Chapter 1: Trigonometric functions and exponentials

Table of contents
1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Introduction ..................................................................... 1

3 Basic sines, cosines, tangents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3.1 Dening relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.2 Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4 General sine and cosine forms ...................................................... 4

4.1 Sinusoidal functions of position: Amplitude, spatial period, and phase constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.1.1 Spatial period and wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.1.2 Phase constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2 Some trig identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.3 Quadrature form and a useful theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.4 Conversion between quadrature form and amplitude and phase form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.5 Sinusoidal functions of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.6 Notable phase shifts and other identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.7 Inverse trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.7.1 General case: two solutions sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.7.2 Special cases: one solution set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

5 Exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.1 Some Important Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.2 Symbols, Names, and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.3 Equation Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

7 Additional Example Problems with Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1 Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to:
1. Describe basic features of sine, cosine, tangent, and exponential functions.
2. Know the relationship between spatial frequency k and wavelength ; