62 .
Φ 1+ 5 1+ 5 1+ 5 1− 5 −4 2
2
If this scale factor is applied repeatedly, an exponential relationship is formed.
Work backwards to determine a y-intercept of 9.74. The function is
x
⎛ −1 + 5 ⎞
⎟⎟ or 9.74 (.62 ) .
x
Side length = 9.74 ⎜⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-35

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

15. Test your rule by graphing over your data.

Participants are working at the van Hiele Deductive Level in this activity since deductive
reasoning and justification is used to progress through the geometric and algebraic
representation within the activity.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-36

Activity Page: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

Similarity and the Golden Ratio

Part A

Throughout history artists, architects, and engineers have used the golden
rectangle in their work because of its eye-pleasing proportions.

1. Measure the length of the long side and the length of the short side of the
rectangles in the picture.

Musee du Louvre,
Mona Lisa,
Leonardo DaVinci

B'
j'

2. Describe the ratio of the length of the long side to the length of the short
side of the rectangles.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-37

Activity Page: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

Part B

3. Construct a golden rectangle either with The Geometer’s Sketchpad or

with a compass and straightedge.

4. Are the two rectangles created in the construction similar? Explain.

5. Describe the ratio of the long side to the short side in each rectangle and
the scale factor that relates them.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-38

Activity Page: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

6. Use your knowledge of the construction to determine an exact value for

Φ , the ratio relating the sides of the rectangle. (Hint: let one side of the
square be x.)

Part C

Another way to determine the exact value for Φ is to solve a proportion

relating the corresponding sides of two golden rectangles, one of which is
formed by creating a square by folding in the short side of the original
rectangle.

7. Setup and solve this proportional situation for x. How is your result
related to the results you found in 6?

8. Plot the graphical solution to x 2 = x + 1 . Use your graphing calculator to

find the solution in the first quadrant.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-39

Activity Page: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

9. Draw a rectangle whose diagonal endpoints are at the origin and at the
point of intersection of y = x 2 and y = x + 1 in the first quadrant.
Describe the ratio of the length of the long side to the length of the short
side in this rectangle.

10. Draw a rectangle with consecutive vertices at the origin and at point
(0, 1) inside the original rectangle. Describe the ratio of the length of
the long side to the length of the short side in this smaller rectangle.
Describe the scale factor between the two rectangles.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-40

Activity Page: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

11. Draw a rectangle whose diagonal endpoints are at the origin and at the
point (1, 1). Describe the ratio of the length of the long side to the length
of the short side in this smaller rectangle. Describe the scale factor
between this rectangle and the previous rectangle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-41

Activity Page: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

Part D

12. Begin with the construction performed in Part B. Create subsequent

rectangles by creating a square with side lengths equal to the length of
the short leg of the rectangle. Repeat this process to create a golden
spiral. An arc of the spiral is the arc of the circle that has a radius equal
to the side of the square. See below. Use The Geometer’s Sketchpad
sketch Spiral.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-42

Activity Page: Similarity Similarity and the Golden Ratio

13. Measure the long side of each golden rectangle. Create a data table
beginning with the longest side. The data can also be found in The
Geometer’s Sketchpad sketch Spiral. Plot your data using your graphing
calculator.

14. Determine a function rule that models your data.

15. Test your rule by graphing the function over your data.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-43

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Trigonometry

Trigonometry
Overview: Participants explore trigonometric ratios and their connection to
trigonometric functions.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.004.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and extends patterns and
relationships in data presented in tables, sequences and graphs.
II.005.B. The beginning teacher identifies the mathematical domain
and range of functions and relations and determines reasonable
domains for given situations.
II.005.C. The beginning teacher understands that a function represents
a dependence of one quantity on another and can be represented in a
variety of ways (e.g., concrete models, tables, graphs, diagrams, verbal
descriptions, symbols).
II.009.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the relationships among the
unit circle in the coordinate plane, circular functions, and
trigonometric functions.
II.009.B. The beginning teacher recognizes and translates among
various representations (e.g., written, numerical, tabular, graphical,
algebraic) of trigonometric functions and their inverses.
II.009.G. The beginning teacher uses graphing calculators to analyze
and solve problems involving trigonometric functions.
III.011.D. The beginning teacher applies the Pythagorean Theorem,
proportional reasoning, and right triangle trigonometry to solve
measurement problems.
III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric
constructions made using compass and straightedge, reflection
devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.012.F. The beginning teacher demonstrates an understanding of the
use of appropriate software to explore attributes of geometric figures
and to make and evaluate conjectures about geometric relationships.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and uses multiple
representations of a mathematical concept (e.g., a point and its
coordinates, the area of a circle as a quadratic function of the radius,
probability as the ratio of two areas, area of a plane region as a definite
integral).
V.019.D. The beginning teacher communicates mathematical ideas
using a variety of representations (e.g., numeric, verbal, graphical,
pictorial, symbolic, concrete).

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-44

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Trigonometry

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines,
polygons, circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a
variety of approaches such as coordinate, transformational, or
axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
b.4. The student uses a variety of representations to describe geometric
relationships and solve problems.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make
generalizations about geometric properties, including properties of
polygons, ratios in similar figures and solids, and angle relationships in
polygons and circles.
c.3. The student identifies and applies patterns from right triangles to
solve problems, including special right triangles (45-45-90 and 30-60-
90) and triangles whose sides are Pythagorean triples.
f.2. The student uses ratios to solve problems involving similar figures.
f.3.The student develops, applies, and justifies triangle similarity
relationships, such as right triangle ratios, trigonometric ratios, and
Pythagorean triples.

Background: Participants should have a basic understanding of similarity and

proportionality. Participants should be able to solve a proportion, a
quadratic equation, and be familiar with the Pythagorean Theorem.

Materials: cardstock, compass, The Geometer’s Sketchpad, The Geometer’s

Sketchpad sketches: Trigonometry Ratios, Trigonometry Tracers,
graphing calculator, centimeter grid paper, patty paper, protractor,
scissors, straightedge

New Terms: angle in standard position, cosine, coterminal angles, initial side,
periodic function, reference angle, sine, tangent, terminal side

Procedures:

Part A

Use The Geometer’s Sketchpad sketch Trigonometry Ratios to investigate sine, cosine,
and tangent. ∆ ABC is a right triangle. Drag C. What can you say about the right
triangles formed? Click on the Change Angle button to change ∠A , then drag C. What
can you say about the right triangles formed?
The triangles are similar. Changing ∠A produces a new set of similar triangles.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-45

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Trigonometry

8
m∠ACB = 90.00 °
m∠CAB = 42.8 ° Change Angle
m CB = 6.70 cm
7 B Drag C to change the length of
m AC = 7.23 cm the legs of the triangle. Click
m AB = 9.86 cm on Change Angle to change the
6
measure of ∠ A.
Slope AB = 0.93
5
Show Ratios
Show Tangent, Sine, Cosine
4

A 2 4 6 C 8 10 12 1

1
1. Click on the Show Ratios button. Drag C to change the triangle. Keep ∠A constant.
What do you notice about the ratios?
opposite side length BC
=
adjacent side length AC
opposite side length BC
=
hypotenuse length AB
adjacent side length AC
=
hypotenuse length AB
8
m∠ACB = 90.00 ° m CB
m∠CAB = 42.8 ° = 0.93
m AC Change Angle
m CB = 6.70 cm
7 m CB B Drag C to change the length of
m AC = 7.23 cm = 0.68
m AB the legs of the triangle. Click
m AB = 9.86 cm on Change Angle to change the
6
m AC measure of ∠ A.
Slope AB = 0.93 = 0.73
m AB
5
Hide Ratios
Show Tangent, Sine, Cosine
4

A 2 4 6 C 8 10 12 1

1
Geometry Module DRAFT 8-46
Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Trigonometry

The ratios remain constant as long as ∠A remains constant, because all of the
triangles formed by dragging C are similar.

2. Change the measure of ∠ A by clicking on the Change Angle button. Click the
button to stop the change. Repeat your observations from step one.

8
m∠ACB = 90.00 ° m CB
m∠CAB = 29.0 ° = 0.55
m AC Change Angle
m CB = 4.01 cm
7 m CB Drag C to change the length of
m AC = 7.23 cm = 0.49
m AB the legs of the triangle. Click
m AB = 8.27 cm on Change Angle to change the
6
m AC measure of ∠ A.
Slope AB = 0.55 = 0.87
m AB
5
Hide Ratios
B Show Tangent, Sine, Cosine
4

A 2 4 6 C 8 10 12 1

The values are different from the previous exercise. However, the ratios remain
constant because all of the triangles formed by dragging C are similar as long as ∠A
is constant.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-47

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Trigonometry

3. Click on the Show Tangent, Sine, Cosine button. Compare the values for the tangent,
sine, and cosine (abbreviated as tan, sin, and cos respectively) to the ratios of the
sides. What do you observe? Try varying the side lengths and the measure of ∠A .
What do you observe?
8
m∠ACB = 90.00 ° m CB
= 0.55 tan(m∠CAB ) = 0.55
m∠CAB = 29.0 ° Change Angle
m AC sin(m∠CAB ) = 0.49
m CB = 4.01 cm
7 m CB cos(m∠CAB ) = 0.87 Drag C to change the length of
m AC = 7.23 cm = 0.49
m AB the legs of the triangle. Click
m AB = 8.27 cm on Change Angle to change the
6
m AC measure of ∠ A.
Slope AB = 0.55 = 0.87
m AB
5
Hide Ratios
B Hide Tangent, Sine, Cosine
4

A 2 4 6 C 8 10 12 1

opposite side length BC

tan(A) = =
adjacent side length AC
opposite side length BC
sin(A) = =
hypotenuse length AB
adjacent side length AC
cos(A) = =
hypotenuse length AB
These ratios remain constant as long as ∠A remains constant, because all of the
triangles formed are similar.

Emphasize to participants that these are the tangent, sine, and cosine.

4. What do you notice about the slope of the hypotenuse and the tangent ratio?
The slope of the hypotenuse is equal to the tangent ratio, because the length of the
opposite leg is the vertical change and length of the adjacent leg is the horizontal
change.

Remind participants to add the new terms cosine, sine and tangent to their glossaries.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-48

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Trigonometry

Part B

Part B will relate right triangle geometry to the trigonometric functions. Trigonometric
functions are based on rotations about the center of a circle. In geometry, an angle is
defined as two rays with a common endpoint called a vertex. In trigonometry, an angle is
defined in terms of a rotating ray. The beginning ray, called the initial side of the angle,
is rotated about its endpoint. The final ray is called the terminal side of the angle. The
endpoint of the ray is called the vertex of the angle (see figure below). An angle as a
measure of rotation can be very large depending on the number of rotations that are
made.

Terminal Side

θ
Initial Side
O
Vertex

A clockwise and a counter-

clockwise angle

An angle in standard position is positioned on a rectangular coordinate system with its

vertex at the origin and its initial side on the positive x-axis (see figure below). It is
measured counter-clockwise from the horizontal axis if the angle measure is positive and
clockwise from the horizontal axis if the angle measure is negative.
y
4

Terminal
3
Side

2
θ
1

Initial Side
x
4 -2
O 2 4

-1

-2 β
-3

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-49

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Trigonometry

Two angles are coterminal if they have the same initial and same terminal sides.
Coterminal angles are found by adding or subtracting an integer multiple of 360 .
β and θ are coterminal if and only if β = θ + n ⋅ 360 where n is an integer (see figure
above).

The reference angle of an angle in standard position is the positive, acute angle between
the horizontal axis and the terminal side. Reference angles are always measured counter-
clockwise (see figure below).

y y
4 4

θ = 128
3 3

2 θ =° 61 2

°
1 θ ref = 52 1

-2 2 4
x -2 2 4
x
-1
θ ref = 61 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

y y
4
3

3
θ = 325
θ = 218 2

2
1

-2 2 4
x
x
θ ref = 35
-4 -2 2 4 -1

θ ref = 38 -1
-2

-2
-3

-3

Remind participants to add the new terms angle in standard position, coterminal angles,
initial side, reference angle and terminal side to their glossaries.

5. Draw a rectangular coordinate system on a piece of easel paper. Draw a large circle
centered at the origin. Let the radius of this circle be one unit (see figure below).

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-50

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Trigonometry

6. Out of cardstock cut two 30º-60º-90º triangles and a 45º-45º-90º triangle with the
length of the hypotenuse equal to the length of the radius of the circle. Place the
triangles in the first quadrant. The hypotenuse of each triangle will be the terminal
side of each angle. Use your knowledge of special right triangles to determine the
coordinates (x,y) of the intersection of the hypotenuse and the circle for each angle
measure as the terminal side of the angle is rotated around the circle. Complete the
data table for the first quadrant. Reflect the triangles over the y-axis and complete the
data table for the second quadrant. Repeat this process for the remaining quadrants
and complete the data table.

120

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-51

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Trigonometry

sin θ cos θ tan θ

Central y x y
Angle x y r
θ (degrees) r r x

0 1 0 1 0 1 0
3 1 1 3 3
30 1
2 2 2 2 3
2 2 2 2
45 1 1
2 2 2 2
1 3 3 1
60 1 3
2 2 2 2
90 0 1 1 1 0 undefined
1 3 3 1
120 − 1 − − 3
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
135 − 1 − −1
2 2 2 2
3 1 1 3 3
150 − 1 − −
2 2 2 2 3
180 −1 0 1 0 −1 0
3 1 1 3 3
210 − − 1 − −
2 2 2 2 3
2 2 2 2
225 − − 1 − − 1
2 2 2 2
1 3 3 1
240 − − 1 − − 3
2 2 2 2
270 0 −1 1 −1 0 undefined
1 3 3 1
300 − 1 − − 3
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
315 − 1 − −1
2 2 2 2
3 1 1 3 3
330 − 1 − −
2 2 2 2 3
360 1 0 1 0 1 0

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-52

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Trigonometry

y
7. Enter the data from your table into your graphing calculator. Plot versus θ .
r

8. Use your knowledge of the trigonometric ratios to write a function rule to model the
data that you collected.
y = sin θ

9. What is sin ( 405 ) ?

2
2

10. What would happen if we continued revolving the terminal side of the angle around
the circle?
The angle measure would continue to increase but the values for
sin θ ,cos θ ,and tan θ would continue to repeat in the same pattern as the first
revolution.

11. What would happen if we revolved the terminal side of an angle around the circle in
the clockwise direction?
The patterns would repeat for negative angles.

A periodic function is a function whose values repeat in a cyclic manner. The

trigonometric functions are examples of periodic functions.

Remind participants to add the term periodic function to their glossaries.

12. Describe the domains for the data set and for the function that models it.
The domain for the data set is discrete data based on the special right triangles we
used. The domain for the function that models the data is all real numbers.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-53

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Trigonometry

x
13. Plot versus θ on your graphing calculator.
r

14. Use your knowledge of the trigonometric ratios to write a function rule to model the
data that you collected.
y = cos θ

15. Describe the domains for the data set and for the function that models it.
The domain for the data set is discrete data based on the special right triangles we
used. The domain for the function that models the data is all real numbers.

y
16. Plot versus θ on your graphing calculator.
x

17. Use your knowledge of the trigonometric ratios to write a function rule to model the
data that you collected.
y = tan θ

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-54

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Trigonometry

18. Describe the domains for the data set and for the function that models it.
The domain for the data set is discrete data based on the special right triangles we
used. The domain for the function that models the data is all real numbers excluding
90º + n180° where n is an integer.

Participants operate at the Descriptive Level in Part 1, since they make inductive
inferences from observed data. In Part 2, participants operate at the Relational Level
since they correlate angle information from Part 1 with quadrant information.

Demonstrate using The Geometer’s Sketchpad sketch Trigonometry Tracers.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-55

Activity Page: Similarity Trigonometry

Trigonometry
Part A

Use The Geometer’s Sketchpad sketch Trigonometry Ratios to investigate

sine, cosine, and tangent. ∆ABC is a right triangle. Drag C. What can you
say about the right triangles formed? Click on the Change Angle button to
change ∠A then drag C. What can you say about the right triangles formed?
8
m∠ACB = 90.00 °
m∠CAB = 42.8 ° Change Angle
m CB = 6.70 cm
7 B Drag C to change the length of
m AC = 7.23 cm the legs of the triangle. Click
m AB = 9.86 cm on Change Angle to change the
6
measure of ∠ A.
Slope AB = 0.93
5
Show Ratios
Show Tangent, Sine, Cosine
4

A 2 4 6 C 8 10 12 1

1. Click on the Show Ratios button. Drag C to change the triangle. Keep
∠A constant. What do you notice about the ratios?

2. Change the measure of ∠ A by clicking on the Change Angle button.

Click the button to stop the change. Repeat your observations from step
one.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-56

Activity Page: Similarity Trigonometry

3. Click on the Show Tangent, Sine, Cosine button. Compare the values for
the tangent, sine, and cosine (abbreviated as tan, sin, and cos
respectively) to the ratios of the sides. What do you observe? Try
varying the side lengths and the measure of ∠A . What do you observe?

4. What do you notice about the slope of the hypotenuse and the tangent
ratio?

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-57

Activity Page: Similarity Trigonometry

Part B

Part B will relate right triangle geometry to the trigonometric functions.

Trigonometric functions are based on rotations about the center of a circle.
In geometry, an angle is defined as two rays with a common endpoint called
a vertex. In trigonometry, an angle is defined in terms of a rotating ray. The
beginning ray, called the initial side of the angle, is rotated about its
endpoint. The final ray is called the terminal side of the angle. The
endpoint of the ray is called the vertex of the angle (see figure below). An
angle as a measure of rotation can be very large depending on the number of
rotations that are made.

Terminal Side

θ
Initial Side
O
Vertex

A clockwise and a counter-

clockwise angle

An angle in standard position is positioned on a rectangular coordinate

system with its vertex at the origin and its initial side on the positive x-axis
(see figure below). It is measured counter-clockwise from the horizontal axis
if the angle measure is positive and clockwise from the horizontal axis if the
angle measure is negative. y
4

Terminal Side
3

2
θ
1

Initial Side
4 -2
O 2 4 x
-1

-2 β
-3

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-58

 Activity Page: Similarity Trigonometry

Two angles are coterminal if they have the same initial side and the same
terminal side. Coterminal angles are found by adding or subtracting an
integer multiple of 360 . β and θ are coterminal if and only if
β = θ + n ⋅ 360 where n is an integer (see figure above).

The reference angle of an angle in standard position is the positive, acute

angle between the horizontal axis and the terminal side. Reference angles are
always measured counter-clockwise (see figure below).
Figure 3
y y
4 4

θ = 128
3 3

2 θ = 61
θ = 61 °
2

128 °
1 θ ref = 52 1
θ ref = 61°

-2 2 4
x -2 2 4
x
-1
θ ref = 61 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

y y
4
3

3
θ = 325
θ = 218 2

2
1

-2 2 4
x
x
θ ref = 35
-4 -2 2 4 -1

θ ref = 38 -1
-2

-2
-3

-3

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-59

Activity Page: Similarity Trigonometry

5. Draw a rectangular coordinate system on a piece of easel paper. Draw

a large circle centered at the origin. Let the radius of this circle be one
unit (see figure).

6. Out of cardstock, cut two 30º-60º-90º triangles and a 45º-45º-90º

triangle with the length of the hypotenuse equal to the length of the
radius of the circle. Place the triangles in the first quadrant. The
hypotenuse of each triangle will be the terminal side of each angle. Use
your knowledge of special right triangles to determine the coordinates
(x,y) of the intersection of the hypotenuse and the circle for each angle
measure as the terminal side of the angle is rotated around the circle.
Complete the data table for the first quadrant. Reflect the triangles over
the y-axis and complete the data table for the second quadrant. Repeat
this process for the remaining quadrants and complete the data table.

60
45
30

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-60

Activity Page: Similarity Trigonometry

sinθ cosθ tan θ

Central
y x y
Angle x y r
r r x
θ (degrees)

30

45

60

90

120

135

150

180

210

225

240

270

300

315

330

360

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-61

Activity Page: Similarity Trigonometry

y
7. Enter the data from the table into your graphing calculator. Plot
r
versus θ .

8. Use your knowledge of the trigonometric ratios to write a function rule

to model the data that you collected.

9. What is sin ( 405 ) ?

10. What would happen if we continued revolving the terminal side of an

angle around the circle?

11. What would happen if we revolved the terminal side of an angle around
the circle in the clockwise direction?

12. Describe the domains for the data set and for the function that models
it.

x
13. Plot versus θ on your graphing calculator.
r

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-62

Activity Page: Similarity Trigonometry

14. Use your knowledge of the trigonometric ratios to write a function rule
to model the data that you collected.

15. Describe the domains for the data set and for the function that models
it.

y
16. Plot versus θ on your graphing calculator.
x

17. Use your knowledge of the trigonometric ratios to write a function rule
to model the data that you collected.

18. Describe the domains for the data set and for the function that models
it.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-63

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Exploring Pyramids and Cones

Exploring Pyramids and Cones

Overview: Participants explore the volumes of pyramids through a wire-frame
construction. Participants also extend their knowledge of similarity to
comparing the surface areas of similar cones.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.004.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and extends patterns and
relationships in data presented in tables, sequences, or graphs.
II.006.G. The beginning teacher models and solves problems involving
linear and quadratic equations and inequalities using a variety of
methods, including technology.
III.011.B. The beginning teacher applies formulas for perimeter, area,
surface area, and volume of geometric figures and shapes (e.g.,
polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres) to solve
problems.
III.011.C. The beginning teacher recognizes the effects on length, area,
or volume when the linear dimensions of plane figures or solids are
changed.
III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric
constructions made using compass and straightedge, reflection
devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and
properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make generalizations about
two- and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g., relationships of
sides, angles).
III.013.E. The beginning teacher analyzes cross-sections and nets of
three-dimensional shapes.
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.
V.019.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and uses multiple
representations of a mathematical concept (e.g., a point and its
coordinates, the area of a circle as a quadratic function of the radius,
probability as the ratio of two areas, area of a plane region as a definite
integral).

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
b.4. The student uses a variety of representations to describe geometric
relationships and solve problems.
d.1.A. The student describes, and draws cross sections and other slices
of three-dimensional objects.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-64

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Exploring Pyramids and Cones

d.1.B. The student uses nets to represent and construct three-

dimensional objects.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and
midpoint.
e.1.D. The student finds surface areas and volumes of prisms,
pyramids, spheres, cones, and cylinders in problem situations.
e.2.D. The student analyzes the characteristics of three-dimensional
figures and their component parts.
f.1. The student uses similarity properties and transformations to
explore and justify conjectures about geometric figures.
f.4. The student describes the effect on perimeter, area, and volume
when length, width, or height of a three-dimensional solid is changed
and applies this idea in solving problems.

Background: Participants should recall how to find area, surface area, and volume
from the unit on area.

Materials: wire-frame constructions from Exploring Prisms, centimeter rulers,

scissors, protractor, patty (tracing) paper (optional), compass
(optional), paper cone-shaped drinking cups, plastic rice, cardstock

New Terms: cone, oblique pyramid, pyramid, right cone, right pyramid, slant height
of a cone

Procedures:

1. Using your wire-frame prism from Exploring Prisms, remove the polygon that forms
the top base. Use a small piece of modeling clay to bring the free ends of the floral
wire pieces together to one point. Sketch what you see below. Label the critical
attributes.
Answers will vary depending on which polygon each group constructed. An example
is shown below. Define a pyramid as a polyhedron with three or more triangular
faces that meet at a point and one other face, a polygon, which is called the base
(Geometry To Go, 2001). Discuss attributes such as altitude, edge, face, vertex,
height, slant height, edge length, base, and area of base.
apex

edge

base

vertex

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-65

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Exploring Pyramids and Cones

Using the regular polygon you removed from your wire-frame prism, construct the
angle bisectors using a protractor, compass, or a piece of patty paper. If the base
polygon is a rectangle, draw the diagonals. Using a pair of scissors, carefully cut
along each angle bisector from the vertex stopping short of the point of intersection.
It is important that you do not cut all the way to the point of intersection.
Carefully insert this polygon inside the wire-frame pyramid or cone you have
constructed. One piece of wire should fit inside each angle bisector slit.

2. Describe what happens when the polygon slides up and down the pieces of floral
wire.
As the polygon moves up and down (out of the plane of the base), the pieces of floral
wire create vertices of a similar polygon that is dilated by a certain scale factor.
Theoretically, the polygon would continue dilating until the vertices all meet at the
apex of the pyramid.

Stage 1: Stage 2: Prism with Stage 3: Prism

Similar Base being with Similar Base
Dilated Upward Approaching
Vanishing Point

When the apex does not lie on the line containing the altitude of the pyramid or cone,
the solid is called oblique. When the apex lies on the line containing the altitude of
the pyramid or cone, the solid is called a right pyramid or right cone since the height
and the base of the solid are perpendicular, forming a right angle.

3. Recall your earlier work with prisms. What do the pieces of floral wire represent?
The floral wire pieces represent the dilation vectors coming out of the plane of the
base.

dilation vectors

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-66

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Exploring Pyramids and Cones

4. What does the piece of modeling clay at the top of your wire-frame pyramid
represent?
The modeling clay represents the apex of the pyramid. It also represents the vanishing
point, or center of dilation, where the dilation vectors intersect. Geometrically, this
point is called the “center of dilation.” Artists use the term “vanishing point,” since
objects become proportionally smaller as they approach this point until they scale to
zero or vanish.

Define a cone as a three-dimensional solid which

“like a pyramid… has a base and a vertex. The base of a cone is a

circle and its interior. The radius of a cone is the radius of the base.
The vertex of a cone is a point not in the same plane as the base. The
altitude of a cone is the perpendicular segment from the vertex to the
plane of the base. The height of a cone is the length of the altitude.”
(Serra, 2003, p. 533)

Take a paper cone-shaped drinking cup and measure the diameter of the base
of the cone and the height of the cone. Record your measurements. Construct
a cylinder with the same dimensions out of cardstock. Fill the paper cone-
shaped cup with plastic rice.

5. Predict how many paper cones full of plastic rice it will take to exactly fill the
cylinder you constructed.
Answers will vary.

6. Pour the plastic rice from the cone into the cylinder. Continue pouring cones of
plastic rice into the cylinder, carefully counting how many cones full of plastic rice it
takes to fill the cylinder completely. Compare the results to your prediction. Explain
any similarities or differences.
It should take three cones to fill the cylinder. Explanations will vary.

7. Based on your earlier experiences with volume, what formula would you use to find
the volume of a cone? Explain your reasoning.
Participants should reason that since it took three cones to fill the cylinder, the
1
volume of a cone is the volume of a cylinder with the same base and altitude. Since
3
the formula for the volume of a cylinder is V = π r 2 h , the formula for the volume of a
1
cone should be V = π r 2 h .
3
Distribute the Nets for Cones activity sheet. Review the concept of nets as a
two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional solid that can be cut out and
folded to construct the solid object.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-67

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Exploring Pyramids and Cones

8. Use a ruler to measure the slant height and radius of each cone to the nearest tenth of
a centimeter.
Define “slant height of a right cone” as the length of a segment from the apex to a
point on the circumference of the base.

9. Construct the three cones from their nets.

10. What methods can you use to find the surface area of a cone?
Answers may vary. Some participants may use formulas.

To develop the formula for the surface area of a cone, ask participants to consider each
piece of the net of the cone.

What shapes are the two pieces?

The base of the cone is a circle with a radius, r, and the lateral surface is a sector of a
circle with a radius, l, the slant height of the cone.

How do you find the area of each of these pieces?

The area of the circle can be found with the formula A = π r 2 . The area of a sector of a
circle can be found by considering the fractional part of the area of the circle that the area
of the sector represents. Recall, the fractional part of the circle, which the sector
represents, can be obtained using the ratio of the central angle of the sector to 360o ,
which is equal to the ratio of the arc length of the sector to the circumference length of
the circle, with the same radius as the sector, in this case, l.

Notice that the arc length of the sector is equal to the length of the circumference of the
circle representing the base of the cone, i.e., the arc length of the sector = 2 π r.
The fractional part of the area of the circle which the area of the sector represents equals
2π r
.
2π l

The formula for the surface area of a cone is developed as follows.

Total Surface Area = Area of sector + Area of circle

2π r
SA =
2π l
( π l2 ) + π r2

SA = π rl + π r 2

11. Find the surface area of each cone.

Large cone: 95.5 cm2
Medium cone: 53.7 cm2
Small cone: 23.6 cm2

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-68

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Similarity Exploring Pyramids and Cones

12. Use the cones that you constructed to complete the table below.

Slant Surface
Radius
Height of Area of Ratio of Ratio of Surface
Cone of Base
Cone in Cone in Radii Areas
in cm
cm cm2
r1 1 SA1 95.5 1
Large 2 13.2 95.5 = = =
r1 1 SA1 95.5 1

r1 2 4 SA1 95.5 16
Medium 1.5 9.9 53.7 = = = ≈
r2 1.5 3 SA2 53.7 9

r1 2 SA1 95.5 4
Small 1 6.5 23.6 = = ≈
r3 1 SA3 23.6 1

13. What patterns do you notice in the ratios above?

Answers may vary but should include that the ratios of the surface areas are the
squares of the ratios of the radii.

Remind participants to add the new terms cone, oblique pyramid, pyramid, right cone,
right pyramid, and slant height of a cone to their glossaries.

Success in this activity indicates that participants are working at the van Hiele Relational
Level because they must discover the relationship between the arc length of the sector,
the circumference of the circle representing the base of the cone and the fraction of the
circle which the sector represents and make simple deductions to determine the total
surface area of the cone.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-69

Activity Page: Similarity Exploring Pyramids and Cones

Nets for Cones

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-70

Activity Page: Similarity Exploring Pyramids and Cones

Exploring Pyramids and Cones

1. Using your wire-frame prism from Exploring Prisms, remove the

polygon that forms the top base. Use a small piece of modeling clay
to bring the free ends of the floral wire pieces together to one point.
Sketch what you see below. Label the critical attributes.

Using the polygon you removed from your wire-frame prism,

construct the angle bisectors using a protractor, compass, or a piece of
patty paper. Using a pair of scissors, carefully cut along each angle
bisector from the vertex stopping short of the point of intersection. It
is important that you do not cut all the way to the point of
intersection. Carefully insert this polygon inside the wire-frame
pyramid or cone you have constructed. One piece of wire should fit
inside each angle bisector slit.

2. Describe what happens when the polygon slides up and down the
pieces of floral wire.

When the apex does not lie on the line containing the altitude of the
pyramid or cone, the solid is called oblique. When the apex lies on the
line containing the altitude of the pyramid or cone, the solid is called a
right pyramid or right cone since the height and the base of the solid
are perpendicular, forming a right angle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-71

Activity Page: Similarity Exploring Pyramids and Cones

3. Recall your earlier work with prisms. What do the pieces of floral
wire represent?

4. What does the piece of modeling clay at the top of your wire-frame
pyramid represent?

Take a paper cone-shaped drinking cup and measure the diameter of the base
of the cone and the height of the cone. Record your measurements.
Construct a cylinder with the same dimensions out of cardstock. Fill the
paper cone-shaped cup with plastic rice.

5. Predict how many paper cones full of plastic rice it will take to
exactly fill the cylinder you constructed.

6. Pour the plastic rice from the cone into the cylinder. Continue
pouring cones of plastic rice into the cylinder, carefully counting
how many cones full of plastic rice it takes to fill the cylinder
completely. Compare the results to your prediction. Explain any
similarities or differences.

7. Based on your earlier experiences with volume, what formula would

you use to find the volume of a cone? Explain your reasoning.

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-72

Activity Page: Similarity Exploring Pyramids and Cones

8. Use a ruler to measure the slant height and radius of each cone to the
nearest tenth of a centimeter.

9. Construct the three cones from their nets.

10. What methods can you use to find the surface area of a cone?

11. Find the surface area of each cone.

12. Use the cones that you constructed to complete the table below.

Slant Surface
Radius of Ratio of
Height of Area of Ratio of
Cone Base in Surface
Cone in Cone in Radii
cm Areas
cm cm2
r1 SA1
Large = =
r1 SA1

r1 SA1
Medium = =
r2 SA2

r1 SA1
Small = =
r3 SA3

13. What patterns do you notice in the ratios above?

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-73

Supplemental Material: Similarity References and Additional Resources

References and Additional Resources

Coxford, A. F. & Usiskin, Z. P. (1975). Geometry: A transformational approach. River

Forest , Ill: Laidlaw Brothers Publishing.

Demana, F., Waits, B. & Clemens, S., (1994). Precalculus mathematics: A graphing

approach (3rd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing.

Forester, P. (2003). Precalculus with trigonometry: Concepts and applications.

Emeryville, CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Ghyka, M. (1977). The geometry of art and life. New York: Dover Publications Inc.

Kinsey, L. C. & Moore, T. (2002). Symmetry, shape, and space: An introduction to

mathematics through geometry. Emeryville, CA: Key College Publishing.

Lane, D. M. (2003). Hyperstat online. Retrieved February 25, 2004, from

http://davidmlane.com/hyperstat/index.html

Moise, E. E. (1974). Elementary geometry from an advanced standpoint. (2nd ed.).

Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing.

Peitgen, H., Jurgens, H.& Saupe, D. (1992). Fractals for the classroom. New York:

Springer-Verlag.

Posamentier, A. S. (2002). Advanced Euclidean geometry. Emeryville, CA: Key

Curriculum Press.

Serra, M. (2003). Discovering Geometry: An investigative approach. (3rd ed.).

Emeryville, CA: Key Curriculum Press

Geometry Module DRAFT 8-74

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Sum of the Measures of Angles

Unit 9 − Non-Euclidean Geometries

When Is the Sum of the Measures of the Angles of a Triangle

Equal to 180º?
Overview: This activity illustrates the need for Euclid’s Fifth Postulate in proving
that the sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180º in
Euclidean space. The negation of this theorem leads to other
geometries.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric
constructions made using compass and straightedge, reflection
devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.012.G. The beginning teacher compares and contrasts the axioms of
Euclidean geometry with those of non-Euclidean geometry (i.e.,
hyperbolic and elliptic geometry).
V.018.A. The beginning teacher understands the nature of proof,
including indirect proof, in mathematics.
V.018.B. The beginning teacher applies correct mathematical
reasoning to derive valid conclusion from a set of premises.
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluation the validity of
conjectures.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.1.C. The student compares and contrasts the structures and
implications of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries.
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of
geometric figures and to make conjectures about geometric
relationships.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric
figures and their properties.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
b.3.E. The student uses deductive reasoning to prove a statement.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-1

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Sum of the Measures of Angles

Background: Participants should have some knowledge of the structure of a

mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems as well as the properties of parallel lines in
Euclidean space.

Materials: straightedge, compass, patty paper, colored pencils, transparency

sheet, scissors, overhead projector pens

New Terms:

Procedures:

This introductory activity motivates the discussion of different geometries. The theorem
that participants are asked to prove gives rise to the question “Are there geometries for
which this theorem does not hold?” Historically, mathematicians tried to prove Euclid’s
parallel postulate (stated below in two forms). Their failure to prove it gave rise to
hyperbolic and elliptic geometries. In elliptic geometry, the sum of the measures of the
angles of a triangle is greater than 180º. In hyperbolic geometry, the sum of the measures
of the angles of a triangle is less than 180º.

Euclid’s fifth postulate (the parallel postulate) is usually stated as follows: “Through a
point not on a line, there exists exactly one line parallel to the line.” This version of the
parallel postulate is known as Playfair’s postulate (1795). It is logically equivalent to
Euclid’s original fifth postulate which states that “if a transversal intersects two lines so
that the sum of the measures of the interior angles on the same side of the transversal is
less that 180º, then the two lines will intersect on the side of the transversal where the
interior angles are formed.” You may want to have participants illustrate Euclid’s original
fifth postulate to see that it is logically equivalent to Playfair’s postulate.

Before participants prove that the sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is equal
to 180º, you may want to demonstrate a “proof” of the theorem visually at the overhead
projector by following these steps:

1. Draw any triangle on a piece of transparency paper.

2. Label each angle in the interior of the triangle close to each vertex.
3. Carefully tear or cut off each angle (tear or cut off each angle so that the result is
three sector-like shaped regions).
4. Arrange the three angles so that their vertices meet at the same point. A straight
angle is formed whose measure is 180º.
5. Therefore the sum of the measures of the three angles is 180º.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-2

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Sum of the Measures of Angles

The above illustration is taken from Discovering Geometry: An Inductive Approach: 3rd
Edition, © 2003, p 199 with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

Success with this activity indicates that participants are working at the Relational Level,
because they are able to produce an informal argument using a diagram and concrete
materials.

1. Prove: The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180º.

Use the following hints to construct your proof:

(1) Begin by carefully drawing any triangle, ∆ ABC.
(2) Construct line l through one of the vertices C parallel to the opposite side AB of the
triangle.
(3) Use your knowledge of angle relationships for parallel lines cut by a transversal
and the fact that the measure of a straight angle is 180º to prove the theorem.

Participants may construct a line, l, parallel to AB using a compass and straightedge or by

folding patty paper.

The proof appears below:

l C
1 2 3

A B
Given: ∆ ABC

Prove: m ∠ A + m ∠ 2 + m ∠ B = 180º

Proof: ∆ ABC (Given)

Through C, construct
line l parallel to AB . (Through a point not on a line, there exists
exactly one line parallel to the line.)

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-3

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Sum of the Measures of Angles

∠ 1 ≅ ∠ A and ∠ 3 ≅ ∠ B (If two parallel lines are cut by a

transversal, then the alternate interior
angles are congruent.)

m ∠ 1 + m ∠ 2 + m ∠ 3 = 180º (A straight angle measures 180º.)

m ∠ A + m ∠ 2 + m ∠ B = 180º (Substitution)

Therefore, the sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180º.

Success with this activity indicates that participants are working at the Deductive Level,
because they construct a formal proof.

2. Is this theorem always true? Explain your answer.

It is true in Euclidean geometry in which Euclid’s fifth postulate holds. It is not true
for geometries for which Euclid’s fifth postulate does not hold.

Participants should recognize that without the parallel postulate, it would not be possible
to prove that the sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180º. In fact, this
statement is also equivalent to Euclid’s fifth postulate. You may want to ask participants
to verify this equivalence.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-4

Activity Page: Non-Euclidean Sum of the Measures of Angles

When Is the Sum of the Measures of the Angles of a

Triangle Equal to 180º?

1. Prove: The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180º.

Use the following hints to construct your proof:

(1) Begin by carefully drawing any triangle, ∆ ABC.
(2) Construct line l through one of the vertices, C, parallel to the opposite
side AB of the triangle.
(3) Use your knowledge of angle relationships for parallel lines cut by a
transversal and the fact that the measure of a straight angle is 180º to
prove the theorem.

2. Is this theorem always true? Explain your answer.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-5

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Euclid’s First Five Postulates

Euclid’s First Five Postulates in Euclidean Space

Overview: In this activity, participants review the parallel postulate as well as
Euclid’s first four postulates in Euclidean space.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.012.G. The beginning teacher compares and contrasts the axioms of
Euclidean geometry with those of non-Euclidean geometry (i.e.,
hyperbolic and elliptic geometry).
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.1.C. The student compares and contrasts the structures and
implications of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.

Background: Participants should have prior knowledge of Euclid’s first five

postulates in Euclidean space and should be familiar with visual
representations for Euclidean space.

Materials: straightedge, protractor

New Terms:

Procedures:

Before participants explore Euclid’s five postulates in other geometries, they should
review the postulates in the familiar Euclidean space. Remind participants that postulates,
or axioms, are truths that are accepted without proof. Early mathematicians tried to
deduce Euclid’s fifth postulate from the other four postulates because of its perceived
complexity with respect to the other four.

Using the activity sheet, have participants, in groups, review Euclid’s first five postulates.
They should be able to illustrate the five postulates in Euclidean space.

Euclid’s five postulates are:

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-6

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Euclid’s First Five Postulates

1. For any two distinct points, there is exactly one line that contains them.

2. Any segment may be extended indefinitely in a straight line.

3. Given a point (center) and a distance (radius), a circle can be drawn.

4. All right angles are congruent.

5. Through a point not on a line, there exists exactly one line parallel to the line
(Playfair’s postulate).

Participants may not remember that the above five statements are Euclid’s first five
postulates, but after reading them, they should be able to illustrate them without
difficulty.

You may want to review the process of writing negations of a given statement before
participants complete 6.

You may use the example “All women love mathematics” to review negations.
Possible negations of this statement are “it is false that all women love mathematics”, “it
is not the case that all women love mathematics”, “not all women love mathematics” or
“some women do not love mathematics.”

If you feel participants need more practice in writing negations to given statements, have
them, individually, create a couple of statements. Then have pairs or groups of three
participants write all the possible negations for all the statements in their group.

6. One negation of Euclid’s fifth postulate is “Through a point not on a line, there exists
no line parallel to the line.” State another negation for Euclid’s fifth postulate.
Through a point not on a line, there exists more than one line parallel to the line.

These two negations of Euclid’s fifth postulate led to two non-Euclidean geometries.
Elliptic geometry resulted from the first negation and hyperbolic from the second
negation).

Success with 1−6 indicates that participants are working at the Deductive Level, because
they are asked to demonstrate an understanding of postulates and to examine the effects
of changing a postulate.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-7

Activity Page: Non-Euclidean Euclid’s First Five Postulates

Euclid’s First Five Postulates in Euclidean Space

1−5 are statements of Euclid’s first five postulates. Illustrate each of the
postulates in the spaces provided below which represent Euclidean space.

1. For any two distinct points, there is exactly one line that contains them.

2. Any segment may be extended indefinitely in a straight line.

3. Given a point (center) and a distance (radius), a circle can be drawn.

4. All right angles are congruent.

5. Through a point not on a line, there exists exactly one line parallel to the
line (Playfair’s postulate).

6. One negation of Euclid’s fifth postulate is “Through a point not on a line,

there exists no line parallel to the line.” State another negation for
Euclid’s fifth postulate.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-8

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Curvature in Different Geometries

Curvature in Different Geometries

Overview: In this activity, participants compare and contrast the curvature of
different geometries (Euclidean, elliptic, and hyperbolic).

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.012.G. The beginning teacher compares and contrasts the axioms of
Euclidean geometry with those of non-Euclidean geometry (i.e.,
hyperbolic and elliptic geometry).
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluate the validity of
conjectures.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.1.C. The student compares and contrasts the structures and
implications of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
b.3.D. The students uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.

Background: Participants should have some knowledge of a variety of surfaces.

Materials:

New Terms: Gaussian curvature

Procedures:

The Gaussian curvature of a surface characterizes the geometry of the surface. It

describes the intrinsic geometry of the surface and does not change even if the surface is
bent without stretching or compressing it. The Euclidean plane (a flat surface) has zero
Gaussian curvature. An elliptic surface (a ball or a sphere) has positive Gaussian
curvature. A hyperbolic surface (the seat of a saddle) has negative Gaussian curvature.
The closer to zero the Gaussian curvature is, the flatter the surface. The further from zero
the Gaussian curvature is, the more sharply curved the surface, either negatively
(hyperbolic) or positively (elliptic). Remind participants to add the new term Gaussian
curvature to their glossaries.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-9

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Curvature in Different Geometries

The sphere is a surface with constant Gaussian curvature that is positive, and the
pseudosphere has constant Gaussian curvature that is negative. The illustrations below
are of surfaces with constant Gaussian curvature.

Sphere (positive) Pseudosphere (negative) Euclidean plane (zero)

The Gaussian curvature of a surface is not always constant as in the case of the
hyperboloid paraboloid or the ellipsoid. The illustrations below are of surfaces that do not
have constant Gaussian curvature.

hyperbolic paraboloid ellipsoid

Select a point on a surface of positive Gaussian curvature such as a sphere or ellipsoid.

The surface lies completely to one side of a tangent plane through that point and touches
the tangent plane at exactly one point. Select a point on a surface of negative Gaussian
curvature. The tangent plane through that point passes through the surface. For a surface
of zero Gaussian curvature, the tangent plane contains a line that touches the surface at all
the points on that line.

1. Compare the Gaussian curvature of a flat surface to the sum of the angles of a triangle
on that surface.
A surface with zero Gaussian curvature is flat. The sum of the measures of the angles
of a triangle on its surface is 180º.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-10

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Curvature in Different Geometries

2. Describe the Gaussian curvature of a flat surface. Does Euclid’s parallel postulate
hold for that surface?
A surface with zero Gaussian curvature is flat. The sum of the measures of the angles
of a triangle on that surface is 180º. This statement is logically equivalent to Euclid’s
parallel postulate. Therefore, the parallel postulate holds for a flat surface.

3. Explain why a cylindrical surface (a cylinder without a top or a bottom) has zero
Gaussian curvature.
The Gaussian curvature of a flat surface is zero. Since the lateral area of a cylinder is
a flat surface, the Gaussian curvature is the same for both surfaces. Remember that
bending (or in this case rolling) a surface without stretching or compressing it does
not change its Gaussian curvature. Hence the Gaussian curvature of a cylinder must
be zero.

The illustration below shows a cylinder and the flat surface that was rolled to form
the cylinder. Notice that the tangent plane to the cylinder contains a straight line that
touches the cylinder at all points on that line. This supports the claim that the
Gaussian curvature of a cylinder is zero.

Participants work at the highest van Hiele level, Rigor, as they are asked to work in a
variety of axiomatic systems and to consider formal abstract aspects of deduction.

For further readings on Gaussian curvature, you may want to consult Baragar (2001),
Greenberg (1993), Thurston (1997), or Weeks (1985).

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-11

Transparency: Non-Euclidean Curvature in Different Geometries

Various Surfaces

Surfaces of Constant Gaussian Curvature

Sphere (positive) Pseudosphere (negative) Euclidean plane (zero)

Surfaces without Constant Gaussian Curvature

hyperbolic paraboloid ellipsoid

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-12

Activity Page: Non-Euclidean Curvatures in Different Geometries

Curvature in Different Geometries

The Gaussian curvature of a surface characterizes the geometry of a surface.

It describes the intrinsic geometry of the surface. A flat (Euclidean) plane
has zero Gaussian curvature.

1. Compare the Gaussian curvature of a flat surface to the sum of the angles
of a triangle on that surface.

2. Describe the Gaussian curvature of a flat surface. Does Euclid’s parallel

postulate hold for that surface?

3. Explain why a cylindrical surface (a cylinder without a top or a bottom)

has zero Gaussian curvature.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-13

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Elliptic Space

Euclid’s First Five Postulates in Elliptic Space

Overview: In this activity, participants explore Euclid’s first five postulates in
elliptic space.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.012.G. The beginning teacher compares and contrasts the axioms of
Euclidean geometry with those of non-Euclidean geometry (i.e.,
hyperbolic and elliptic geometry).
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluation the validity of
conjectures.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.1.C. The student compares and contrasts the structures and
implications of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
b.3.D. The students uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.

Background: Participants should have prior knowledge of Euclid’s first five

postulates for Euclidean space.

Materials: flexible protractor, string, overhead projector pens, globe, beach ball,
or Lénárt sphere

New Terms: elliptic geometry or elliptic space, geodesic, great circle

Procedures:

Before participants examine Euclid’s first five postulates in elliptic space, you may want
to review the undefined term line for Euclidean space. This term and others like it (point,
plane, and space) do not have nor do they need definitions. Recall, that in an axiomatic
system, there are undefined terms, defined terms, postulates, theorems, and rules of logic.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-14

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Elliptic Space

If necessary, have participants review Euclid’s first five postulates from the previous
activity, carefully noting the given negation of Euclid’s fifth postulate: “Through a point
not on a line, there exists no line parallel to the line.”

Elliptic geometry, which is also referred to as spherical geometry, is a geometry on a

curved surface such as a sphere, globe, ball, egg, or an ellipsoid. The illustrations below
are examples of elliptic space.

Sphere ellipsoid

You may want to introduce the term geodesic. A geodesic is a curve that minimizes the
distance between two points. In Euclidean space, geodesics are straight lines. The
discussion of geodesics for elliptic space, in general, is beyond the scope of this unit. As
a result, we will restrict the discussion to the sphere, the elliptic surface of constant
positive Gaussian curvature.

1. What is the shortest distance between two points on the sphere?

Hint: Locate two points on the surface of your globe, beach ball, or Lénárt sphere.
Using string, find the shortest distance between your two points. The shortest distance
is an arc. Trace this arc. This arc lies on a great circle which is the set of points on the
surface formed by the intersection of the sphere and a plane passing through the
center of the sphere. Extend your arc to find the great circle that contains it.
The shortest distance between two points on the sphere lies along the great circle that
contains the two points. Therefore geodesics on the sphere are great circles.
Note: The shortest distance between two points on a sphere is found on the surface
and never in the interior, as the interior is not part of the spherical surface.

What are the “lines” in elliptic geometry?

On a sphere, the geodesics are great circles. A great circle is the set of points on the
sphere formed by the intersection of the sphere and a plane passing through the center
of the sphere. If we consider a globe, the equator and the meridians which pass
through the two poles are examples of great circles. Notice that “latitude lines” are
not “lines” on the sphere, except for the equator, because the plane containing them
does not pass through the center of the sphere. The north and south poles are
diametrically opposite each other on the surface of the earth. They are often referred
to as polar points. Any pair of points that are diametrically opposite each other on the
sphere may also be referred to as polar points.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-15

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Elliptic Space

Great circles divide the sphere into two congruent parts. The equator of the earth in
the illustration below is a great circle. The equator divides the earth into the north and
the south hemispheres.

You may want participants to informally explore and conjecture what the geodesics
on an ellipsoid might be.

2. Is there more than one great circle passing through two points on your sphere?
Explain.
There is only one great circle that passes through two points unless the two points are
diametrically opposite each other on a given diameter (polar points).

3. Find several examples of great circles on your sphere. Are great circles infinite in
length? Why or why not?
Great circles never end although they retrace themselves. Therefore, they are finite in
length. Since all the great circles on your model have the same diameter, they are all
the same length.

4. Can great circles be parallel? Explain.

No, great circles can never be parallel, because any two great circles intersect.
Therefore, there are no parallel lines on the sphere.

5. Locate three non-collinear points on your sphere. To form an elliptic triangle through
your three points, draw the three great circles that connect pairs of these points.
Measure each angle of your elliptic triangle. What is the sum of the measures of the
three angles? Can you find a triangle whose three angles add up to 270º? Can you
find a triangle whose three angles add up to 360º? Can you find a triangle whose three
angles add up to more than 360º?
Answers will vary as the sum of the measures of the angles of an elliptic triangle
depends upon the size of the triangle. However, the sum is always greater than 180º.
A small elliptic triangle seems almost flat so that the sum of its three angles is close
to 180º. The sum of the angles of an elliptic triangle with a right angle at the North
Pole and the other two vertices on the equator is 270º. Therefore, two great circles
perpendicular to the same line (the equator) are not parallel but meet at the North
Pole. By increasing the size of the angle at the North Pole to 180º or larger, you can
find triangles whose angles add up to 360º or more.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-16

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Elliptic Space

The illustration below is of an elliptic triangle on the sphere. It is evident that the sum
of the angles of the triangle is greater than 180º because the surface “bulges” out.

6. Can you find similar triangles on your sphere that are not congruent? Explain.
No, similar triangles must be congruent.

7. Restate the theorem “The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180º” so
that it applies to elliptic space.
The sum of the measures of the angles of an elliptic triangle is always greater than
180º.

8. Is there a relationship between the size of a triangle on your sphere and the sum of the
measures of its angles? Explain.
The larger the triangle, the greater the sum of its angles is. The smaller the triangle,
the closer the sum of the angles is to 180º. Small elliptic triangles seem to resemble
Euclidean triangles, because they are almost flat. Large elliptic triangles are more
curved so that the sum of the measures of their angles is much larger than 180º.

9. Restate Euclid’s first five postulates so that they apply to the sphere.

ƒ For any two distinct points, there may be one or an infinite number of great
circles that contain(s) them. It depends on the location of the points. If they are
diametrically opposite each other, then there are an infinite number of great
circles that contain them. If they are not diametrically opposite each other, then
there is exactly one great circle that contains them.

ƒ Any arc may be extended indefinitely on a great circle. However, great circles are
not infinite in length.

Recall that great circles never end although they retrace themselves.

ƒ Given a point (center) and a distance (radius), a circle can be drawn.

[Unchanged from Euclidean space]

The largest circle on the sphere is a great circle.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-17

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Elliptic Space

ƒ All right angles are congruent. [Unchanged from Euclidean space]

ƒ Through a point not on a great circle, no great circle is parallel to it. Any two
great circles intersect.

10. Compare the Gaussian curvature of an elliptic surface to the sum of the angles of a
triangle on its surface.
A surface with positive Gaussian curvature is elliptic. The sum of the measures of the
angles of a triangle on its surface is greater than 180º.

11. Describe the Gaussian curvature of an elliptic surface. Does Euclid’s parallel
postulate hold for its surface?
A surface with a positive Gaussian curvature is elliptic. The sum of the measures of
the angles of a triangle on its surface is greater than 180º. The parallel postulate
does not hold on that surface. There are no parallel lines in elliptic space.

For further investigations of elliptic space, you may want to refer to Rice University
Mathematics Professor John Polking’s web site at http://math.rice.edu/~pcmi/sphere/.

Remind participants to add the new terms geodesic, elliptic space, and great circle to their
glossaries.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-18

Activity Page: Non-Euclidean Elliptic Space

Euclid’s First Five Postulates in Elliptic Space

You will need a globe, a beach ball, or a Lénárt sphere, tape measure or
flexible ruler, flexible protractor, overhead projector pens, string, and
scissors for this activity. Refer to the previous activity sheet for Euclid’s first
five postulates.

1. What is the shortest distance between two points on the sphere?

Hint: Locate two points on the surface of your globe, beach ball, or
Lénárt sphere. Using string, find the shortest distance between your two
points. The shortest distance is an arc. Trace this arc. This arc lies on a
great circle which is the set of points on the surface formed by the
intersection of the sphere and a plane passing through the center of the
sphere. Extend your arc to find the great circle that contains it.

2. Is there more than one great circle passing through two points on your
sphere? Explain.

3. Find several examples of great circles on your sphere. Are great circles
infinite in length? Why or why not?

4. Can great circles be parallel? Explain.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-19

Activity Page: Non-Euclidean Elliptic Space

5. Locate three non-collinear points on your sphere. To form an elliptic

triangle through your three points, draw the three great circles that
connect pairs of these points. Measure each angle of your elliptic
triangle. What is the sum of the measures of the three angles? Can you
find a triangle whose three angles add up to 270º? Can you find a
triangle whose three angles add up to 360º? Can you find a triangle
whose three angles add up to more than 360º?

6. Can you find similar triangles on your sphere that are not congruent?
Explain.

7. Restate the theorem “The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle
is 180º” so that it applies to elliptic space.

8. Is there a relationship between the size of a triangle on your sphere and

the sum of the measures of its angles? Explain.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-20

Activity Page: Non-Euclidean Elliptic Space

9. Restate Euclid’s first five postulates so that they apply to the sphere.

10. Compare the Gaussian curvature of an elliptic surface to the sum of the
angles of a triangle on its surface.

11. Describe the Gaussian curvature of an elliptic surface. Does Euclid’s

parallel postulate hold for that surface?

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-21

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Hyperbolic Space

Euclid’s First Five Postulates in Hyperbolic Space

Overview: In this activity, participants explore Euclid’s first five postulates in
hyperbolic space.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.012.G. The beginning teacher compares and contrasts the axioms of
Euclidean geometry with those of non-Euclidean geometry (i.e.,
hyperbolic and elliptic geometry).
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluation the validity of
conjectures.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.1.C. The student compares and contrasts the structures and
implications of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries.
b.3.C. The student demonstrates what it means to prove
mathematically that statements are true.
b.3.D. The students uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.

Background: Participants should have prior knowledge of Euclid’s first five

postulates in Euclidean space.

Materials: compass, straightedge, colored pencils, computers with Internet

access, NonEuclid at
http://cs.unm.edu/~joel/NonEuclid/NonEuclid.html

New Terms: hyperbolic geometry or hyperbolic space, hyperbolic lines, Poincaré

disk

Procedures:

Have participants recall the negation of Euclid’s fifth postulate “Through a point not on a
line, there exists more than one line parallel to the line.”

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-22

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Hyperbolic Space

Hyperbolic geometry, which is also referred to as Lobachevskian geometry, was

independently discovered by Nicholas Lobachevsky, Janos Bolyai, and Carl Fredrich
Gauss. Lobachevsky was the first to publish his work on hyperbolic geometry (1829).

Hyperbolic geometry is a geometry on a curved surface that resembles a saddle, a bicycle

seat, a witch’s hat, ruffled lettuce, a hyperboloid of one sheet, a hyperbolic paraboloid, or
a pseudosphere. The illustrations below are examples of hyperbolic surfaces.

pseudosphere hyperbolic paraboloid hyperboloid of one sheet

Is there a mathematical model for hyperbolic space?

There are several models for hyperbolic space. We will consider the model that Henri
Poincaré (1854-1912) created, called the Poincaré disk. Poincaré represented points in
hyperbolic space as points in a circular disk. The circular boundary of this disk is not
included; the points on this circle are considered to be infinitely far away from points in
the disk.

As in elliptic geometry, the discussion of geodesics for hyperbolic space, in general, is

beyond the scope of this unit. As a result, we will restrict the discussion to Poincaré’s
disk, a hyperbolic surface of constant negative Gaussian curvature. We will refer to a line
in Poincaré's model as a hyperbolic line. There are two types of hyperbolic lines. The first
type is any diameter of the Poincaré disk. These hyperbolic lines pass through the center
of the Poincaré disk. The second type is determined by Euclidean circles that meet the
circular boundary of the Poincaré disk at right angles. The portion of such a circle inside
the Poincaré disk is a hyperbolic line. Notice that a hyperbolic line of the second type
cannot pass through the center of the Poincaré disk. Notice also that the endpoints of the
segment or arc that is a hyperbolic line lie on the circular boundary, and are therefore not
part of the hyperbolic line. Thus, we may consider hyperbolic lines as open at the two
endpoints.

The shortest distance between two points on Poincaré’s disk lies on a hyperbolic line.
Therefore the hyperbolic lines are the geodesics on Poincaré’s disk. This model of
hyperbolic space distorts distances. The illustration below shows four hyperbolic lines in
Poincaré’s model of hyperbolic space intersecting at point A. One of the hyperbolic lines
passes through the center of the circle and is straight. The other three do not pass through

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-23

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Hyperbolic Space

the center of the circle and are parts of Euclidean circles. All four, by definition, are
orthogonal to the boundary of the disk.

The endpoints of hyperbolic lines are not part of the hyperbolic lines but represent the
hyperbolic lines at infinity (remember that points on the circle are considered infinitely
far away). To measure angles formed by a pair of these hyperbolic lines, simply measure
the angles formed by the tangents to the hyperbolic lines at their points of intersection.
Distance in this model is more complicated. As lines in Euclidean space, hyperbolic lines
in Poincaré’s model of hyperbolic space have infinite length, because you compress
distance as you get closer to the boundary of the disk. Thus segments that look congruent
may have different lengths, depending to their proximity to the center of the circle.

To visualize how distance works in this model, look at Escher’s Circle Limit patterns.
Imagine that all the figures are congruent, but they appear to get smaller at the edge of the
disk, because they are far away.

Circle Limit IV, Escher from Symmetry, Shape, and Space © 2002 (p. 334) with
permission from Key Curriculum Press.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-24

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Hyperbolic Space

The following demonstration is taken from Discovering Geometry: An Inductive

Approach: 3rd Edition, Teacher’s Edition © 2003, pp. 719 with permission from Key
Curriculum Press.

You may want to demonstrate the following model of Poincaré’s disk. Take a
circle made of rubber with the edges stretched out or ruffled like the edges of a
lasagna noodle. Pull the opposite edges tight; draw a line with a straight-edge;
then release the edges. The line will appear curved (a hyperbolic line).

Have participants complete the activity sheet using NonEuclid, an interactive web site at
http://cs.unm.edu/~joel/NonEuclid/NonEuclid.html that allows participants to explore
hyperbolic geometry.

The following are adapted from Discovering Geometry: An Inductive Approach: 3rd
Edition, © 2003, pp. 718-720 with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

1. Is there more than one hyperbolic line passing through two points on Poincaré’s disk?
Explain.
No, there can only be one hyperbolic line that passes through two points.

Participants should note that an infinite number of hyperbolic lines can be drawn
through a single point.

2. Are hyperbolic lines infinite in length? Why or why not?

Hyperbolic lines are infinite in length since their endpoints lie on the circle and
points on the circle are considered infinitely far away.
Hyperbolic lines may look finite in length but their endpoints lie on the boundary of
Poincaré’s disk which is at infinity.

3. Can hyperbolic lines be parallel? Illustrate with a picture and explain.

Hyperbolic lines can be parallel, but they are never equidistant. In the illustration
below, the intersecting hyperbolic lines are parallel to the top two hyperbolic lines,
and the top two hyperbolic lines are also parallel to each other.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-25

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Hyperbolic Space

Have participants observe that if two hyperbolic lines intersect, they intersect in
exactly one point. Therefore, hyperbolic lines intersect in exactly one point or in no
points.

4. Draw two hyperbolic lines that are perpendicular to the same hyperbolic line. Are
they parallel?

m
Q
P
R

In the illustration above, the two hyperbolic lines passing through points R and P are
perpendicular to the hyperbolic line m. These two hyperbolic lines are parallel to each
other. Notice that they are not, however, equidistant. Also notice that hyperbolic lines
curve away from the center of the circle unless they pass through its center (straight
lines).

5. Draw four hyperbolic lines passing through the same point that are parallel to (not
intersecting) a fifth hyperbolic line.
In the illustration below, the four hyperbolic lines that pass through point P are
parallel to hyperbolic line m.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-26

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Hyperbolic Space

6. Locate three non-collinear points on Poincaré’s disk. To form a hyperbolic triangle,

draw the three hyperbolic lines that connect pairs of points. Measure each angle of
your triangle. What is the sum of the measures of the three angles of your triangle?
Can you find a triangle whose three angles add up to 180º? Can you find a triangle
whose three angles add up to more than 180º? Can you find a triangle whose three
angles add up to 0º?
Answers will vary as the sum of the measures of the angles of a hyperbolic triangle
depends upon the size of the triangle. Very small triangles (which appear Euclidean)
have the sum of their angles very close to 180º. The larger the triangle, the smaller
the sum of its angles. However, the sum is always less than 180º. The sum of the
measures of the angles of a triangle whose vertices lie on the boundary of the circle is
0º.

P
1
3
2 R
Q

7. Can you find similar triangles on Poincaré’s disk that are not congruent? Explain.
In hyperbolic space, similar triangles must be congruent.

8. Restate the theorem “The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180º” so
that it applies to hyperbolic space.
The sum of the measures of the angles of a hyperbolic triangle is always less than
180º.

9. Restate Euclid’s first five postulates so that they apply to Poincaré’s disk.

ƒ For any two distinct points, there is one hyperbolic line that contains them.

ƒ Any segment may be extended indefinitely along a hyperbolic line.

ƒ Given a point (center) and a distance (radius), a circle can be drawn.

[Unchanged from Euclidean space]

Have participants investigate what happens when the center of the circle is near the
edge of Poincaré’s disk. Ask them to measure several radii of such a circle to observe
that they are indeed congruent even though they do not appear to be. Remind

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-27

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Hyperbolic Space

participants that distance on Poincaré’s disk is distorted and that congruent lengths
may not appear to be congruent.

ƒ All right angles are congruent. [Unchanged from Euclidean space]

ƒ Through a point not on a hyperbolic line, there are an infinite number of

hyperbolic lines parallel to it. In the illustration below, the four hyperbolic lines
passing through point P are parallel to the hyperbolic line m.

10. Compare the Gaussian curvature of a hyperbolic surface to the sum of the angles of a
triangle on its surface.
A surface with negative Gaussian curvature is hyperbolic. The sum of the measures of
the angles of a triangle on its surface is less than 180º.

11. Describe the Gaussian curvature of a hyperbolic surface. Does Euclid’s parallel
postulate hold for its surface?
A surface with a negative Gaussian curvature is hyperbolic. The sum of the measures
of the angles of a triangle on its surface is less than 180º. The parallel postulate does
not hold on that surface. For example, on Poincaré’s disk, through a point not on a
hyperbolic line, there are an infinite number of hyperbolic lines parallel to it.

Remind participants to add the terms hyperbolic geometry, Poincaré disk and hyperbolic
lines to their glossaries.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-28

Activity Page: Non-Euclidean Hyperbolic Space

Euclid’s First Five Postulates in Hyperbolic Space

The illustration below shows several hyperbolic lines on Poincaré’s disk, a

model of hyperbolic space. The shortest distance between two points on
Poincaré’s disk lies on a hyperbolic line. A hyperbolic line is the set of
points on the hyperbolic surface that meets the perimeter of the surface at
right angles at each endpoint.

To visualize how distance works in this model, look at Escher’s Circle Limit
patterns. Imagine that all the figures are congruent, but they appear to get
smaller at the edge of the disk because they are far away. Points on the circle
are infinitely far away.

Circle Limit IV, Escher from Symmetry, Shape, and Space © 2002 (p. 334)
with permission from Key Curriculum Press.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-29

Activity Page: Non-Euclidean Hyperbolic Space

Complete 1-11 using NonEuclid, an interactive web site at

http://cs.unm.edu/~joel/NonEuclid/NonEuclid.html. Draw sketches to
support your answers when appropriate.

1. Is there more than one hyperbolic line passing through two points on
Poincaré’s disk? Explain.

2. Are hyperbolic lines infinite in length? Why or why not?

3. Can hyperbolic lines be parallel? Illustrate with a picture and explain.

4. Draw two hyperbolic lines that are perpendicular to the same hyperbolic
line. Are they parallel?

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-30

Activity Page: Non-Euclidean Hyperbolic Space

5. Draw four hyperbolic lines passing through the same point that are
parallel to (not intersecting) a fifth hyperbolic line.

6. Locate three non-collinear points on Poincaré’s disk. To form a

hyperbolic triangle, draw the three hyperbolic lines that connect pairs of
points. Measure each angle of your triangle. What is the sum of the
measures of the three angles of your triangle? Can you find a triangle
whose three angles add up to 180º? Can you find a triangle whose three
angles add up to more than 180º? Can you find a triangle whose three
angles add up to 0º?

7. Can you find similar triangles on Poincaré’s disk that are not congruent?
Explain.

8. Restate the theorem “The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle
is 180º” so that it applies to hyperbolic space.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-31

Activity Page: Non-Euclidean Hyperbolic Space

9. Restate Euclid’s first five postulates so that they apply to Poincaré’s disk.

10. Compare the Gaussian curvature of a hyperbolic surface to the sum of the
angles of a triangle on its surface.

11. Describe the Gaussian curvature of a hyperbolic surface. Does Euclid’s

parallel postulate hold for its surface?

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-32

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Visualizing Different Geometries

Visualizing Three Different Geometries

Overview: In this activity, participants construct models of elliptic and hyperbolic
surfaces in order to compare them to the Euclidean plane.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.A. The beginning teacher understands axiomatic systems and
their components (e.g., undefined terms, defined terms, theorems,
examples, counterexamples).
III.012.G. The beginning teacher compares and contrasts the axioms of
Euclidean geometry with those of non-Euclidean geometry (i.e.,
hyperbolic and elliptic geometry).
V.018.C. The beginning teacher uses inductive reasoning to make
conjectures and uses deductive methods to evaluation the validity of
conjectures.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to
justify mathematical ideas.
V.019.F. The beginning teacher uses appropriate mathematical
terminology to express mathematical ideas.

Geometry TEKS
b.1.A. The student develops an awareness of the structure of a
mathematical system, connecting definitions, postulates, logical
reasoning, and theorems.
b.1.B. Through the historical development of geometric systems, the
student recognizes that mathematics is developed for a variety of
purposes.
b.1.C. The student compares and contrasts the structures and
implications of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries.

Background: Participants should have prior experience tiling the plane with
equilateral triangles.

Materials: equilateral triangle paper with side length of at least one inch (several
sheets per participant—provided in the Appendix), scissors, tape

New Terms:

Procedures:

Have participants work in pairs to construct the models of elliptic and hyperbolic space.
By constructing these models, participants will gain new insights about Euclidean,
elliptic, and hyperbolic surfaces. They will observe that their models of elliptic and
hyperbolic space cannot tile the plane.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-33

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Visualizing Different Geometries

Each pair of participants should have several sheets of equilateral triangle paper, scissors,
and tape. For the two constructions, you may copy the equilateral triangle paper which
can be found in the Appendix.

Ask the group the question “How many equilateral triangles meet at a common vertex
in the equilateral triangle paper?”
Participants should respond that six equilateral triangles meet at a common vertex. For
Euclidean space, six equilateral triangles meet together at a common point without gaps
or without overlapping. Participants should note that each angle of an equilateral triangle
has a measure of 60º, and six angles meet to form a complete revolution of 360° on a flat
surface. This surface has zero Gaussian curvature.

Ask the group the questions “What do you think will happen if you reduce or increase
the number of equilateral triangles that meet at a common vertex?” and “What type
of surface will you have?”
Let participants offer their ideas. The two constructions on the activity sheet will answer
these two questions.

Have pairs of participants construct the two models described on the activity sheet.
Carefully monitor participants, making sure that the first model they build has exactly
five equilateral triangles meeting at each vertex and that their second model has exactly
seven equilateral triangles meeting at each vertex. Participants may wish to cut out
hexagons, half-hexagons, or individual equilateral triangles from the equilateral triangle
paper to make their models. One participant should hold the triangles together as the
other participant tapes the triangles together to make the models.

1. Fit and tape five equilateral triangles together so that they meet at a common vertex.
To do this, use the equilateral triangle paper provided. One way to do this is to cut out
a hexagon from the triangle paper. Remove one of the equilateral triangles. Tape the
remaining five equilateral triangles back together so that you have all five triangles
meeting at the common vertex with no gap where the sixth triangle was removed. This
will result in a three-dimensional figure. Continue the process of fitting and taping
exactly five equilateral triangles out from the original vertex until you cannot add
more triangles to your model. Make sure only five equilateral triangles meet at each
vertex. Alternately, you may also choose to cut out and tape individual equilateral
triangles so that five triangles fit together at a common vertex. Describe the surface
that you get.
You do not get a flat surface. You get an icosahedron since only twenty equilateral
triangles can fit together using this construction process. This construction produces a
surface with positive Gaussian curvature.

For this model of elliptic space, participants taped together five equilateral triangles
coming together at each vertex rather than the six that came together at a common
vertex in the equilateral triangle paper. Equilateral triangle paper can be used to
represent Euclidean space since it is flat. The surface that participants constructed here
was not flat. It also could not be extended indefinitely from the original vertex. Five

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-34

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Visualizing Different Geometries

equilateral triangles meeting at a common vertex leave a gap; therefore this

construction cannot tile the plane. There is a deficit in angle measure when the five 60º
angles come together at a common vertex. A flat surface is not created. The name for
elliptic geometry as well as the name for the ellipse comes from the Greek word that
means deficient.

For an alternate model of elliptic geometry, you may choose to carefully peel the rind
from an orange or tangerine to observe that the rind, when flattened, leaves gaps. Since
there are gaps between the pieces of the rind, the rind cannot tile the plane.

2. Fit and tape seven equilateral triangles so that they meet at a common vertex. To do
this, use the equilateral triangle paper provided. One way to do this is to cut out a
hexagon from the triangle paper. Cut a side of one of the equilateral triangles from the
center out, then insert and tape another equilateral triangle so that seven equilateral
triangles are taped together at the vertex. Continue the process of fitting and taping
exactly seven equilateral triangles together out from the original vertex for at least six
more vertices. Make sure that seven equilateral triangles meet at each vertex and that
at each edge only two triangles meet. Alternately you may cut out and tape individual
equilateral triangles together so that seven triangles fit together at a common vertex.
Describe the surface that you get.
You do not get a flat surface, but it is different from the first construction, as this one
is “floppy” instead of “bulging out.” This construction produces a surface with
negative Gaussian curvature.

For this model of hyperbolic space, participants taped together seven equilateral
triangles at each vertex. The surface that is constructed is not flat, but it does not
resemble the first construction, as this one is floppy and can be extended out infinitely
from the original vertex. Seven equilateral triangles meeting at a common vertex are
too many to exactly tile the plane. There is an excess in angle measure coming
together at a common vertex to create a flat surface. The name for hyperbolic
geometry as well as the name for the hyperbola comes from the Greek word that
means excessive.

Participants may work together with other groups to make as large a model of
hyperbolic space as time permits.

3. Explain why the two models that you constructed are different and how they compare
to the Euclidean plane.
It takes six equilateral triangles meeting at a vertex to form a flat surface. The sum of
the measures of the six angles is 360º, which is a complete revolution in Euclidean
space.

Having too few triangles meeting at a common point (as in the first construction)
leaves a gap causing the surface to bulge out. The sum of the measures of the five
angles at each vertex is 300º, which is not enough to form a complete revolution in
Euclidean space. This surface has positive Gaussian curvature.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-35

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Non-Euclidean Visualizing Different Geometries

Having too many triangles meeting at a point (as in the second construction) causes
an excess of surface area, causing the surface to ruffle and be floppy. The sum of the
measures of the seven angles at each vertex is 420º, which is too much to form a
complete revolution in Euclidean space. This surface with has negative Gaussian
curvature.

Neither of the two models constructed tiles the plane. The elliptic surface comes apart
and leaves gaps when flattened, whereas the hyperbolic surface when flattened
overlaps onto itself.

Moreover, the elliptic model has a finite surface area, whereas the hyperbolic model
continues infinitely.

The two constructions give participants a concrete look at elliptic and hyperbolic
surfaces.

If time permits, engage participants in a discussion based on the following questions:

ƒ What is the geometry of our universe?

ƒ Why did early explorers think the earth was flat?

ƒ Why might space travelers to the moon think the earth is elliptic?

ƒ Could our universe be hyperbolic?

It's all about a person’s vantage point in the universe!

For additional information for constructing models of hyperbolic space, you may want to
refer to Professor Diane Hoffoss’ web site (formerly of the Rice University Mathematics
Department) at http://home.sandiego.edu/~dhoffoss/rusmp/.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-36

Activity Page: Non-Euclidean Visualizing Different Geometries

Visualizing Three Different Geometries

1. Fit and tape five equilateral triangles together so that they meet at a
common vertex. To do this, use the equilateral triangle paper provided.
One way to do this is to cut out a hexagon from the triangle paper.
Remove one of the equilateral triangles. Tape the remaining five
equilateral triangles back together so that you have all five triangles
meeting at the common vertex with no gap where the sixth triangle was
removed. This will result in a three-dimensional figure. Continue the
process of fitting and taping exactly five equilateral triangles out from the
original vertex until you cannot add more triangles to your model. Make
sure only five equilateral triangles meet at each vertex. Alternately, you
may also choose to cut out and tape individual equilateral triangles so that
five triangles fit together at a common vertex. Describe the surface that
you get.

2. Fit and tape seven equilateral triangles so that they meet at a common
vertex. To do this, use the equilateral triangle paper provided. One way to
do this is to cut out a hexagon from the triangle paper. Cut a side of one of
the equilateral triangles from the center out, then insert and tape another
equilateral triangle so that seven equilateral triangles are taped together at
the vertex. Continue the process of fitting and taping exactly seven
equilateral triangles together out from the original vertex for at least six
more vertices. Make sure that seven equilateral triangles meet at each
vertex and that at each edge only two triangles meet. Alternately you may
cut out and tape individual equilateral triangles together so that seven
triangles fit together at a common vertex. Describe the surface that you
get.

3. Explain why the two models that you constructed are different and how
they compare to the Euclidean plane.

Geometry Module DRAFT 9-37

Supplemental Material: Non-Euclidean References and Additional Resources

References and Additional Resources

Barager, A. (2001). A survey of classical and modern geometries with computer

activities. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Burger, E. B. (2000). The heart of mathematics: An invitation to effective thinking.

Emeryville, CA: Key College Publishing.

Castellanos, J. (2002). Non-Euclid: Interactive constructions in hyperbolic geometry.

Retrieved February 25, 2004, from University of New Mexico Department of

Computer Science: http://cs.unm.edu/~joel/NonEuclid/

Dwyer, M. C., & Pfeiffer, R. E. (1999). Exploring hyperbolic geometry with The

Geometer’s Sketchpad. Mathematics Teacher, 92(7), 632-637.

Greenberg, M. J. (1993). Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries: Development and

history. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

Henderson, D. (1999, July 27). Hyperbolic planes. In Exploring geometry in two- and

three-dimensional spaces (chap. 5). Retrieved February 25, 2004, from Cornell

University Department of Mathematics:

http://www.math.cornell.edu/~dwh/books/eg99/Ch05/Ch05.html

Henle, M. (2001). Modern geometries: Non-Euclidean, projective, and discrete (2nd ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hoffoss, D. (2001). RUSMP Spring Workshop: The shape of space resource list.

Retrieved February 25, 2004, from University of San Diego:

http://home.sandiego.edu/~dhoffoss/rusmp/

Jacobs, H. R. (2003). Geometry: Seeing, doing, understanding (3rd ed.). New York: W.

H. Freeman and Company.

Kinsey, L. C., & Moore, T. (2002). Symmetry, shape and space: An introduction to

mathematics through geometry. Emeryville, CA: Key College Publishing.

Geometry Unit DRAFT 9-38

Supplemental Material: Non-Euclidean References and Additional Resources

Lénárt, I., & Albrecht, M. (1996). Getting started with the Lénárt sphere: Construction

materials for another world of geometry. Emeryville, CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Polking, J. (n.d.). The geometry of the sphere. Retrieved February 25, 2004, from Rice

University Department of Mathematics: http://math.rice.edu/~pcmi/sphere/

Runion, G. E., & Lockwood, J. R. (1995). Deductive systems: Finite and non-Euclidean

geometries. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Serra, M. (1997). Discovering geometry: An inductive approach (2nd ed.). Emeryville,

CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Serra, M. (2003). Discovering geometry: An investigative approach (3rd ed.). Emeryville,

CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Thurston, W. P. (1997). Three-dimensional geometry and topology: Volume 1. Princeton,

NJ: Princeton University Press.

Usiskin, Z., Peressini, A., Marchisotto, E. A., & Stanley, D. (2003). Mathematics for high

school teachers: An advanced perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Weeks, J. R. (1985). The shape of space: How to visualize surfaces and three-

dimensional manifolds. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Weeks, J. R. (2001). Exploring the shape of space. Emeryville, CA: Key Curriculum

Press.

Geometry Unit DRAFT 9-39

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 1

Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad
Overview: In this unit, participants become familiar with the menus and tools of The
Geometer’s Sketchpad (Sketchpad) dynamic geometry program through
exploration and construction.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric constructions
made using compass and straightedge, reflection devices, and other appropriate
technologies.
VI.020.D. The beginning teacher understands how learning may be enhanced
through the use of manipulatives, technology, and other tools.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of geometric figures
and to make conjectures about geometric relationships.

Materials: The Geometer’s Sketchpad program, sample sketch: Unit 1-Sample Sketch

Procedures:

It is important that the presenter guide the participants through the first few Sketchpad training
units. Remember to keep the pace of the activity slow, with the understanding that many of the
participants will be unfamiliar with the technology. Adjust the pace of the units as needed.
Extension activities are included in some units to allow for differentiation. Every participant
may not complete every unit. For an intensive tutorial on the use of Sketchpad see Region IV
ESC Geometer’s Sketchpad Tutorial at http://www.esc4.net/math/sketchpadtutorial. Macintosh
users need to use the menu commands in places where PC users use the right click shortcut. The
first unit will provide the presenter with an informal assessment of participants’ ability with the
technology.

Part A

The presenter guides participants through a tour of the menus and tools of Sketchpad.
Participants should have access to the Sketchpad program to participate in the tour with the
presenter.

Part B

The presenter guides the participants through the setup of a multi-page document. Participants
perform two very important constructions with the software, a line parallel to another line
through a point and a line perpendicular to a line through a point. Use the Unit 1-Sample Sketch
as a model for participants.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-1

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

Part C

The presenter guides participants through the creation of a happy face. The purpose of this
activity is to apply the tools of Sketchpad in a fun manner. Participants draw elementary
geometric figures which require a basic knowledge of the tools of Sketchpad. Use the Unit 1-
Sample Sketch as a model for participants.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-2

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

Part A

Menu bar

Tool bar

The File menu contains the

commands to open a new sketch,
open a file, save a sketch, document
options, and print options.

The Documents options command is

important when planning a new sketch.
Sketchpad version 4 allows a user to
create multiple page documents.

The Edit menu contains basic editing

commands as well as Action Buttons
command, which allows users to
enhance the interactivity of the
sketch.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-3

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

The Preferences command is

important when beginning a
sketch. It allows users to control
the units, color, and text settings of
a sketch.

The Display menu contains commands for

controlling the look of a sketch. A user can
control the width of a line, the color of an
object, hide or show objects, trace objects,
and hide and show the text editing toolbar.

The Construct menu contains

commands for constructing
geometric objects.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-4

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

The Transform menu contains

commands for transforming
geometric objects.

The Measure menu contains

commands for measuring
geometric objects and the
calculate command for
performing calculations.

The Graph menu

contains commands
for setting the type
of grid, plotting
points and functions,
defining parameters,
creating tables, and
working with
functions.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-5

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

The Window menu contains commands

that allow the user to control the
appearance of the windows. The Help
menu provides access to Sketchpad’s
extensive help menu. Users will find the
Help menu extremely valuable.

Use the Selection Arrow tool to select objects, rotate objects, and
translate objects. To change the Selection Arrow tool, click and hold
on the arrow, then select the desired tool. The most commonly used
tool is the arrow, or Selection Arrow. Remember to click on the
Selection Arrow tool whenever you finish drawing an object. Pressing
the ESC key is a shortcut to picking up the Selection Arrow tool.

Draw a few points and then press the ESC

key to select the arrow tool and deselect all
objects. Click on a few points to select them
and then select hide points from the display
menu. Select show all hidden from the
display menu. Finally select the points by
Use the Point tool to draw clicking and dragging the selection arrow to
points, and intersections. create a box around the points then press
delete to delete them (see figure below).
Use the Selection Arrow to select points

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-6

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

Use the Compass tool to draw circles.

Draw a circle and then press the ESC key to select the arrow
tool. Participants should click and drag the radius point to
manipulate the size of the circle. Determine how to move the
circle without changing the size of the circle.

Draw a few segments, rays and

lines and then press the ESC
key to select the arrow tool.
Click and drag various points
Use the Straightedge tool to to change the length and
draw segments, rays, and lines. direction of the segments and
Click and hold on the the direction of the rays and
Straightedge tool to select the lines.
Segment, Ray, or Line tool.

Use the Text tool to label objects or to create textboxes.

Label the endpoints of a segment you have drawn. Label

the segment itself. Double click a label and change the
label (see figure below).

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-7

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

The Custom tool allows users to

create tools specific to a sketch to
simplify tasks and activities.

Part B

ƒ Open The Geometer’s

Sketchpad.
ƒ From the File menu,
choose New Sketch.
ƒ From the File menu,
choose Document Options.
ƒ Name the first page
Parallel, then click Add
Page, choose Blank Page
and name that page
Perpendicular.
ƒ Click OK.

ƒ From the Edit menu

choose Preferences.
ƒ Make sure that the
settings are what you
want, then click OK.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-8

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

ƒ Click on the Parallel tab in

the lower left-hand section
of the window to select the
Parallel page.
ƒ Use the Straightedge tool to
draw a line (hold down Shift
while drawing to draw a
horizontal line).
ƒ Use the Point tool to draw a
point not on the line.
ƒ Press ESC.

ƒ Select the line and the point not on the

line.
ƒ From the Construct menu, choose
Parallel Line.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-9

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

ƒ Click on the Perpendicular tab

at the lower left hand section
of the window to select the
Perpendicular page.

ƒ Use the Straightedge tool to

draw a line (hold down Shift
while drawing to draw a
horizontal line).
ƒ Use the Point tool to draw a
point not on the line.
ƒ Press ESC.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-10

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

ƒ Select the line and the point not

on the line.
ƒ From the Construct menu,
choose Perpendicular Line.

Part C

ƒ From the File menu, choose

Document Options.
ƒ Click Add Page, choose
Blank Page, then name the
new page Happy Face.
ƒ Click OK.

ƒ Draw a circle.
ƒ Draw a vertical line through the center.
ƒ Draw a triangle for the right eye using the
Segment tool to construct three segments.
ƒ Press ESC to deselect all objects.
ƒ Select the three vertices of the triangles.
ƒ From the Construct menu, choose Triangle
Interior.
ƒ Press ESC.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-11

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

ƒ Double click the vertical line.

ƒ Select all vertices, edges, and
the interior of the triangle.
ƒ From the Transform menu,
choose Reflect.
ƒ Press ESC.

ƒ Draw a small circle centered at the original

circle center.
ƒ Select the circle.
ƒ From the Construct menu, choose Circle
Interior.
ƒ Press ESC.
ƒ Right click on the circle interior and
choose Color (or choose Color from the
Display menu) to change the color.

ƒ Draw two overlapping circles as

shown in the figure at left.
ƒ Select both circles.
ƒ From the Construct menu, choose
Intersections.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-12

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Meet Geometer’s Sketchpad

ƒ Select the points of intersection in

a counter-clockwise order and
then select one of the circles.
ƒ From the Construct menu, choose
Arc on Circle.
ƒ Repeat the previous steps with the
other circle.

ƒ Select the line and the two circles used to form

the mouth.
ƒ From the Display menu, choose Hide Path
Objects.
ƒ Select the Point tool.
ƒ From the Edit menu, choose Select All Points.
ƒ From the Display menu, choose Hide Points.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-13

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Transformations

The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 2

Transformations
Overview: In this unit, participants learn various techniques for performing transformations and
creating interactive sketches to explore the properties of transformations.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.E The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric constructions made
using compass and straightedge, reflection devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.012.F. The beginning teacher demonstrates an understanding of the use of appropriate
software to explore attributes of geometric figures and to make and evaluate conjectures
about geometric relationships.
III.014.A. The beginning teacher identifies transformations (i.e., reflections, translations,
glide-reflections, rotations, dilations) and explores their properties.
V.019.E. The beginning teacher understands the use of visual media, such as graphs,
tables, diagrams, and animations, to communicate mathematical information.
VI.020.D. The beginning teacher understands how learning may be enhanced through the
use of manipulatives, technology, and other tools.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of geometric figures and to
make conjectures about geometric relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines, polygons, circles,
and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a variety of approaches such as coordinate,
transformational, or axiomatic.
b.3.D. The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.
e.2.A. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student formulates and tests
conjectures about the properties of parallel and perpendicular lines.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make conjectures and justify
properties of geometric figures.
f.1. The student uses similarity properties and transformations to explore and justify
conjectures about geometric figures.

Materials: The Geometer’s Sketchpad program, sample sketches: Unit 2-Sample Sketch 1, Unit 2-
Sample Sketch 2, and Unit 2-Sample Sketch 3

Procedures:

When directions require participants to select an object in The Geometer’s Sketchpad (for example, to
select ∆ABC ), the participant should select all vertices, sides, and, if appropriate, the interior of the
triangle.

Journal prompts are included for participants to record observations and explanations for many of the
investigations.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-14

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Transformations

Part A

The presenter guides participants through various methods of performing transformations in The
Geometer’s Sketchpad. These methods increase the interactivity of the sketch and allow students to use
inductive reasoning to formulate conjectures. Participants work through the Unit 2-Sample Sketch 1
beginning with the introduction page and move through the pages in order.

Part B

Participants use their knowledge of translations and The Geometer’s Sketchpad to create an interactive
sketch that will allow their students to formulate conjectures about the properties of translations. Use
the Unit 2-Sample Sketch 2 to model a sample final product for participants.

Part C

Participants investigate the Unit 2-Sample Sketch 3 and respond to the journal prompts.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-15

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Transformations

Part A

Work through the pages in the Unit 2-Sample Sketch 1 beginning with the introduction page and move
through the pages in order.

Part B

Create a sketch that students can use to investigate the properties of a translation.

ƒ Start The Geometer’s

Sketchpad.
ƒ Open a new sketch.
ƒ From the Graph menu,
choose Show Grid.
ƒ From the Graph menu,
choose Snap Points.

ƒ Draw a polygon in the first

quadrant.
ƒ Label the vertices of the
polygon.
ƒ Select the vertices of the
polygon.
ƒ From the Construct menu,
choose polygon Interior.
ƒ Measure the coordinates of the
vertices of the polygon.
ƒ Measure the side lengths of the
polygon by selecting the
endpoints then from the
Measure menu choose
Distance.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-16

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Transformations

ƒ Draw a translation vector GH .

ƒ Select G then H.
ƒ From the Transform menu, choose Mark
Vector.
ƒ Select the polygon.
ƒ From the Transform menu, choose Translate.
Click on the Marked Vector button.
ƒ Click Translate.
ƒ Measure the coordinates, side lengths and area
of the image. (To measure the area, click on the
polygon interior then choose Area from the
Measure menu.)
ƒ Click ESC.
ƒ Measure the area of the pre-image.
ƒ Use the Segment tool to draw the segments
connecting corresponding vertices of the pre-
image and image.

Journal Entry
Record your observations and explanations for the following:
ƒ Drag the vertices of the pre-image or image.
ƒ Drag H, the endpoint of the translation vector.

Part C

Investigation of the angles formed when parallel lines are cut by a transversal.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-17

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Transformations

Journal Entry
Record your observations and explanations for the following:
ƒ Click the Translate button.
ƒ Drag A, B, C, D

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-18

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Triangles and Quadrilaterals

The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 3

Triangles and Quadrilaterals
Overview: In this unit, participants construct points of concurrency for triangles and create
interactive sketches to explore the properties of points of concurrency and quadrilaterals.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.011.A. The beginning teacher applies dimensional analysis to derive units and
formulas in a variety of situations (e.g., rates of change of one variable with respect to
another) and to find and evaluate solutions to problems.
III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric constructions made
using compass and straightedge, reflection devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.012.F. The beginning teacher demonstrates an understanding of the use of appropriate
software to explore attributes of geometric figures and to make and evaluate conjectures
about geometric relationships.
III.013.A. The beginning teacher analyzes the properties of polygons and their
components.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and properties (e.g., similarity,
congruence) to make generalizations about two- and three-dimensional figures and
shapes (e.g., relationships of sides, angles).
III.014.C. The beginning teacher uses transformations to explore and describe
reflectional, rotational, and translational symmetry.
III.014.E. The beginning teacher applies concepts and properties of slope, midpoint,
parallelism, perpendicularity, and distance to explore properties of geometric figures and
solve problems in the coordinate plane.
V.018.D. The beginning teacher uses formal and informal reasoning to justify
mathematical ideas.
V.019.E. The beginning teacher understands the use of visual media, such as graphs,
tables, diagrams, and animations, to communicate mathematical information.
VI.020.D. The beginning teacher understands how learning may be enhanced through the
use of manipulatives, technology, and other tools.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of geometric figures and to
make conjectures about geometric relationships.
b.2.B. The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines, polygons, circles,
and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a variety of approaches such as coordinate,
transformational, or axiomatic.
b.3.B. The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric figures and their
properties.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make generalizations about
geometric properties, including properties to polygons, ratios in similar figures and
solids, and angle relationships in polygons and circles.
d.2.C. The student develops and uses formulas including distance and midpoint.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student formulates and tests
conjectures about the properties and attributes of polygons and their component parts.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-19

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Triangles and Quadrilaterals

e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make conjectures and justify
properties of geometric figures.
f.1. The student uses similarity properties and transformations to explore and justify
conjectures about geometric figures.

Materials: The Geometer’s Sketchpad program, sample sketches: Unit 3-Sample Sketch 1, Unit 3-
Sample Sketch 2

Procedures:

Journal entry prompts are included at the end of Part A and Part B. Participants may wish to complete
journal entries as they progress through each investigation.

Part A

Participants use their knowledge of The Geometer’s Sketchpad to create a multi-page sketch that allow
their students to formulate conjectures about points of concurrency in triangles. Participants should be
able to apply their knowledge gained in previous The Geometer’s Sketchpad training activities and
require less guidance in the creation of this sketch. Use the Unit 3-Sample Sketch 1 to model a sample
final product for participants.

Part B

Participants use their knowledge of The Geometer’s Sketchpad to create a multi-page sketch that allow
their students to formulate conjectures about properties of quadrilaterals. Participants should be able to
apply their knowledge gained in previous The Geometer’s Sketchpad training activities and require less
guidance in the creation of this sketch. Use the Unit 3-Sample Sketch 2 to model a sample final product
for participants.

Part C

Use the quadrilateral that you selected in the Unit 4 – Informal Logic/Deductive Reasoning, Alternate
Definitions activity. Use two of the properties to construct the quadrilateral with The Geometer’s
Sketchpad. Drag any one of the figure’s vertices and it should remain that figure, i.e. a rectangle
remains a rectangle. The figure chosen for the sample construction is a rectangle.
The two properties chosen are that opposite sides of a rectangle are parallel and consecutive sides of a
rectangle are perpendicular.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-20

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Triangles and Quadrilaterals

ƒ Draw a segment AB .
ƒ Construct a line parallel to AB through C not on the
segment.
ƒ Construct lines perpendicular to AB through the
endpoints of AB .
ƒ Construct intersections D and E.
ƒ Draw AD , DE , and EB . Hide AD , BE , DE and C.
ƒ Drag vertices A, B, D, or E to show that ABDE remains a
rectangle.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-21

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Triangles and Quadrilaterals

Part A

Create a multi-page sketch that allows students to formulate conjectures about points of concurrency in
triangles. Apply your knowledge gained in previous Sketchpad training activities to create this sketch.
Use the Unit 3-Sample Sketch 1 as a guide.

ƒ Start Sketchpad.
ƒ Open a new sketch.
ƒ Use the Document Options command to
create a six page document with page titles
Introduction, Incenter, Circumcenter,
Orthocenter, Centroid, and Euler Line.
ƒ Click on the Introduction tab.
ƒ Create a set of instructions for the activity
(these can be modified later).

ƒ Click on the Incenter tab.

ƒ Draw a triangle.
ƒ Construct the angle bisectors of each angle of
the triangle.
ƒ Use the Arrow tool to click on the intersection
of the angle bisectors to construct a point of
intersection called the incenter.
ƒ Label the vertices of the triangle and the
incenter.
ƒ Construct a perpendicular line to a side
through the incenter.
ƒ Construct the point of intersection of the side
and the perpendicular line.
ƒ Draw a segment from the incenter to the point
of intersection just created.
ƒ Hide the perpendicular line.
ƒ Label the segment just drawn radius.
ƒ Construct the inscribed circle, using the
incenter as the center and the segment labeled
radius as the radius.
ƒ Measure the distances from the incenter to the
sides of the triangle.
ƒ Write instructions.
ƒ Create Hide/Show action buttons for the angle
bisectors, the inscribed circle, and the
measurements.
ƒ Create a link action button that will link back
to the introduction page.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-22

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Triangles and Quadrilaterals

ƒ Click on the Circumcenter tab.

ƒ Draw a triangle.
ƒ Construct the midpoints of the sides of the
triangle.
ƒ Construct the perpendicular bisector to each
side of the triangle.
ƒ Use the Arrow tool to click on the intersection
of the perpendicular bisectors to construct a
point of intersection called the circumcenter.
ƒ Label the vertices of the triangle and the
circumcenter.
ƒ Draw a segment from the circumcenter to a
vertex.
ƒ Label the segment just drawn radius.
ƒ Construct the circumscribed circle, using the
circumcenter as the center and the segment
labeled radius as the radius.
ƒ Measure the distances from the circumcenter
to the vertices of the triangle.
ƒ Write instructions.
ƒ Create Hide/Show action buttons for the
perpendicular bisectors, the circumscribed
circle, and the measurements.

ƒ Click on the Orthocenter tab.

ƒ Draw a triangle.
ƒ Construct the altitude to each side of the
triangle.
ƒ Use the Arrow tool to click on the intersection
of the altitudes to construct a point of
intersection called the orthocenter.
ƒ Label the vertices of the triangle and the
orthocenter.
ƒ Draw the segments from the orthocenter to
each vertex of the triangle creating three small
triangles.
ƒ Construct the altitude to each side of each of
the small triangles formed.
ƒ Write instructions.
ƒ Create Hide/Show action buttons for both sets
of altitudes and the segments connecting the
orthocenter to the vertices of the triangle.
ƒ Create a link action button that will link back
to the introduction page.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-23

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Triangles and Quadrilaterals

ƒ Click on the Centroid tab.

ƒ Draw a triangle.
ƒ Construct the medians to each side of the
triangle.
ƒ Use the Arrow tool to click on the
intersection of the medians to construct a
point of intersection called the centroid.
ƒ Label the vertices of the triangle and the
centroid.
ƒ Hide the medians.
ƒ Draw segments from the centroid to the
midpoints of the sides of the triangle.
ƒ Draw segments from the centroid to each
vertex of the triangle.
ƒ Construct the interiors of the six small
triangles formed by the medians of the
triangle.
ƒ Measure the areas of these triangles.
ƒ Calculate the ratio of the lengths of the
segments formed by the centroid on the
median (length of long segment to length of
short segment).
ƒ Write instructions.
ƒ Create Hide/Show action buttons for the
medians and the measurements.

ƒ Click on the Euler Line tab.

ƒ Draw and label a triangle.
ƒ Construct the incenter, the circumcenter, the
orthocenter, and the centroid of the triangle
and label them.
ƒ Hide all construction lines and points except
for the triangle and points of concurrency.
ƒ Construct the Euler Line by constructing a
line through the orthocenter and the
circumcenter and label it.
ƒ Calculate the ratio of the distance from the
orthocenter to the centroid to the distance
from the centroid to the circumcenter.
ƒ Measure the lengths of the sides of the
triangle and measure its angles.
ƒ Write instructions.
ƒ Create Hide/Show action buttons for the
points of concurrency, the Euler Line, and
the measurements.
ƒ Create a link action button that will link
back to the introduction page.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-24

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Triangles and Quadrilaterals

Journal Entry
Record your observations and explanations for the following:
Incenter
ƒ Drag the vertices of the triangle and investigate the location and properties of the incenter.
Circumcenter
ƒ Drag the vertices of the triangle and investigate the location and properties of the circumcenter.
Orthocenter
ƒ Drag the vertices of the triangle and investigate the location and properties of the orthocenter.
Centroid
ƒ Drag the vertices of the triangle and investigate the location and properties of the centroid.
ƒ Explain why the areas of the triangles formed by the medians are equal.
Euler Line
ƒ Is there a triangle where all of the points of concurrency are on the Euler Line?
ƒ Is there a triangle where the points of concurrency are in the same location?

Part B
Create a multi-page sketch that will allow students to formulate conjectures about points of concurrency
in triangles. Apply your knowledge gained in previous The Geometer’s Sketchpad training activities to
create this sketch. Use the Unit 3-Sample Sketch 2 as a guide.

ƒ Start The Geometer’s Sketchpad.

ƒ Open a new sketch.
ƒ Use the Document Options command to
create a five page document with page
titles; Instructions, Right Triangle
Reflections, Acute/Obtuse Triangle
Reflections, Rotate a Triangle, and
Truncate a Triangle Vertex.
ƒ Click on the Instructions tab.
ƒ Create a set of instructions for the
activity (these can be modified later).

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-25

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Triangles and Quadrilaterals

ƒ Click on the Right Triangle Reflections

tab.
ƒ Construct right ∆ABC with right angle
B.
ƒ Reflect A , AC and AB over the line
that contains BC .
ƒ Draw A′B and A′C .
ƒ Reflect C, BC , AC , and AC ' over the
line that contains A and A′ .
ƒ Draw AC ′ , BC ′ , and A′C ′ .
ƒ Create Hide/Show buttons to hide
∆A′BC , ∆AC ′A′ .
ƒ Name the buttons “Reflect triangle ABC
over the line containing B and C” and
“Reflect triangle ACA′ over the line
containing A and A′ ”.
ƒ Measure all segment lengths and all
angles of the quadrilateral.
ƒ Create Hide/Show action buttons for the
constructed triangles and the
measurements.

ƒ Click on the Acute/Obtuse Triangle

Reflections tab.
ƒ Construct ∆ABC .
ƒ Reflect A over the line that contains
BC .
ƒ Draw A′C and A′B .
ƒ Draw AA′ and label D the intersection
of the diagonals.
ƒ Create a Hide/Show button to hide
∆A′BC .
ƒ Name the button “Reflect triangle ABC
over the line containing B and C.”
ƒ Measure all segment lengths and all
angles of the quadrilateral.
ƒ Create Hide/Show action buttons for the
constructed triangles and the
measurements.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-26

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Triangles and Quadrilaterals

ƒ Click on the Rotate a Triangle tab.

ƒ Construct ∆ABC .
ƒ Construct midpoint D of AB .
ƒ Construct a Circle P and a line through the
center of the circle.
ƒ Construct the points of intersection, Q and
R of the line and the circle.
ƒ Construct point S on Circle P.
ƒ Select ∠QPS then from the Transform
menu choose Mark Angle.
ƒ Use the rotation by marked angle technique
discussed in Unit 2 to rotate ∆ABC by the
measure of ∠QPS .
ƒ Create a Move button to move the angle of
rotation to 180 .
− Select point S
− Select point R
− From the Edit menu Choose
Action button then Movement.
ƒ Name the button “Rotate triangle ABC 180
degrees about the midpoint of segment AB.”
ƒ Hide Circle P points Q and R and QR .
ƒ Create another Move button to move S back
to point Q. Name it “Reset.”
ƒ Draw C ′C .
ƒ Measure all segment lengths and all angles
of the quadrilateral.
ƒ Create Hide/Show action buttons for the
measurements.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-27

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Triangles and Quadrilaterals

ƒ Click on the Truncate a Triangle Vertex

tab.
ƒ Construct ∆ABC using line width as
dashed.
ƒ Construct D on AB .
ƒ Construct a line parallel to AC through D.
ƒ Construct E, the intersection of BC and the
parallel line.
ƒ Draw AD , DE , EC and AC .
ƒ Hide DE .
ƒ Create Hide/Show buttons for the triangle
and the trapezoid.
ƒ Measure all segment lengths and all angles
of the quadrilateral.
ƒ Calculate the ratios of the lengths of the
non-parallel sides of the trapezoid to their
corresponding lengths of the sides of the
triangle.
ƒ Calculate the ratios of the lengths of the
sides of the smaller triangle to the
corresponding lengths of the sides of the
larger triangle.
ƒ Click Show Triangle.
ƒ Select AB .
ƒ Construct midpoint M.
ƒ Select D then M.
ƒ Create a move button to move D to M.
ƒ Hide M.
ƒ Write instructions.
ƒ Create Hide/Show action buttons for the
measurements.

Part C

Use the quadrilateral that you selected in the Unit 4 – Informal Logic/Deductive Reasoning, Alternate
Definitions activity. Use two of the properties to construct the quadrilateral with Sketchpad. Drag a
vertex of one of the figures and it should remain that figure, i.e., a rectangle remains a rectangle.

Journal Entry
Record your observations and explanations for each of the quadrilateral investigations.
ƒ Drag the vertices of the quadrilateral to verify the properties of the quadrilaterals.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-28

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Area and Perimeter

The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 4

Area and Perimeter
Overview: In this unit, participants create interactive sketches to explore algebraic function
connections with perimeter and area.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.005.A. The beginning teacher understands when a relation is a function.
II.006.G. The beginning teacher models and solves problems involving linear and
quadratic equations and inequalities using a variety of methods, including technology.
III.011.B. The beginning teacher applies formulas for perimeter, area, surface area, and
volume of geometric figures and shapes (e.g., polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders,
cones, spheres) to solve problems.
III.011.C. The beginning teacher recognizes the effects on length, area, or volume when
the linear dimensions of plane figures or solids are changed.
III.012.F. The beginning teacher demonstrates an understanding of the use of appropriate
software to explore attributes of geometric figures and to make and evaluate conjectures
about geometric relationships.
V.019.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and uses multiple representations of a
mathematical concept (e.g., a point and its coordinates, the area of a circle as a quadratic
function of the radius, probability as the ratio of two areas, area of a plane region as a
definite integral).
V.019.E. The beginning teacher understands the use of visual media, such as graphs,
tables, diagrams, and animations, to communicate mathematical information.
VI.020.D. The beginning teacher understands how learning may be enhanced through the
use of manipulatives, technology, and other tools.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of geometric figures and to
make conjectures about geometric relationships.
e.1.A. The student finds area of regular polygons and composite figures.

Materials: The Geometer’s Sketchpad program, sample sketches: Unit 4-Sample Sketch 1

Procedures:

Participants use their knowledge of The Geometer’s Sketchpad to create a multi-page sketch that allows
their students to make algebraic connections using the geometric concepts of area and perimeter.
Participants should be able to apply their knowledge gained in previous The Geometer’s Sketchpad
training activities and require less guidance in the creation of this sketch. Use the Unit 4-Sample Sketch
1 to model a sample final product for participants.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-29

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Area and Perimeter

Create a multi-page sketch that will allow students to make algebraic connections using the geometric
concepts of area and perimeter. Apply your knowledge gained in previous The Geometer’s Sketchpad
training activities to create this sketch. Use the Unit 4-Sample Sketch 1 as a guide.

ƒ Start The Geometer’s Sketchpad.

ƒ Open a new sketch.
ƒ Use the Document Options
command to create a four page
document with page titles;
Introduction, Perimeter vs. length
of Long Side, Area vs. length of
Long Side, Area vs. Perimeter.
ƒ Create Link buttons for each page.
ƒ Create a set of instructions for the
activity (these can be modified
later).

ƒ Click on the Perimeter vs. Length of

Long Side tab.
To construct a rectangle with
length of short side 1
= :
length of long side 2
ƒ From the Graph menu choose Grid
Form, then select Rectangular.
ƒ Construct AD .
ƒ Construct midpoint M of AD .
ƒ Construct a line perpendicular to AD
through A and a line perpendicular to
AD through D.
ƒ Construct a circle centered at A with
radius AM.
ƒ Use the Arrow tool to construct the
intersection, B, of the circle and the
perpendicular line.
ƒ Construct a line parallel to AD through
B.
ƒ Construct the intersection, C, of the
parallel line and the perpendicular line
through D.
ƒ Draw segments AB , BC , and CD .

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-30

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Area and Perimeter

To animate the rectangle based on AD :

ƒ Draw AL beginning at A and
containing D longer than AD .
ƒ Select D and AL .
ƒ From the Edit menu, choose Merge
Point to Segment.
ƒ Select D.
ƒ From the Edit menu, choose Action
Button, then select Animation.
ƒ Make sure the message states: Point D
bidirectionally on segment at medium
speed.
ƒ Click OK.
ƒ Label the button “Change AD.”

To generate the plot of a function

Perimeter of rectangle ABCD vs. AD:
ƒ Hide all construction lines and
points except rectangle ABCD and
its vertices.
ƒ Construct rectangle interior ABCD.
ƒ Measure AD.
ƒ Select the rectangle interior and
measure the perimeter of ABCD.
ƒ Select the rectangle interior and
measure the area of ABCD.
ƒ Select the measurement for AD
then the measurement for the
Perimeter of ABCD.
ƒ From the Graph menu, choose Plot
As (x, y).
ƒ Label the plotted point (AD,
Perimeter ABCD).
ƒ From the Display menu, choose
Trace Plotted Point.
ƒ Drag the unit points on the x and y-
axes closer to origin to see more of
the coordinate system.
ƒ Add instructions.
ƒ Create a link button back to the
introduction page.
ƒ From the Edit menu, choose Select
All.
ƒ From the Edit menu, choose Copy.
ƒ Determine the function rule and
plot it.
Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-31
Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Area and Perimeter

ƒ Click on the Area vs. Length of Long

Side tab.
ƒ From the Edit menu, choose Paste.
ƒ Delete the point (AD, Perimeter
ABCD).
ƒ Select the measurement for IJ then the
measurement for the Area of IKLJ.
ƒ From the Graph menu, choose Plot As
(x, y).
ƒ Label the plotted point (IJ, Area
IKLJ).
ƒ From the Display menu, choose Trace
Plotted Point.
ƒ Modify the instructions to address this
sketch.
ƒ Create a link button back to the
introduction page.
ƒ From the Edit menu, choose Select
All.
ƒ From the Edit menu, choose Copy.
ƒ Determine the function rule and plot
it.

ƒ Click on the Area vs. Perimeter tab.

ƒ From the Edit menu, choose Paste.
ƒ Delete the point (IJ, Area IKLJ).
ƒ Select the measurement for
Perimeter MNOP then the
measurement for the Area MNOP.
ƒ From the Graph menu, choose Plot
As (x, y).
ƒ Label the plotted point (Perimeter
MNOP, Area MNOP).
ƒ From the Display menu, choose
Trace Plotted Point.
ƒ Modify the instructions to address
this sketch.
ƒ Create a link button back to the
introduction page.
ƒ Determine the function rule and plot
it.
Journal Entry
Record your observations and explanations for the area investigations.
ƒ Explain why the perimeter function is linear, and the area functions are quadratic in terms of the
geometry of the figures.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-32

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Pythagorean Theorem

The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 5

Pythagorean Theorem
Overview: In this unit, participants create interactive sketches to investigate the Pythagorean
Theorem and explore sketches that are included with The Geometer’s Sketchpad
program.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.006.G. The beginning teacher models and solves problems involving linear and
quadratic equations and inequalities using a variety of methods, including technology.
III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric constructions made
using compass and straightedge, reflection devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.012.F. The beginning teacher demonstrates an understanding of the use of appropriate
software to explore attributes of geometric figures and to make and evaluate conjectures
about geometric relationships.
III.014.C. The beginning teacher uses transformations to explore and describe
reflectional, rotational, and transformational symmetry.
VI.020.D. The beginning teacher understands how learning may be enhanced through the
use of manipulatives, technology, and other tools.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of geometric figures and to
make conjectures about geometric relationships.
b.3.A. The student determines if the converse of a conditional statement is true or false.
e.1.C. The student develops, extends, and uses the Pythagorean Theorem.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make conjectures and justify
properties of geometric figures.

Materials: The Geometer’s Sketchpad program, sample sketches: Unit 5 - Sample Sketch 1,
The Geometer’s Sketchpad sketch: Pythagoras.

Procedures:

Part A

Participants use their knowledge of The Geometer’s Sketchpad to create a sketch that allows their
students to investigate the Pythagorean Theorem and its converse. Participants should be able to apply
their knowledge gained in previous The Geometer’s Sketchpad training activities and require less
guidance in the creation of this sketch. Use the Unit 5-Sample Sketch 1 to model a sample final product
for participants.

Part B

Participants explore some of the sample sketches that come with the The Geometer’s Sketchpad
software.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-33

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Pythagorean Theorem

Apply your knowledge gained in previous The Geometer’s Sketchpad training activities to create this
sketch. Use the Unit 5-Sample Sketch 1 as a guide.

ƒ Start The Geometer’s Sketchpad.

ƒ Open a new sketch.
2. Select a and B. From ƒ From the Graph menu, choose
the Transform Menu, Show Grid.
choose Rotate, type ƒ From the Graph menu, choose Snap
90 for the measure Points.
and click Rotate. ƒ Draw right ∆ABC .
ƒ Use rotations to construct squares
from the side lengths of the squares:
− Double-click on C to mark C as
1. Double-click on C to mark the center of rotation.
C as the center of rotation. − Select a and B.
− From the Transform menu,
choose Rotate, type 90 for the
angle measure, and click Rotate.
Remember that positive angles are
counter-clockwise rotations.
ƒ Repeat this process until you have
constructed a square from each side
of the triangle.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-34

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Pythagorean Theorem

ƒ Construct the square interiors.

ƒ Measure ∠ACB .
ƒ Measure lengths a, b, c.
ƒ Calculate a 2 + b2 and c 2 .
ƒ Measure the areas of the three squares.
ƒ Calculate the sum of areas of the two smaller
squares.
ƒ Create instructions.
ƒ Hide grid.

Journal Entry
Record your observations and explanations for the Pythagorean Theorem investigation.
ƒ Explain what occurs when you drag B vertically or drag A horizontally to change the dimensions of
the right triangle.
ƒ Explain what occurs when you drag B horizontally to change the measure of ∠ABC .

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-35

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Pythagorean Theorem

Part B

Explore some of the sample sketches that come with The Geometer’s Sketchpad software.

ƒ Start The Geometer’s Sketchpad.

ƒ Click File - Open.
ƒ Select Local Disk (C:).
ƒ Double click the Program Files folder.
ƒ Double click the Sketchpad folder.
ƒ Double click the Samples folder.
ƒ Double click the Sketchpad folder.
ƒ Double click the Sketches folder.
ƒ Double click the Geometry folder.
ƒ Double click Pythagoras.gsp

Explore these sketches.

Journal Entry
Record your observations and explanations for the Pythagorean Theorem investigation.
ƒ Choose one of the sample Pythagoras sketches and explain how it proves the Pythagorean Theorem.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-36

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Polygons

The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 6

Polygons
Overview: In this unit, participants create activity pages for a The Geometer’s Sketchpad Sketch and
create a sketch that will allow students to investigate the sum of the exterior angles of a
polygon.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric constructions made
using compass and straightedge, reflection devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.012.F. The beginning teacher demonstrates an understanding of the use of appropriate
software to explore attributes of geometric figures and to make and evaluate conjectures
about geometric relationships.
III.013.C. The beginning teacher uses geometric patterns and properties (e.g., similarity,
congruence) to make generalizations about two- and three-dimensional figures and
shapes (e.g., relationships of sides, angles).
V.019.E. The beginning teacher understands the use of visual media, such as graphs,
tables, diagrams, and animations, to communicate mathematical information.
VI.020.D. The beginning teacher understands how learning may be enhanced through the
use of manipulatives, technology, and other tools.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of geometric figures and to
make conjectures about geometric relationships.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make generalizations about
geometric properties, including properties of polygons, ratios in similar figures and
solids, and angle relationships in polygons and circles.
e.2.B. Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student formulates and tests
conjectures about the properties and attributes of polygons and their component parts.

Materials: The Geometer’s Sketchpad program, sample sketches: Unit 6 - Sample Sketch 1, Unit 6 -
Sample Sketch 2.

Procedures:

Part A

Participants investigate Unit 6-Sample Sketch 1 and respond to the journal entry prompts at the end of
Part A.

Part B

Participants use their knowledge of Sketchpad to create a sketch that allows their students to investigate
the sum of the exterior angles of a regular polygon. Participants should be able to apply their knowledge
gained in previous Sketchpad training activities and require less guidance in the creation of this sketch.
Use the Unit 6-Sample Sketch 2 to model a sample final product for participants.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-37

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Polygons

Part A

Journal Entry
Record your observations and explanations for the Pythagorean Theorem investigation.
ƒ Describe what happens to the area of the inscribed polygon as the number of sides of the polygon
increase. Explain.
ƒ Investigate the angle measures, segment lengths, perimeters, and areas of the inscribed polygons as
the number of sides increases. Describe the relationships in any algebraic rules you develop.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-38

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Polygons

Part B

Create a sketch that will allow students to investigate the sum of the exterior angles of a regular
polygon. Use the Unit 6-Sample Sketch 2 as a guide.

ƒ Start The Geometer’s Sketchpad.

ƒ Open a new sketch.
ƒ Construct circle O.
ƒ Rename the sizing point Z.
ƒ Construct A on circle O.
ƒ Double click O to mark it as a
center of rotation.
ƒ Select A and rotate it 120 about
O.
ƒ Rename A′ to B.
ƒ Select B and rotate it 120 about
O.
ƒ Rename B′ to C.
ƒ Construct AB , BC , and CA .
ƒ Construct F on CA , G on AB ,
and H on BC , all outside the
circle.
ƒ Measure ∠FAB , ∠GBC , and
∠HCA .
ƒ Calculate the sum of the three
angle measures.
ƒ Draw OL , with L outside the
circle.
ƒ Merge Z onto OL .
ƒ Create an animation button to
animate Z bidirectionally on OL .
ƒ Name the button Change Circle
Radius.
ƒ Hide the segment portion of OL
and endpoint L.
ƒ Rename Z to Drag to Change
Circle Radius.
ƒ Draw any inscribed polygon of
your choice and repeat this
process.

Journal Entry
Record your observations and explanations for the investigation.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-39

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Fractals

The Geometer’s Sketchpad Unit 7

Fractals
Overview: In this unit, participants construct the Sierpinski Triangle and investigate the relationships
which emerge from the construction.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

II.008.A. The beginning teacher recognizes and translates among various representations
(e.g., written, numerical, tabular, graphical, algebraic) of exponential and logarithmic
functions.
III.012.D. The beginning teacher uses properties of congruence and similarity to explore
geometric relationships, justify conjectures, and prove theorems.
III.012.E. The beginning teacher describes and justifies geometric constructions made
using compass and straightedge, reflection devices, and other appropriate technologies.
III.012.F. The beginning teacher demonstrates an understanding of the use of appropriate
software to explore attributes of geometric figures and to make and evaluate conjectures
about geometric relationships.
V.019.E. The beginning teacher understands the use of visual media , such as graphs,
tables, diagrams, and animations, to communicate mathematical information.
VI.020.D. The beginning teacher understands how learning may be enhanced through the
use of manipulatives, technology, and other tools.

Geometry TEKS
b.2.A. The student uses constructions to explore attributes of geometric figures and to
make conjectures about geometric relationships.
c.1. The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make generalizations about
geometric properties, including properties of polygons, ratios in similar figures and
solids, and angle relationships in polygons and circles.
c.2. The student uses properties of transformations and their compositions to make
connections between mathematics and the real world in applications such as tessellations
or fractals.
e.3.A. The student uses congruence transformations to make conjectures and justify
properties of geometric figures.
f.1. The student uses similarity properties and transformations to explore and justify
conjectures about geometric figures.
f.2. The student uses ratios to solve problems involving similar figures.

Materials: The Geometer’s Sketchpad program, sample sketches: Unit 7 - Sample Sketch 1,
Sketchpad sketch, Fractal Gallery

Procedures:

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-40

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Fractals

Part A

Explain to participants that a fractal is an object or quantity, which displays self-similarity on all scales.
The logarithmic spiral constructed in the Similarity Unit is an example of a fractal, as is the Sierpinski
Triangle that will be constructed in this activity.

Participants will use their knowledge of The Geometer’s Sketchpad to create a sketch to investigate a
fractal called the Sierpinski Triangle. Use the Unit 7 - Sample Sketch 1 to model a sample final product
for participants.

Participants should answer one or more of the following questions following the construction of the
Sierpinski Triangle sketch.

The figures below illustrate Stages 1 – 3 of the Sierpinski Triangle.

A A A

F E F E

C C
B C B D
B D

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Use the sketch to determine the following functional relationships. Assume that the length of a side in
the stage 0 triangle is 1 unit.

The total number of non-overlapping triangles versus the stage number.

f ( n ) = 3 n −1
1. The side length of the smallest triangle in a stage versus the stage number.
n −1
⎛1⎞
f (n) = ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
The total number of sides of non-overlapping triangles versus the stage number.
f (n) = 3 n
2. The sum of the lengths of all segments versus the stage number.
9 27
3+ + + ...
2 4
The perimeter of the Sierpinski Triangle at the nth stage, as n approaches infinity, approaches
infinity.

3. The area of the smallest triangle in a stage versus the stage number.
3 3 3
, , ,...
4 16 64
The area of the Sierpinski Triangle at the nth stage, as n approaches infinity, approaches zero.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-41

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Fractals

Part B

Participants explore the Fractal Gallery sketch that is included in The Geometer’s Sketchpad software.

Participants respond to the journal entry prompts at the end of Part B.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-42

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Fractals

Part A

Create a sketch to investigate the properties of the Sierpinski Triangle fractal.

• Start The Geometer’s Sketchpad.
• Open a new sketch.
• Use the segment tool to construct ∆ABC .
• Construct midpoints D, E, and F.

• Select A, B, and C.
• From the Transform menu choose Iterate.
• Click on F, B, then D to map
A ⇒ F , B ⇒ B, C ⇒ D (don’t click
Iterate yet).

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-43

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Fractals

• Click on Structure and select

Add New Map.
• Click on E, D, then C to map
A ⇒ E , B ⇒ D, C ⇒ C .
• Click on Structure and select
Add New Map.
• Click on A, F, then E to map
A ⇒ A, B ⇒ F , C ⇒ E .
• Click Iterate.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-44

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Fractals

• With your completed

iteration selected you can
increase or decrease the
number of displayed
iterations by pressing the + or
– key on the keyboard.
• If you could iterate an infinite
number of times, the result
would be a Sierpinski
Triangle.

The figures below illustrate Stages 1 – 3 of the Sierpinski Triangle.

A A A

F E F E

C C
B C B D
B D

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Use the sketch to determine the following functional relationships. Assume that the length of a side in
the stage 1 triangle is 1 unit.
The total number of non-overlapping triangles versus the stage number.
The side length of the smallest triangle in a stage versus the stage number.
The total number of sides of non-overlapping triangles versus the stage number.
The sum of the lengths of all segments versus the stage number.
The area of the smallest triangle in a stage versus the stage number.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-45

Activity Page: Geometer’s Sketchpad Training Fractals

Part B

Explore the Fractal Gallery sketch that is included in The Geometer’s Sketchpad software.
• Start The Geometer’s
Sketchpad.
• Click File - Open.
• Select Local Disk (C:).
• Double click the Program
Files folder.
• Double click the Sketchpad
folder.
• Double click the Samples
folder.
• Double click the Sketchpad
folder.
• Double click the Sketches
folder.
• Double click the Geometry
folder.
• Double click Fractal
Gallery.gsp

Journal Entry
Record your observations and explanations for the Pythagorean Theorem investigation.
ƒ Choose one of the sample Fractal Gallery sketches and explain how it relates to the concepts
investigated in Part A.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-46

Supplemental Material: Geometer’s Sketchpad References and Additional Resources

References and Additional Resources

Bennett, D. (2004). Exploring geometry with The Geometer's Sketchpad. Emeryville, CA:

Key Curriculum Press.

Bennett, D. (2004). Pythagoras plugged in: Proofs and problems for The Geometer's

Sketchpad. Emeryville, CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Cuoco, A. (1994). Technology tips: Technology in perspective. Mathematics Teacher,

87(6), 450-452.

de Villiers, M. (2004). Rethinking proof with The Geometer's Sketchpad. Emeryville, CA:

Key Curriculum Press.

Kimberling, C. (2004). Geometry in action: A discovery approach using the Geometer’s

Sketchpad. Emeryville, CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Peitgen, H., Jurgens, H. and Saupe, D. (1992). Fractals for the classroom, New York:

Springer-Verlag.

Region IV Education Service Center (2003). Region IV ESC Geometer’s Sketchpad

tutorial. Retrieved April 15, 2004, from Region IV Education Service Center:

http://www.esc4.net/math/sketchpadtutorial

Serra, M. (2003). Discovering geometry: An investigative approach (3rd ed.). Emeryville,

CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Geometry Unit DRAFT GS-47

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test

The Texas Education Agency and the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board
Geometry Module Pre-/Post-Test

1. Triangle STU is rotated 180 clockwise to form image ∆S ' T 'U ' . Determine the
center of rotation.
y
6

S
4
T

2
U x
-10 -5 5 10
-2
U'

-4
T'

-6
S'

2. In the figure shown below, m∠CBA = 50° and ∆ABE is equilateral. (The figure is
not drawn to scale.) Which of the following is NOT a valid conclusion for the given
figure? Explain your answer.
D
I AE bisects ∠DAB
II AE is a median of ∆DAB
III m∠D = 30°
IV DE = AE
E

50° B

Geometry Module DRAFT E-1

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test

3. The diagonals in a quadrilateral are perpendicular to each other and bisect the vertex
angles of the quadrilateral. Circle all of the figures below that always have these
properties.

I Rectangle
II Square
III Rhombus
IV Parallelogram
V Kite
VI Isosceles Trapezoid

4. Write a true conditional statement. Write its inverse, converse, and contrapositive.
Determine whether each of these statements is true or false. Give a counterexample
for each false statement.

5. In the figure shown, AB EC , AD ⊥ EC , AB = 4 cm, EC = 10 cm, and AF = DF = 3

cm (The figure is not drawn to scale.) What is the area, in square centimeters, of
pentagon ABCDE?

A B

E C
F

Geometry Module DRAFT E-2

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test

6. The city of Houston is building a fish pond in the middle of a popular park. The
figure, not drawn to scale, represents the dimensions of the pond. The figure has one
line of symmetry. A bridge will be built from F to G . What will be the length of the
bridge?

8 yards

10 yards
6 yards

G
F

16 yards
20 yards

7. Circle C is shown below with inscribed ∆ABD , m∠ABC =15 , and m∠CBD = 31 .

15o
C
31o B

Find the measure of ∠ACD .

Geometry Module DRAFT E-3

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test

8. In the figure below, ∆JKM is a right triangle with altitude ML to the

hypotenuse KJ , m∠K = 32o, and KM = 6 cm.
M

32°
K
L J

a) Name three pairs of similar triangles in the figure.

b) Find ML and LJ. Round your answers to the nearest tenth.

9. The two figures shown below represent the same 3-dimensional figure. The left is a
perspective drawing. The right is the top view with numbers indicating how many
cubes are on each stack.
2 1

Sketch a top view for the figure below, indicating how many cubes are on each stack.

Geometry Module DRAFT E-4

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test

10. Describe the characteristics of a surface of:

a) zero Gaussian curvature.

b) positive Gaussian curvature.

c) negative Gaussian curvature.

11. A student identifies the figure below as a rhombus but is not able to identify any of its
properties. According to the van Hiele model of geometric thought, at what level is
the student operating? Explain.

Geometry Module DRAFT E-5

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test

12. What are the advantages of using a dynamic geometry software package to teach
geometry?

Geometry Module DRAFT E-6

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test Solutions

The Texas Education Agency and the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board
Geometry Module Pre-/Post-Test Solutions

1. Triangle STU is rotated 180 clockwise to form image ∆S ' T 'U ' . Determine the
center of rotation.
y
6

S 4
T

2
U x
-10 -5 5 10
-2
U'

-4
T'

-6
S'

The point (−1,−1) is the center of rotation. In general, the center of rotation can be found
by finding the point of concurrency of the perpendicular bisectors of the segments
connecting each pre-image vertex with its corresponding image. In the special case
where the rotation is 180o (clockwise or counter-clockwise) the segments connecting
each vertex’s pre-image with its image are concurrent at the midpoint of each segment
(as shown above).

Geometry Module DRAFT E-7

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test Solutions

2. In the figure shown below, m∠CBA = 50° and ∆ABE is equilateral. (The figure is
not drawn to scale.) Which of the following is NOT a valid conclusion for the given
figure? Explain your answer.
D
I AE bisects ∠DAB
II AE is a median of ∆DAB
III m∠D = 30°
IV DE = AE
E

50° B

Selection I is not a valid conclusion. Since ∠DAE , ∠EAB , and ∠BAC form a
straight line, then m∠DAE + m∠EAB + m∠BAC = 180 . Since ∆ABE is equilateral,
then m∠EAB = 60 . From the drawing, m∠BAC = 90 . Therefore,
m∠DAE + 60 + 90 = 180 and m∠DAE = 30 . Since m∠EAB ≠ m∠DAE , AE does
not bisect ∠DAB .

3. The diagonals in a quadrilateral are perpendicular to each other and bisect the vertex
angles of the quadrilateral. Circle all of the figures below that always have these
properties.

I Rectangle
II Square
III Rhombus
IV Parallelogram
V Kite
VI Isosceles Trapezoid

Selections II and III always have the properties that the diagonals are perpendicular
to each other and bisect the vertex angles. The diagonals of rectangles and
parallelograms bisect the vertex angles, but they are not necessarily perpendicular
to each other. The diagonals of a kite are perpendicular to each other, but they do
not bisect the vertex angles. Isosceles trapezoids have neither of these properties.

Geometry Module DRAFT E-8

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test Solutions

4. Write a true conditional statement. Write its inverse, converse, and contrapositive.
Determine whether each of these statements is true or false. Give a counterexample
for each false statement.

Answers will vary. One example of a true conditional statement is “If I am visiting
Rice University then I am in Houston, Texas.” The inverse of this statement, “If I am
not visiting Rice University then I am not in Houston, Texas” is false. As a
counterexample, I can be at Reliant Stadium instead of Rice University and still be in
Houston. The converse of the original statement, “If I am in Houston, Texas, then I
am visiting Rice University,” is also false. “I am in Houston, Texas and visiting
Reliant Stadium,” is a counterexample. The contrapositive of the statement, “If I am
not visiting Houston, Texas then I am not visiting Rice University,” is a true
statement.

5. In the figure shown, AB EC , AD ⊥ EC , AB = 4 cm, EC = 10 cm, and AF = DF = 3

cm (The figure is not drawn to scale.) What is the area, in square centimeters, of
pentagon ABCDE?

A B

E C
F

The area of pentagon ABCDE is 36 cm 2 .

The pentagon is a composite figure consisting of a trapezoid and a triangle.
1
Area of trapezoid ABCE = h ( b1 + b2 )
2
1 1
= ⋅ 3 cm ⋅ ( 4 cm + 10 cm ) = ⋅ (3 cm) ⋅ (14 cm) = 21cm 2
2 2
1
Area of ∆EDC = ⋅ (10 cm) ⋅ (3 cm) = 15 cm 2
2
Therefore the area of pentagon ABCDE = 21cm 2 + 15 cm 2 = 36 cm 2 .

Geometry Module DRAFT E-9

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test Solutions

6. The city of Houston is building a fish pond in the middle of a popular park. The
figure, not drawn to scale, represents the dimensions of the pond. The figure has one
line of symmetry. A bridge will be built from F to G . What will be the length of
the bridge?

8 yards

10 yards
6 yards

G
F

16 yards
20 yards

The bridge will be 24 yards long. Let C be the intersection of FG and the line of
symmetry. By the Pythagorean Theorem (CG ) 2 + 16 2 = 20 2 . Therefore CG = 12
yards. Since the pond is symmetrical, then FC = 12 yards. Therefore FG, the length
of the bridge, is 24 yards.

7. Circle C is shown below with inscribed ∆ABD , m∠ABC =15 , and m∠CBD = 31 .
Find the measure of ∠ACD .

C 15o
31o B

m∠ACD = 92 . The measure of an inscribed angle is one-half the measure of its

1 1
intercepted arc. Therefore m∠ABD = ⋅ m AD ; (15o + 31o ) = 46 o = ⋅ m AD and
2 2
m AD = 92 . The measure of a central angle is equal to its intercepted arc.
Therefore m∠ACD = m AD = 92 since ∠ACD is a central angle with intercepted arc
AD .

Geometry Module DRAFT E-10

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test Solutions

8. In the figure below, ∆JKM is a right triangle with altitude ML to the

hypotenuse KJ , m∠K = 32o, and KM = 6 cm.
M

32°
K
L J

a) Name three pairs of similar triangles in the figure.

∆KMJ ∼ ∆KLM
∆KMJ ∼ ∆MLJ
∆KLM ∼ ∆MLJ

b) Find ML and LJ. Round your answers to the nearest tenth.

ML = 3.2 cm and LJ = 2.0 cm .

ML
From triangle ∆KLM , sin32o = . Therefore
6 cm
ML = 6 ⋅ sin 32o = 3.1795 cm ≈ 3.2 cm (Note: Make sure calculators are in degree
mode.)
LJ LJ
Since ∆KLM ≈ ∆MLJ , m∠JML = 32o and tan 32 = = .
ML 3.1795 cm
Therefore,
LJ ≈ 2.0 cm .

Geometry Module DRAFT E-11

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test Solutions

9. The two figures shown below represent the same 3-dimensional figure. The left is a
perspective drawing. The right is the top view with numbers indicating how many
cubes are on each stack.

2 1

Sketch a top view for the figure below, indicating how many cubes are on each stack.

The following is the answer:

2 3 2 1

2 2 1

10. Describe the characteristics of a surface of:

a) zero Gaussian curvature.

In a surface with zero Gaussian curvature, such as a plane or cylindrical surface,
Euclid’s first five postulates are true. Specifically the fifth postulate holds:
“Through a point not on a line, there exists exactly one line parallel to the line.”
Theorems whose proofs depend on this postulate are also true. For example,
the sum of the measures of the angles in a triangle always equals 180 o . A plane
tangent to a surface with zero Gaussian curvature will contain a line that touches
the surface at all the points on that line.

Geometry Module DRAFT E-12

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test Solutions

b) positive Gaussian curvature.

In a surface with positive Gaussian curvature, such as a sphere, Euclid’s fifth
postulate does not hold. Instead, through a point not on a line there exists no
line parallel to the line. Because Euclid’s fifth postulate is not true for this
curvature, theorems that depend on this postulate for their proofs are not valid. As
a result, for a surface with positive Gaussian curvature, the sum of the
measures of the angles of a triangle is always greater than 180 o . In addition, a
plane tangent to a surface with positive Gaussian curvature will always lie
completely to one side of the surface.

c) negative Gaussian curvature.

In a surface with negative Gaussian curvature, such as a pseudosphere or
hyperbolic paraboloid, Euclid’s fifth postulate does not hold. Instead, through a
point not on a line there exists an infinite number of lines parallel to the line.
Because Euclid’s fifth postulate is not true for this curvature, theorems that
depend on this postulate for the proofs are not valid. As a result, for a surface with
negative Gaussian curvature, the sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is
always less than 180 o . In addition a plane tangent to a surface with negative
Gaussian curvature at a given point will always pass through the surface.

11. A student identifies the figure below as a rhombus but is not able to identify any of its
properties. According to the van Hiele model of geometric thought, at what level is
the student operating? Explain.

According to the van Hiele model of geometric thought, the student is operating at
the Visual Level for this concept. In the Visual Level students are able to identify the
names of geometric objects but are not yet able to specify properties.

Geometry Module DRAFT E-13

Evaluation Instruments Pre-/Post-Test Solutions

12. What are the advantages of using a dynamic geometry software package to teach
geometry?

Answers will vary. The advantages of a dynamic software package such as The
Geometer’s Sketchpad are many. Primarily, a dynamic geometry software package, if
available in a computer laboratory setting, allows students to construct their own
knowledge of geometry by allowing them to explore, make inferences, and test
hypotheses. As a demonstration tool, it allows a teacher to illustrate examples more
quickly and efficiently than can be done at a chalkboard.

Geometry Module DRAFT E-14

Evaluation Instruments Classroom Observation Protocol

Observation #: _________
Date: ______________
Start time: __________
End time: ___________
Observer: ___________

I. Pre-observation interview

Discuss the lesson with the teacher, ask the following questions, and record the
responses. You may need to do this interview over the phone with the teacher the night
before. You may also plan ahead and send the questions to the teacher via e-mail.

A. What are the instructional goals of the activity you have planned?

B. How will the students be engaged during the lesson?

C. What student success do you expect to see take place during this activity?

D. Do you have any concerns about the activity you have planned? If so, what are they?
If not, why not?

E. What should I focus on during the observation?

Geometry Module DRAFT E-15

Evaluation Instruments Classroom Observation Protocol

II. Observation

During the observation, make a written record of teacher and student comments
and actions about the topics identified for observation during the pre-observation
interview. Focus on the teacher’s words and actions. Whenever possible record
the teacher’s exact words. Abbreviate your notes as necessary (T for teacher, G1,
B1, etc. for the students). Note the time every few minutes, or when a shift or
transition in the activity takes place.

As soon after the observation as possible, use your notes to write a more polished
narrative. The narrative should include an accurate description of the classroom,
seating arrangements, displays, etc. Draw a map of the classroom and complete
the following checklist in order to provide more detailed information about its
layout. The narrative should also include a list of materials used during the
observed lesson. Before leaving the classroom, request copies of any worksheets
that were used during your observation.

A. Physical Environment: Seating arrangement

YES NO
Students have assigned seats.
Desks are arranged in rows and
columns.
Desks are arranged in semi-circles.
Desks are arranged in clusters.
Tables are used rather than desks.

B. Physical Environment: Walls

YES NO
Rules of behavior are posted.
Rules of math are posted (formulas,
process skills, problem solving
styles).
Illustrations of math concepts are
posted.
Number line is displayed.
Pictures are displayed.
Graphs or charts are displayed.
Motivational posters are displayed.
Student work is displayed.
Student math assignments are posted.

Geometry Module DRAFT E-16

Evaluation Instruments Classroom Observation Protocol

C. Students

Total number of students in the classroom _________

Ethnicity Number of Male Students Number of Female Students

White
African-American
Hispanic
Asian
Other

D. Materials used during lesson

Textbooks Yes No
Worksheets Yes No
Manipulatives [List which kind(s).] Yes No
Calculators Yes No
Computers Yes No
Other Yes No

E. Teacher’s actions during lesson

Teacher uses an exploratory activity to
Yes No
introduce the concept.
Teacher demonstrates without having
Yes No
students participate.
Teacher has student volunteers
Yes No
demonstrate.
Teacher leads whole class as they work
Yes No
with demonstration materials.

Frequently Sometimes Rarely

Teacher raises questions that extend students’
thinking.
Teacher responds to students’ questions in a
positive and encouraging manner.
Teacher incorporates manipulatives and technology
appropriately.
Teacher maintains an appropriate pace during the
lesson.
Teacher uses hands-on, interactive activities to
develop the concept (not just problems from the
textbook).
Teacher moves around the room to keep everyone
engaged and on track.

F. Students’ actions during lesson

Geometry Module DRAFT E-17

Evaluation Instruments Classroom Observation Protocol

Frequently Sometimes Rarely

Students are interacting with each other.
Students are working independently.
Students use a variety of materials (aside from
worksheets or textbook).
Students are encouraged to explain the process used to
reach a solution.
The majority of students are engaged in the lesson.
Students are encouraged to explore several solutions.
Students ask each other questions.
The majority of students are engaged in the
mathematics activity.

Yes No
Students develop their own products to demonstrate
mastery of the concept.
Students are encouraged to raise original questions
about math and discuss these questions.

G. General Comments

What concept was the teacher discussing? _____________________

1. How long was the teacher-led portion of the lesson?

Approximate number of minutes _____

2. Describe the lesson taught.

3. How comfortable did the students appear to be with the teacher?

Not at all comfortable Sort of comfortable Very comfortable

Geometry Module DRAFT E-18

Evaluation Instruments Classroom Observation Protocol

4. Comments about teacher (her personality, teaching skills, rapport with

students):

5. How much time was spent on student group work?

Approximate number of minutes _____

6. Describe student group work.

7. How much time was spent on individual student work?

Approximate number of minutes _____

8. Describe briefly.

9. Comments about students (their behavior, whether they were on task,

understanding the lesson):

10. Please rate the quality of the teacher’s classroom management.

Poor Adequate Excellent

11. Additional comments:

Geometry Module DRAFT E-19

Evaluation Instruments Classroom Observation Protocol

III. Post-observation interview

The post-interview should be done as soon after the observation as possible in

order to capture data about the teacher’s immediate perceptions.

A. What went particularly well during the lesson?

B. Did it differ from what you expected? If so, how?

C. If you were to teach this lesson again, what would you change?

Geometry Module DRAFT E-20

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Overview

Mentoring Teachers

Overview: As teachers return to the classroom with newly acquired skills and
strategies from the Geometry Module, the mentoring process will allow
teachers to improve classroom practice. The substance of observations
and mentoring should reflect the theoretical framework of the Geometry
Module that includes active, student-centered mathematical
investigations, group cooperation, and alternative assessments as means
to reach diverse student populations. The observations and mentoring
should also allow for reflection upon the tools for learning geometry
outlined in the Geometry Module: construction tools, manipulatives, and
technology. These tools are used to address various learning styles, to
model or represent mathematical concepts, to abstract from the
manipulative representations, to construct and explore mathematical
properties of geometric objects, to generate authentic data, and to
progress students through the van Hiele levels.

Objective: TExES Mathematics Competencies

VI.020.A. The beginning teacher applies research-based theories of
learning mathematics to plan appropriate instructional strategies for all
students.
VI.020.B. The beginning teacher understands how students differ in
their approaches to learning mathematics.
VI.020.C. The beginning teacher uses students’ prior mathematical
knowledge to build conceptual links to new knowledge and plans
instruction that builds on students’ strengths and addresses students’
needs.
VI.020.D. The beginning teacher understands how learning may be
enhanced through the use of manipulatives, technology, and other tools.
VI.020.E. The beginning teacher understands how to provide instruction
along a continuum from concrete to abstract.
VI.020.F. The beginning teacher understands a variety of instructional
strategies and tasks that promote students’ abilities to do the
mathematics described in the TEKS.
VI.020.G. The beginning teacher understands how to create a learning
environment that provides all students, including English Language
Learners, with opportunities to develop and improve mathematical skills
and procedures.
VI.020.H. The beginning teacher understands a variety of questioning
strategies to encourage mathematical discourse and to help students
analyze and evaluate their mathematical thinking.
VI.020.I. The beginning teacher understands how to relate mathematics
to students’ lives and a variety of careers and professions.
VI.021.A. The beginning teacher understands the purpose,
characteristics, and uses of various assessments in mathematics,
including formative and summative assessments.

Geometry Module DRAFT M-1

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Overview

VI.021.B. The beginning teacher understands how to select and develop

assessments that are consistent with what is taught and how it is taught.
VI.021.C. The beginning teacher understands how to develop a variety
of assessments and scoring procedures consisting of worthwhile tasks
that assess mathematical understanding, common misconceptions, and
error patterns.
VI.021.D. The beginning teacher understands the relationship between
assessment and instruction and knows how to evaluate assessment
results to design, monitor, and modify instruction to improve
mathematical learning for all students, including English Language
Learners.

Background: Teachers and mentors should be well-versed in the content and

pedagogy presented during the Geometry Module.

Materials: Mentoring Timeline, Classroom Observation Protocol, Observation

Record: Investigations and Tools, Observation Checklist: van Hiele
Levels, Observation Checklist: Cooperative Learning, Observation
Checklist: Alternative Assessments, Self Report: Geometry
Competencies, Self-Report: TExES Competencies

Procedures:

Identify mentors for participants. Mentors should understand that their role is not to
replicate themselves but to facilitate the professional growth of the teachers in their care.
The emphasis of the process is on substance, not style. Mentoring involves more than
observing and providing feedback; it requires a response to needs and situations as they
happen; it includes meeting the teacher’s needs with professional advice based on
research rather than preference.

Mentors and participants will complete Pre-Observation Interview, Observation, and

Post-Observation Interview documentation for each scheduled classroom
visit/observation. The mentor and participant will meet to conduct a post-observation
conference after each student classroom visit/observation.

During the pre-observation interview, the participant and mentor should review the
instructional plan for TEKS appropriateness and use of pedagogical skills acquired in the
Geometry Module. The teacher and mentor decide what specifically is to be observed and
how this data will be collected. The teacher and mentor will select an appropriate
checklist, record, or protocol form to record data during the lesson under observation.

During the observation, the mentor should make only those observations that were
discussed during the pre-observation conference. This action serves to distinguish an
observation for the purpose of mentoring from an observation for the purpose of
evaluation. The mentor should record what is seen or heard rather than the mentor’s
perceptions of, inferences about, or judgments upon what the mentor saw or heard. This

Geometry Module DRAFT M-2

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Overview

objectivity provides data that accurately mirrors what took place during instructional
time.

During the post-observation interview, quickly record the teacher’s initial responses to
the questions. The responses serve as another data source for the post-observation
conference.

For the post-observation conference, prepare questions such as:

ƒ What is another way you might have…?
ƒ What might you see happening in your classroom if…?
ƒ What criteria do you use to…?

These questions will help the teacher hypothesize about the results of a change in
practice, analyze the effectiveness of the activity, imagine possibilities for improvement,
look for patterns in teacher and student behavior, and evaluate the impact of a well-
planned activity on student achievement.

During the post-observation conference, the teacher should be allowed to speak first,
sharing his or her understanding of what took place, what was successful, and what might
be improved. The mentor then presents the data collected during the observation. The
teacher should be allowed a few moments for quiet reflection on the data. Discussion
should then take place about any discrepancies that exist between the teacher’s
expectations for and thoughts about the lesson and the data recorded by the mentor.
When these discrepancies are identified, a professional need presents itself. They allow
the teacher to determine new instructional and professional development goals to address
his or her needs. They also provide opportunities for meaningful mentoring.

At the end of the year, the mentor and participant will meet to reflect again regarding the
teacher’s Self-Report: Geometry Competencies and the Self-Report: TExES
Competencies. The teacher will establish achievable instructional and professional
development goals for the following school year.

Geometry Module DRAFT M-3

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Timeline

Mentoring Timeline

Month Focus Activity Tools

• Pre-Observation • Classroom Observation
Interview Protocol
• Observation • Investigations and Tools
Investigations and • Post-Observation • van Hiele Levels
Tools Interview
August
• Post-Observation
Geometry TEKS Conference: Establish
instructional goals based
on discussions between
participant and mentor
• Pre-Observation • Classroom Observation
Interview Protocol
• Observation • Cooperative Learning
Cooperative • Post-Observation • van Hiele Levels
Learning Interview
September
• Post-Observation
Geometry TEKS Conference: Establish
instructional goals based
on discussions between
participant and mentor
• Pre-Observation • Alternative Assessments
Interview • Cooperative Learning
• Observation • van Hiele Levels
Alternative • Post-Observation
Assessments Interview
October
• Post-Observation
Geometry TEKS Conference: Establish
instructional goals based
on discussions between
participant and mentor
• Pre-Observation • Classroom Observation
Interview Protocol
• Observation • Investigations and Tools
• Post-Observation • van Hiele Levels
Investigations and Interview
Tools • Post-Observation
November
Conference: Establish
Geometry TEKS instructional goals based
on discussions between
participant and mentor

Geometry Module DRAFT M-4

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Timeline

• Pre-Observation • Classroom Observation

Interview Protocol
• Observation • Cooperative Learning
Cooperative • Post-Observation • van Hiele Levels
Learning Interview
January
• Post-Observation
Geometry TEKS Conference: Establish
instructional goals based
on discussions between
participant and mentor
• Pre-Observation • Alternative Assessments
Interview • Cooperative Learning
• Observation • van Hiele Levels
Alternative • Post-Observation
Assessments Interview
February
• Post-Observation
Geometry TEKS Conference: Establish
instructional goals based
on discussions between
participant and mentor
Participant and Pre-Observation Participant and mentor will
Mentor will Interview select which records to use.
decide which of • Observation
these to use as a • Post-Observation
focus: Interview
March Investigations and • Post-Observation
Tools Conference: Establish
Cooperative
instructional goals based
Learning
Alternative
on discussions between
Assessment participant and mentor
Geometry TEKS
Generate professional • Self-Report: Geometry
development goals Competencies
April Final debriefing
Identify areas for life-long • Self-Report: TExES
learning Competencies

Geometry Module DRAFT M-5

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Observation Protocol

Classroom Observation Protocol

Observation #: _________
Date: ______________
Start time: __________
End time: ___________
Observer: ___________

I. Pre-Observation Interview

Discuss the lesson with the teacher, ask the following questions, and record the
responses. You may need to do this interview over the phone with the teacher the
night before. You may also plan ahead and send the questions to the teacher via e-
mail.

A. What are the instructional goals of the activity you have planned?

B. How will the students be engaged during the lesson?

C. What student success do you expect to see take place during this activity?

D. Do you have any concerns about the activity you have planned? If so, what are
they? If not, why not?

E. What should I focus on during the observation?

Geometry Module DRAFT M-6

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Observation Protocol

II. Observation

During the observation, make a written record of teacher and student comments
and actions about the topics identified for observation during the pre-observation
interview. Focus on the teacher’s words and actions. Whenever possible record the
teacher’s exact words. Abbreviate your notes as necessary (T for teacher, G1, B1
etc. for the students). Note the time every few minutes, or when a shift or transition
in the activity takes place.

As soon after the observation as possible, use your notes to write a more polished
narrative. The narrative should include an accurate description of the classroom,
seating arrangements, displays, etc. Draw a map of the classroom and complete the
following checklist in order to provide more detailed information about its layout.
The narrative should also include a list of materials used during the observed
lesson. Before leaving the classroom, request copies of any worksheets that were
used during your observation.

A. Physical Environment: Seating arrangement

YES NO
Students have assigned seats.
Desks are arranged in rows and
columns.
Desks are arranged in semi-circles.
Desks are arranged in clusters.
Tables are used rather than desks.

B. Physical Environment: Walls

YES NO
Rules of behavior are posted.
Rules of math are posted (formulas,
process skills, problem solving
styles).
Illustrations of math concepts are
posted.
Number line is displayed.
Pictures are displayed.
Graphs or charts are displayed.
Motivational posters are displayed.
Student work is displayed.
Student math assignments are posted.

Geometry Module DRAFT M-7

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Observation Protocol

C. Students
Total number of students in the classroom _________

Ethnicity Number of Male Students Number of Female Students

White
African-American
Hispanic
Asian
Other

D. Materials used during lesson

Textbooks Yes No
Worksheets Yes No
Manipulatives [List which kind(s).] Yes No
Calculators Yes No
Computers Yes No
Other Yes No

E. Teacher’s actions during lesson

Teacher uses an exploratory activity to
Yes No
introduce the concept.
Teacher demonstrates without having
Yes No
students participate.
Teacher has student volunteers
Yes No
demonstrate.
Teacher leads whole class as they work
Yes No
with demonstration materials.

Frequently Sometimes Rarely

Teacher raises questions that extend students’
thinking.
Teacher responds to students’ questions in a
positive and encouraging manner.
Teacher incorporates manipulatives and technology
appropriately.
Teacher maintains an appropriate pace during the
lesson.
Teacher uses hands-on, interactive activities to
develop the concept (not just problems from the
textbook).
Teacher moves around the room to keep everyone
engaged and on track.

F. Students’ actions during lesson

Geometry Module DRAFT M-8

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Observation Protocol

Frequently Sometimes Rarely

Students are interacting with each other.
Students are working independently.
Students use a variety of materials (aside from
worksheets or textbook).
Students are encouraged to explain the process used to
reach a solution.
The majority of students are engaged in the lesson.
Students are encouraged to explore several solutions.
Students ask each other questions.
The majority of students are engaged in the
mathematics activity.

Yes No
Students develop their own products to demonstrate
mastery of the concept.
Students are encouraged to raise original questions
about math and discuss these questions.

G. General Comments

What concept was the teacher discussing? _____________________

1. How long was the teacher-led portion of the lesson?

Approximate number of minutes _____

2. Describe the lesson taught.

3. How comfortable did the students appear to be with the teacher?

Not at all comfortable Sort of comfortable Very comfortable

4. Comments about teacher (her personality, teaching skills, rapport with

students):

Geometry Module DRAFT M-9

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Observation Protocol

5. How much time was spent on student group work?

Approximate number of minutes _____

6. Describe student group work.

7. How much time was spent on individual student work?

Approximate number of minutes _____

8. Describe briefly.

9. Comments about students (their behavior, whether they were on task,

understanding the lesson):

10. Please rate the quality of the teacher’s classroom management.

Poor Adequate Excellent

11. Additional comments:

Geometry Module DRAFT M-10

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Observation Protocol

III. Post-observation interview

The post-interview should be done as soon after the observation as possible in order
to capture data about the teacher’s immediate perceptions.

A. What went particularly well during the lesson?

B. Did it differ from what you expected? If so, how?

C. If you were to teach this lesson again, what would you change?

Geometry Module DRAFT M-11

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Observation Record

Observation Record: Investigations and Tools

Criteria Yes No
Students identify and apply mathematics to everyday experiences, to activities in and outside of school, with other disciplines,
and with other mathematical topics.
Student use a problem-solving model that incorporates understanding the problem, making a plan, carrying out the plan, and
evaluating the solution for reasonableness.
Students select or develop an appropriate problem-solving strategy from a variety of different types, including drawing a
picture, looking for a pattern, systematic guessing and checking, acting it out, making a table, working a simpler problem, or
working backwards to solve a problem.
Students select tools to solve problems.
Students communicate mathematical ideas using multiple representations.
Students evaluate the effectiveness of different representations to communicate ideas.
Students make conjectures from patterns or sets of examples and non-examples.
Students validate their conclusions using mathematical properties and relationships.
Students are encouraged to solve problems.
Students pose problems.
Students pose alternate solution strategies.
Students pose constructive questions.
Students apply algebraic concepts and processes.
Students use graphing calculators.
Students use interactive geometry software (e.g. The Geometer’s Sketchpad, NonEuclid).

Geometry Module DRAFT M-12

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Observation Checklist

Observation Checklist: van Hiele Levels

Visual Level (0) Descriptive Level (1) Relational Level (2) Deductive Level (3) Rigor (4)
‰ Identifies a shape. ‰ Identifies and tests ‰ Identifies different sets of ‰ Recognizes the need for ‰ Rigorously establishes
relationships. properties that undefined terms, theorems in different
‰ Constructs, draws, or copies characterize a class of definitions, and basic axiomatic systems.
a shape. ‰ Recalls and uses figures and tests that these assumptions (postulates).
appropriate vocabulary. are sufficient. ‰ Compares axiomatic
‰ Names or labels shapes and ‰ Recognizes characteristics systems (e.g., Euclidean
other geometric ‰ Compares two shapes. ‰ Identifies minimum sets of of a formal definition and and non-Euclidean
configurations appropriately. properties that can equivalence of definitions. geometries);
‰ Interprets and uses verbal characterize a figure. spontaneously explores
‰ Compares and sorts shapes. description of a figure in ‰ Proves relationships in how changes in axioms
order to draw/construct ‰ Formulates and uses a axiomatic settings. affect the resulting
‰ Verbally describes shapes. figure. definition for a class of geometry.
figures. ‰ Proves relationships
‰ Solves routine problems by ‰ Interprets verbal or between a theorem and ‰ Establishes consistency
operating on shapes. symbolic statements of ‰ Gives informal arguments. related statements. of a set of axioms,
rules and applies them. independence of an
‰ Identifies parts of a figure. ‰ Gives informal deductive ‰ Establishes axiom, and equivalency of
‰ Discovers properties of arguments. interrelationships among different sets of axioms;
specific figures and networks of theorems. creates an axiomatic
generalizes properties. ‰ Gives more than one system.
explanation to prove ‰ Compares and contrasts
‰ Describes a class of something and justifies different proofs of ‰ Invents generalized
figures in terms of its these explanations. theorems. methods for solving
properties. classes of problems.
‰ Informally recognizes ‰ Examines effects of
‰ Given certain properties, difference between a changing an initial ‰ Searches for the broadest
identifies a shape. statement and its definition or postulate in a context in which a
converse. logical sequence. mathematical
‰ Connect properties theorem/principle will
between classes of figures ‰ Identifies and uses ‰ Establishes a general apply.
to compare. strategies or insightful principle that unifies
reasoning to solve several different theorems. ‰ Does in-depth study of the
‰ Discovers properties of an problems. subject logic to develop
unfamiliar class of figures. ‰ Creates proofs from new insights and
‰ Recognizes the role of simple sets of axioms approaches to logical
‰ Solves geometric deductive argument and frequently using a model inference.
problems. approaches problems in a to support arguments.
deductive manner.
‰ Formulates and uses ‰ Gives formal deductive
generalizations about arguments.
properties of figures.

Geometry Module DRAFT M-13

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Observation Checklist

Observation Checklist: Cooperative Learning

Group Size Purpose of Cooperative Collaborative Strategies Assigned Roles

‰ 2 students Grouping ‰ Pair check ‰ All students
‰ 3 students ‰ Review homework ‰ Think-Pair-Share ‰ Some students
‰ 4 students ‰ Reteach concept or ‰ Group Problem Solving ‰ None
‰ Other procedure ‰ Jigsaw
‰ Developmental lesson ‰ Other
‰ Review lesson
‰ Test review
‰ Alternative assessment
‰ Enrichment
‰ Other

Evidence of Group Group Success Teacher Closure

Learning ‰ Mutual dependence ‰ Explain assignment ‰ Teacher prompts
‰ Positive ‰ Verbal interaction ‰ Establish academic students to summarize
interdependence ‰ Interpersonal and group expectations for group learning
‰ Face-to-face skills ‰ Describe expected ‰ Teacher ask students to
promotive interaction ‰ Individual accountability collaborative behaviors address
‰ Individual ‰ Incentives ‰ Describe group procedures concepts/procedures
accountability ‰ Provides description of not addressed in a
‰ Social skills group success student summary
‰ Group processing ‰ Monitor groups ‰ Teacher ties students’
‰ Asks for the group’s ideas together to draw
answer to a student’s closure to the learning
question experience.
‰ Affirms productive group
behaviors

Geometry Module DRAFT M-14

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Observation Checklist

Observation Checklist: Alternative Assessments

Type Tasks Tools used during Equity Opportunity for

‰ Tasks ‰ Closed instruction available ‰ Wording multiple sources of
‰ Project ‰ Open-ended during assessment ‰ Contexts evidence
‰ Journal Entry ‰ Yes ‰ “sense”-able Yes
‰ Portfolio ‰ No ‰ relevant No
‰ accessible
Student participation Teacher actions Communication Use of Rubric Student Self-Assessment
‰ Actively engaged ‰ Anecdotal Record ‰ Group ‰ Published Holistic ‰ Holistic Rubric
throughout the ‰ Checklist ‰ Individual ‰ Teacher-Made ‰ Analytical Rubric
class period ‰ Posing questions ‰ Model Holistic ‰ Journal prompt
‰ Actively engaged ‰ Posing problems ‰ Picture ‰ Published ‰ Checklist
for the majority of ‰ Answering ‰ Verbal Analytical
the class period questions with a ‰ Table ‰ Teacher-Made
‰ Actively engaged question ‰ Graph Analytical
for about half of ‰ Answering ‰ Equation
the class period questions with an
‰ Actively engaged answer
for less than half ‰ Redirecting
of the class period student questions
‰ Actively engaged to other students
in something other ‰ Addressing
than the alternative behavioral
assessment concerns
Peer assessment Provides data to inform Content TEXTEAMS Geometry
‰ Yes instruction ‰ Concepts Assessments
‰ No ‰ Yes ‰ Procedures ‰ Yes
‰ No ‰ Generalizations ‰ No

Geometry Module DRAFT M-15

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Self-Report

Self-Report: Geometry Competencies

Please rate your geometry competencies in the following areas:

Very
Competencies Poor Fair Good Excellent
Good
Knowledge of measurement
0 1 2 3 4
as a process
Knowledge of the results of
0 1 2 3 4
Euclidean geometry
Knowledge of the uses of
0 1 2 3 4
Euclidean geometry
Knowledge of the
applications of Euclidean 0 1 2 3 4
geometry
Knowledge of mathematical
0 1 2 3 4
reasoning
Knowledge of mathematical
0 1 2 3 4
problem solving
Knowledge of mathematical
0 1 2 3 4
connections
Knowledge of how children
0 1 2 3 4
learn mathematics
Knowledge of how to plan
0 1 2 3 4
geometry instruction
Knowledge of how to
organize geometry 0 1 2 3 4
instruction
Knowledge of how to
implement effective 0 1 2 3 4
geometry instruction

Geometry Module DRAFT M-16

Trainer/Instructor Notes: Mentoring Teachers Self-Report
Self-Report: TExES Competencies
Strongly Strongly
TExES Competencies Agree Disagree
Agree Disagree
VI.020.A. The beginning teacher applies research-based
theories of learning mathematics to plan appropriate 4 3 2 1
instructional strategies for all students.
VI.020.B. The beginning teacher understands how students
4 3 2 1
differ in their approaches to learning mathematics.
VI.020.C. The beginning teacher uses students’ prior
mathematical knowledge to build conceptual links to new
4 3 2 1
knowledge and plans instruction that builds on students’
strengths and addresses students’ needs.
VI.020.D. The beginning teacher understands how learning
may be enhanced through the use of manipulatives, 4 3 2 1
technology, and other tools.
VI.020.E. The beginning teacher understands how to
provide instruction along a continuum from concrete to 4 3 2 1
abstract.
VI.020.F. The beginning teacher understands a variety of
instructional strategies and tasks that promote students’ 4 3 2 1
abilities to do the mathematics described in the TEKS.
VI.020.G. The beginning teacher understands how to create
a learning environment that provides all students, including
4 3 2 1
English Language Learners, with opportunities to develop
and improve mathematical skills and procedures.
VI.020.H. The beginning teacher understands a variety of
questioning strategies to encourage mathematical discourse
4 3 2 1
and to help students analyze and evaluate their
mathematical thinking.
VI.020.I. The beginning teacher understands how to relate
mathematics to students’ lives and a variety of careers and 4 3 2 1
professions.
VI.021.A. The beginning teacher understands the purpose,
characteristics, and uses of various assessments in
4 3 2 1
mathematics, including formative and summative
assessments.
VI.021.B. The beginning teacher understands how to select
and develop assessments that are consistent with what is 4 3 2 1
taught and how it is taught.
VI.021.C. The beginning teacher understands how to
develop a variety of assessments and scoring procedures
4 3 2 1
consisting of worthwhile tasks that assess mathematical
understanding, common misconceptions, and error patterns.
VI.021.D. The beginning teacher understands the
relationship between assessment and instruction and knows
how to evaluate assessment results to design, monitor, and 4 3 2 1
modify instruction to improve mathematical learning for all
students, including English Language Learners.

Geometry Module DRAFT M-17

Supplementary Material: Mentoring References and Additional Resources

References and Additional Resources

Artzt, A. F., & Newman, C. M. (1990). How to use cooperative learning in the

mathematics class. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Coombs-Richarson, R. (2004). Mentoring Basics. Houston, TX: Region IV Education

Service Center.

Davidson, N. (Ed.). (1990). Cooperative learning in mathematics: A handbook for

teachers. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Eisenhower National Clearing House & National Staff Development Council. (2004). By

your own design. Retrieved April 15, 2004, from National Staff Development

Council: http:// www.enc.org

Krulik, S., & Rudnick, J. A. (1989). Problem solving: A handbook for senior high school

teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Allyn and Bacon: Pearson Education

Company.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1999). Mathematics assessment: A

practical handbook for grades 9 – 12. Reston, VA: NTCM.

Geometry Module DRAFT M-18

Competencies and Objectives TExES Competencies

Texas Examination of Educator Standards Teacher Competencies

for Mathematics (8-12)
DOMAIN I-NUMBER CONCEPTS

Competency 001
The teacher understands the real number system and its structure, operations,
algorithms, and representations.

The beginning teacher:

A. Understands the concepts of place value, number base, and decimal

representations of real numbers.

B. Understands the algebraic structure and properties of the real number system
and its subsets (e.g., real numbers as a field, integers as an additive group).

C. Describes and analyzes properties of subsets of the real numbers (e.g.,

closure, identities).

D. Selects and uses appropriate representations of real numbers (e.g., fractions,

decimals, percents, roots, exponents, scientific notation) for particular
situations.

E. Uses a variety of models (e.g., geometric, symbolic) to represent operations,

algorithms, and real numbers.

F. Uses real numbers to model and solve a variety of problems.

G. Uses deductive reasoning to simplify and justify algebraic processes.

H. Demonstrates how some problems that have no solution in the integer or

rational number systems have solutions in the real number system.

Competency 002
The teacher understands the complex number system and its structure, operations,
algorithms, and representations.

The beginning teacher:

A. Demonstrates how some problems that have no solution in the real number
system have solutions in the complex number system.

B. Understands the properties of complex numbers (e.g., complex conjugate,

magnitude/modulus, multiplicative inverse).

C. Understands the algebraic structure of the complex number system and its
subsets (e.g., complex numbers as a field, complex addition as vector
addition).

Geometry Module DRAFT C-1

Competencies and Objectives TExES Competencies

D. Selects and uses appropriate representations of complex numbers (e.g.,

vector, ordered pair, polar, exponential) for particular situations.

E. Describes complex number operations (e.g., addition, multiplication, roots)

using symbolic and geometric representations.
Competency 003
The teacher understands number theory concepts and principles and uses numbers
to model and solve problems in a variety of situations.

The beginning teacher:

A. Applies ideas from number theory (e.g., prime numbers and factorization, the
Euclidean algorithm, divisibility, congruence classes, modular arithmetic, the
fundamental theorem of arithmetic) to solve problems.

B. Applies number theory concepts and principles to justify and prove number
relationships.

C. Compares and contrasts properties of vectors and matrices with properties of

number systems (e.g., existence of inverses, non-commutative operations).

D. Uses properties of numbers (e.g., fractions, decimals, percents, ratios,

proportions) to model and solve real-world problems.

E. Applies counting technique such as permutations and combinations to

quantify situations and solve problems.

F. Uses estimation techniques to solve problems and judges the reasonableness

of solutions.

DOMAIN II-PATTERNS AND ALGEBRA

Competency 004
The teacher uses patterns to model and solve problems and formulate conjectures.

The beginning teacher:

A. Recognizes and extends patterns and relationships in data presented in tables,

sequences, or graphs.

B. Uses methods of recursion and iteration to model and solve problems.

C. Uses the principle of mathematical induction.

D. Analyzes the properties of sequences and series (e.g., Fibonacci, arithmetic,

geometric) and uses them to solve problems involving finite and infinite
processes.

E. Understands how sequences and series are applied to solve problems in the
mathematics of finance (e.g., simple, compound, and continuous interest
rates; annuities).

Geometry Module DRAFT C-2

Competencies and Objectives TExES Competencies

Competency 005
The teacher understands attributes of functions, relations, and their graphs.

The beginning teacher:

A. Understands when a relation is a function.

B. Identifies the mathematical domain and the range of functions and relations
and determines reasonable domains for given situations.

C. Understand that a function represents a dependence of one quantity on

another and can be represented in a variety of ways (e.g., concrete models,
tables, graphs, diagrams, verbal descriptions, symbols).

D. Identifies and analyzes even and odd functions, one-to-one functions, inverse
functions, and their graphs.

E. Applies basic transformations [e.g., kf(x), f(x) + k, f(x−k), f(kx), f ( x) to a

parent function, f, and describes the effects on the graph of y = f(x).

F. Performs operations (e.g., sum, difference, composition) on functions, finds

inverse relations, and describes results symbolically and graphically.

G. Uses graphs of functions to formulate conjectures of identities [e.g., y = x2-1

π
and y = (x−1)(x+1), y =log x3 and y =3 log x, y =sin(x+ ) and y =cos x].
2

Competency 006
The teacher understands linear and quadratic functions, analyzes their algebraic
and graphical properties, and uses them to model and solve problems.

The beginning teacher:

A. Understands the concept of slope as a rate of change and interprets the

meaning of slope and intercept in a variety of situations.

B. Writes equations of lines given various characteristics (e.g., two points, a

point and slope, slope and y-intercept).

C. Applies techniques of linear and matrix algebra to represent and solve

problems involving linear systems.

D. Analyzes the zeros (real and complex) of quadratic functions.

E. Makes connections between the y=ax2+bx+c and the y= a(x-h)2+k

representations of a quadratic function and its graph.

F. Solves problems involving quadratic functions using a variety of methods

(e.g., factoring, completing the square, using the quadratic formula, using a
graphing calculator).

Geometry Module DRAFT C-3

Competencies and Objectives TExES Competencies

G. Models and solves problems involving linear and quadratic equations and
inequalities using a variety of methods, including technology.

Competency 007
The teacher understands polynomial, rational, radical, absolute value, and piecewise
functions, analyzes their algebraic and graphical properties, and uses them to model
and solve problems.

The beginning teacher:

A. Recognizes and translates among various representations (e.g., written,

tabular, graphical, algebraic) of polynomial, rational, radical, absolute value,
and piecewise functions.

B. Describes restrictions on the domains and ranges of polynomial, rational,

radical, absolute value, and piecewise functions.

C. Makes and uses connections among the significant points (e.g., zeros, local
extrema, points where a function is not continuous or not differentiable) of a
function, the graph of a function, and the function’s symbolic representation.

D. Analyzes functions in terms of vertical, horizontal, and slant asymptotes.

E. Analyzes and applies the relationship between inverse variation and rational
functions.

F. Solves equations and inequalities involving polynomial, rational, radical,

absolute value, and piecewise functions using a variety of methods (e.g.,
tables, algebraic methods, graphs, use of graphing calculator), and evaluates
the reasonableness of solutions.

G. Models situations using polynomial, rational, radical, absolute value, and

piecewise functions and solves problems using a variety of methods, including
technology.

Competency 008
The teacher understands exponential and logarithmic functions, analyzes their
algebraic and graphical properties, and uses them to model and solve problems.

The beginning teacher:

A. Recognizes and translates among various representations (e.g., written,

numerical, tabular, graphical, algebraic) of exponential and logarithmic
functions.

B. Recognizes and uses connections among significant characteristics (e.g.,

intercepts, asymptotes) of a function involving exponential or logarithmic
expressions, the graph of the function, and the function’s symbolic
representation.

Geometry Module DRAFT C-4

Competencies and Objectives TExES Competencies

C. Understands the relationship between exponential and logarithmic functions

and uses the laws and properties of exponents and logarithms to simplify
expressions and solve problems.

D. Uses a variety of representations and techniques (e.g., numerical methods,

tables, graphs, analytic techniques, graphing calculators) to solve equations,
inequalities, and systems involving exponential and logarithmic functions.

E. Models and solves problems involving exponential growth and decay.

F. Uses logarithmic scales (e.g., Richter, decibel) to describe phenomena and

solve problems.

G. Uses exponential and logarithmic functions to model and solve problems

involving the mathematics of finance. (e.g., compound interest).

H. Uses the exponential function to model situations and solve problems in

which the rate of change of a quantity if proportional to the current amount
of the quantity [i.e., f ’(x) =k f(x)].

Competency 009
The teacher understands trigonometric and circular functions, analyzes their
algebraic and graphical properties, and uses them to model and solve problems.

The beginning teacher:

A. Analyzes the relationship among the unit circle in the coordinate plane,
circular functions, and the trigonometric functions.

B. Recognizes and translates among various representations (e.g., written,

numerical, tabular, graphical, algebraic) of trigonometric functions and their
inverses.

C. Recognizes and uses connections among significant properties (e.g., zeros,

axes of symmetry, local extrema) and characteristics (e.g., amplitude,
frequency, phase shift) of a trigonometric function, the graph of the function,
and the function’s symbolic representation.

D. Understands the relationship between trigonometric functions and their

inverses and uses these relationships to solve problems.

E. Uses trigonometric identities to simplify expressions and solve equations.

F. Models and solves a variety of problems (e.g., analyzing periodic

phenomena) using trigonometric functions.

G. Uses graphing calculators to analyzes and solve problems involving

trigonometric functions.

Geometry Module DRAFT C-5

Competencies and Objectives TExES Competencies

Competency 010
The teacher understands and solves problems using differential and integral
calculus.

The beginning teacher:

A. Understands the concept of limit and the relationship between limits and
continuity.

B. Relates the concept of average rate of change to the slope of the secant line
and the concept of instantaneous rate of change to the slope of the tangent
line.

C. Uses the first and second derivations to analyze the graph of a function (e.g.,
local extrema, concavity, points of inflection).

D. Understands and applies the fundamental theorem of calculus and the

relationship between differentiation and integration.

E. Models and solves a variety of problems (e.g., velocity, acceleration,

optimization, related rates, work, center of mass) using differential and
integral calculus.

F. Analyzes how technology can be used to solve problems and illustrate

concepts involving differential and integral calculus.

DOMAIN III-GEOMETRY AND MEASUREMENT

Competency 011
The teacher understands measurement as a process.

The beginning teacher:

A. Applies dimensional analysis to derive units and formulas in a variety of

situations (e.g., rates of change of one variable with respect to another) and
to find and evaluate solutions to problems.

B. Applies to formulas for perimeter, area, surface area, and volume of

geometric figures and shapes (e.g., polygons, pyramids, prisms, cylinders,
cones, spheres) to solve problems.

C. Recognizes the effects on length, area, or volume when the linear dimensions
of plane figures or solids are changed.

D. Applies the Pythagorean theorem, proportional reasoning, and right triangle

trigonometry to solve measurement problems.

E. Relates the concept of area under a curve to the limit of a Riemann sum.

Geometry Module DRAFT C-6

Competencies and Objectives TExES Competencies

F. Uses integral calculus to compute various measurements associated with

curves and regions (e.g., area, arc length) in the plane and measurements
associated with curves, surfaces, and regions in three-space.

Competency 012
The teacher understands geometries, in particular Euclidean geometry, as axiomatic
systems.

The beginning teacher:

A. Understands axiomatic systems and their components (e.g., undefined terms,
defined terms, theorems, examples, counterexamples).

B. Uses properties of points, lines, planes, angles, lengths, and distances to

solve problems.

C. Applies the properties of parallel and perpendicular lines to solve problems.

D. Uses properties of congruence and similarity to explore geometric

relationships, justify conjectures, and prove theorems.

E. Describes and justifies geometric constructions made using compass and

straightedge, reflection devices, and other appropriate technologies.

F. Demonstrates an understanding of the use of appropriate software to explore

attributes of geometric figures and to make and evaluate conjectures about
geometric relationships.

G. Compares and contrasts the axioms of Euclidean geometry with those of non-
Euclidean geometry (e.g., hyperbolic and elliptic geometry).

Competency 013
The teacher understands the results, uses, and applications of Euclidean geometry.

The beginning teacher:

A. Analyzes the properties of polygons and their components.

B. Analyzes the properties of circles and the lines that intersect them.

C. Uses geometric patterns and properties (e.g., similarity, congruence) to make

generalizations about two-and three-dimensional figures and shapes (e.g.,
relationships of sides, angles).

D. Computes the perimeter, area, and volume of figures and shapes created by
subdividing and combining other figures and shapes (e.g., arc length, area of
sectors).

E. Analyzes cross-sections and nets of three-dimensional shapes.

F. Uses top, front, side, and corner views of three-dimensional shapes to create
complete representations and solve problems.

Geometry Module DRAFT C-7

Competencies and Objectives TExES Competencies

G. Applies properties of two- and three-dimensional shapes to solve problems

across the curriculum and in everyday life.

Competency 014
The teacher understands coordinate, transformational, and vector geometry and
their connections.

The beginning teacher:

A. Identifies transformations (i.e., reflections, translations, glide-reflections,

rotations, dilations) and explores their properties.

B. Uses the properties of transformations and their compositions to solve

problems.

C. Uses transformations to explore and describe reflectional, rotational, and

translational symmetry.

D. Applies transformations in the coordinate plane.

E. Applies concepts and properties of slope, midpoint, parallelism,

perpendicularity, and distance to explore properties of geometric figures and
solve problems in the coordinate plane.

F. Uses coordinate geometry to derive and explore the equations, properties,

and applications of conic sections. (i.e., lines, circles, hyperbolas, ellipses,
parabolas).

G. Relates geometry and algebra by representing transformations as matrices

and uses this relationship to solve problems.

H. Explores the relationship between geometric and algebraic representations of

vectors and uses this relationship to solve problems.

DOMAIN IV-PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS

Competency 015
The teacher understands how to use appropriate graphical and numerical
techniques to explore data, characterize patterns, and describe departures from
patterns.

The beginning teacher:

A. Selects and uses an appropriate measurement scale (i.e., nominal, ordinal,

interval, ratio) to answer research questions and analyzes data.

B. Organizes, displays, and interprets data in a variety of formats (e.g., tables,

frequency distributions, scatter plots, stem-and-leaf plots, box-and-whisker
plots, histograms, pie charts0.

Geometry Module DRAFT C-8

Competencies and Objectives TExES Competencies

C. Applies concepts of center, spread, shape, and skewness to describe a data

distribution.

D. Understands measures of central tendency (i.e., mean, median, mode) and

dispersion (i.e., range, interquartile range, variance, standard deviation).

E. Applies linear transformations (i.e., translating, stretching, shrinking) to

convert data and describes the effect of linear transformations on measures of
central tendency and dispersion.

F. Analyzes connections among concepts of center and spread, data clusters and
gaps, data outliers, and measures of central tendency and dispersion.

G. Supports arguments, makes predictions, and draws conclusions using

summary statistics and graphs to analyze and interpret one-variable data.

Competency 016
The teacher understands concepts and applications of probability.
The beginning teacher:

A. Understands how to explore concepts of probability through sampling,

experiments, and simulations, and generates and uses probability models to
represent situations.

B. Uses the concepts and principles of probability to describe the outcomes of

simple and compound events.

C. Determines probabilities by constructing sample spaces to model situations.

D. Solves a variety of probability problems using combinations and

permutations.

E. Solves a variety of probability problems using ratios of areas of geometric

regions.

F. Calculates probabilities using the axioms of probability and related theorems

and concepts such as the addition rule, multiplication rule, conditional
probability, and independence.

G. Understands expected value, variance, and standard deviation of probability

distributions (e.g., binomial, geometric, uniform, normal).

H. Applies concepts and properties of discrete and continuous random variables

to model and solve a variety of problems involving probability and
probability distributions (e.g., binomial, geometric, uniform, normal).

Geometry Module DRAFT C-9

Competencies and Objectives TExES Competencies

Competency 017
The teacher understands the relationship among probability theory, sampling, and
statistical inference, and how statistical inference is used in making and evaluating
predictions.

The beginning teacher:

A. Applies knowledge of designing, conducting, analyzing, and interpreting

statistical experiments to investigate real-world problems.

B. Analyzes and interprets statistical information (e.g., the results of polls and
surveys) and recognize misleading as well as valid uses of statistics.

C. Understands random samples and sample statistics (e.g., the relationship

between sample size and confidence intervals, biased or unbiased
estimators).

D. Makes inferences about a population using binomial, normal, and geometric

distributions.

E. Describes and analyzes bivariate data using various techniques (e.g.,

scatterplots, regression lines, outliers, residual analysis, correlation
coefficients).

F. Understands how to transform nonlinear data into linear form in order to

apply linear regression techniques to develop exponential, logarithmic, and
power regression models.

G. Uses the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem in the process of
statistical inference.

H. Estimates parameters (e.g., population mean and variance) using point

estimators (e.g., sample mean and variance).

I. Understands principles of hypotheses testing.

DOMAIN V-MATHEMATICAL PROCESSES AND PERSPECTIVES

Competency 018
The teacher understands mathematical reasoning and problem solving.

The beginning teacher:

A. Recognizes and uses multiple representations of a mathematical concept

(e.g., a point and its coordinates, the area of a circle as a quadratic function of
the radius, probability as the ratio of two areas, area of a plane region as a
definite integral).

B. Understands how mathematics is used to model and solve problems in other

disciplines (e.g., art, music, science, social science, business).

Geometry Module DRAFT C-10

Competencies and Objectives TExES Competencies

C. Uses inductive reasoning to make conjectures and uses deductive methods to

evaluate the validity of conjectures.

D. Uses formal and informal reasoning to justify mathematical ideas.

E. Understands the problem-solving process (i.e., recognizing that a

mathematical problem can be solved in a variety of ways, selecting an
appropriate strategy, evaluating the reasonableness of a solution).

F. Evaluates how well a mathematical model represents a real-world situation.

Competency 019
The teacher understands mathematical connections both within and outside of
mathematics and how to communicate mathematical ideas and concepts.

The beginning teacher:

A. Recognizes and uses multiple representations of a mathematical concept

(e.g., a point and its coordinates, the area of the circle as a quadratic function
of the radius, probability as the ratio of two areas, area of a plane region as a
definite integral).

B. Understands how mathematics is used to model and solve problems in other

disciplines (e.g., art, music science, social science, business).

C. Translates mathematical ideas between verbal and symbolic forms.

D. Communicates mathematical ideas using a variety of representations (e.g.,

numeric, verbal, graphical, pictorial, symbolic, concrete).

E. Understands the use of visual media, such as graphs, tables, diagrams, and
animations, to communicate mathematical information.

F. Uses appropriate mathematical terminology to express mathematical ideas.

DOMAIN VI-MATHEMATICAL LEARNING, INSTRUCTION, AND ASSESSMENT

Competency 020
The teacher understands how children learn mathematics and plans, organizes, and
implements instruction using knowledge of students, subject matter, and statewide
curriculum (Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills [TEKS]).

The beginning teacher:

A. Applies research-based theories of learning mathematics to plan appropriate

instructional activities for all students.

B. Understands how students differ in their approaches to learning mathematics.

Geometry Module DRAFT C-11

Competencies and Objectives TExES Competencies

C. Uses students’ prior mathematical knowledge to build conceptual links to

new knowledge and plans instruction that builds on students’ strengths and
addresses students’ needs.

D. Understands how learning may be enhanced through the use of

manipulatives, technology, and other tools (e.g., stop watches, scales, rulers).

E. Understands how to provide instructions along a continuum from concrete to

abstract.

F. Understands a variety of instructional strategies and tasks that promote

students’ abilities to do the mathematics described in the TEKS.

G. Understands how to create a learning environment that provides all students,

including English Language Learners, with opportunities to develop and
improve mathematical skills and procedures.

H. Understands a variety of questioning strategies to encourage mathematical

discourse and to help students analyze and evaluate their mathematical
thinking.

I. Understands how to relate mathematics to students’ lives and a variety of

careers and professions.

Competency 021
The teacher understands assessment and uses a variety of formal and informal
assessment techniques to monitor and guide mathematics instruction and to
evaluate student progress.

The beginning teacher:

A. Understands the purpose, characteristics, and uses of various assessments in

mathematics, including formative and summative assessments.

B. Understands how to select and develop assessments that are consistent with
what is taught and how it is taught.

C. Understands how to develop a variety of assessment and scoring procedures

consisting of worthwhile tasks that assess mathematical understanding,
common misconceptions, and error patterns.

D. Understands the relationship between assessment and instruction and knows

how to evaluate assessment results to design, monitor, and modify instruction
to improve mathematical learning for all students, including English
Language Learner.

Geometry Module DRAFT C-12

Competencies and Objectives Geometry TEKS

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills for Geometry

(a) Basic understandings.

(1) Foundation concepts for high school mathematics. As presented in Grades K-8, the
basic understandings of number, operation, and quantitative reasoning; patterns,
relationships, and algebraic thinking; geometry; measurement; and probability and
statistics are essential foundations for all work in high school mathematics. Students
continue to build on this foundation as they expand their understanding through other
mathematical experiences.

(2) Geometric thinking and spatial reasoning. Spatial reasoning plays a critical role in
geometry; shapes and figures provide powerful ways to represent mathematical situations
and to express generalizations about space and spatial relationships. Students use
geometric thinking to understand mathematical concepts and the relationships among
them.

(3) Geometric figures and their properties. Geometry consists of the study of geometric
figures of zero, one, two, and three dimensions and the relationships among them.
Students study properties and relationships having to do with size, shape, location,
direction, and orientation of these figures.

(4) The relationship between geometry, other mathematics, and other disciplines.
Geometry can be used to model and represent many mathematical and real-world
situations. Students perceive the connection between geometry and the real and
mathematical worlds and use geometric ideas, relationships, and properties to solve
problems.

(5) Tools for geometric thinking. Techniques for working with spatial figures and their
properties are essential in understanding underlying relationships. Students use a variety
of representations (concrete, pictorial, algebraic, and coordinate), tools, and technology,
including, but not limited to, powerful and accessible hand-held calculators and
computers with graphing capabilities to solve meaningful problems by representing
figures, transforming figures, analyzing relationships, and proving things about them.

(6) Underlying mathematical processes. Many processes underlie all content areas in
mathematics. As they do mathematics, students continually use problem-solving,
computation in problem-solving contexts, language and communication, connections
within and outside mathematics, and reasoning, as well as multiple representations,
applications and modeling, and justification and proof.

(b) Geometric structure: knowledge and skills and performance descriptions.

(1) The student understands the structure of, and relationships within, an axiomatic
system. Following are performance descriptions.

(A) The student develops an awareness of the structure of a mathematical system,

connecting definitions, postulates, logical reasoning, and theorems.

Geometry Module DRAFT C-13

Competencies and Objectives Geometry TEKS

(B) Through the historical development of geometric systems, the student

recognizes that mathematics is developed for a variety of purposes.

(C) The student compares and contrasts the structures and implications of
Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries.

(2) The student analyzes geometric relationships in order to make and verify conjectures.
Following are performance descriptions.

(A) The student uses constructions to explore attributes of geometric figures and
to make conjectures about geometric relationships.

(B) The student makes and verifies conjectures about angles, lines, polygons,
circles, and three-dimensional figures, choosing from a variety of approaches
such as coordinate, transformational, or axiomatic.

(3) The student understands the importance of logical reasoning, justification, and proof
in mathematics. Following are performance descriptions.

(A) The student determines if the converse of a conditional statement is true or

false.

(B) The student constructs and justifies statements about geometric figures and
their properties.

(C) The student demonstrates what it means to prove mathematically that

statements are true.

(D) The student uses inductive reasoning to formulate a conjecture.

(E) The student uses deductive reasoning to prove a statement.

(4) The student uses a variety of representations to describe geometric relationships and
solve problems.

Following is a performance description. The student selects an appropriate representation

(concrete, pictorial, graphical, verbal, or symbolic) in order to solve problems.

(c) Geometric patterns: knowledge and skills and performance descriptions.

The student identifies, analyzes, and describes patterns that emerge from two- and three-
dimensional geometric figures. Following are performance descriptions.

(1) The student uses numeric and geometric patterns to make generalizations about
geometric properties, including properties of polygons, ratios in similar figures and
solids, and angle relationships in polygons and circles.

Geometry Module DRAFT C-14

Competencies and Objectives Geometry TEKS

(2) The student uses properties of transformations and their compositions to make
connections between mathematics and the real world in applications such as tessellations
or fractals.

(3) The student identifies and applies patterns from right triangles to solve problems,
including special right triangles (45-45-90 and 30-60-90) and triangles whose sides are
Pythagorean triples.

(d) Dimensionality and the geometry of location: knowledge and skills and performance
descriptions.

(1) The student analyzes the relationship between three-dimensional objects and related
two-dimensional representations and uses these representations to solve problems.
Following are performance descriptions.

(A) The student describes, and draws cross sections and other slices of three-
dimensional objects.

(B) The student uses nets to represent and construct three-dimensional objects.

(C) The student uses top, front, side, and corner views of three-dimensional
objects to create accurate and complete representations and solve problems.

(2) The student understands that coordinate systems provide convenient and efficient
ways of representing geometric figures and uses them accordingly. Following are
performance descriptions.

(A) The student uses one- and two-dimensional coordinate systems to represent
points, lines, line segments, and figures.

(B) The student uses slopes and equations of lines to investigate geometric
relationships, including parallel lines, perpendicular lines, and special segments
of triangles and other polygons.

(C) The student develops and uses formulas including distance and midpoint.

(e) Congruence and the geometry of size: knowledge and skills and performance descriptions.

(1) The student extends measurement concepts to find area, perimeter, and volume in
problem situations. Following are performance descriptions.

(A) The student finds areas of regular polygons and composite figures.

(B) The student finds areas of sectors and arc lengths of circles using
proportional reasoning.

(C) The student develops, extends, and uses the Pythagorean Theorem.

Geometry Module DRAFT C-15

Competencies and Objectives Geometry TEKS

(D) The student finds surface areas and volumes of prisms, pyramids, spheres,
cones, and cylinders in problem situations.

(2) The student analyzes properties and describes relationships in geometric figures.
Following are performance descriptions.

(A) Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student formulates and
tests conjectures about the properties of parallel and perpendicular lines.

(B) Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student formulates and
tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of polygons and their
component parts.

(C) Based on explorations and using concrete models, the student formulates and
tests conjectures about the properties and attributes of circles and the lines that
intersect them.

(D) The student analyzes the characteristics of three-dimensional figures and

their component parts.

(3) The student applies the concept of congruence to justify properties of figures and
solve problems. Following are performance descriptions.

(A) The student uses congruence transformations to make conjectures and justify
properties of geometric figures.

(B) The student justifies and applies triangle congruence relationships.

(f) Similarity and the geometry of shape: knowledge and skills and performance descriptions. The
student applies the concepts of similarity to justify properties of figures and solve problems.
Following are performance descriptions.

(1) The student uses similarity properties and transformations to explore and justify
conjectures about geometric figures.

(2) The student uses ratios to solve problems involving similar figures.

(3) In a variety of ways, the student develops, applies, and justifies triangle similarity
relationships, such as right triangle ratios, trigonometric ratios, and Pythagorean triples.

(4) The student describes the effect on perimeter, area, and volume when length, width,
or height of a three-dimensional solid is changed and applies this idea in solving
problems.

Geometry Module DRAFT C-16

Appendix Grid Paper

Geometry Module DRAFT A-1

Appendix Geoboard Dot Paper

Geometry Module DRAFT A-2

Appendix Equilateral Triangle Paper

Geometry Module DRAFT A-3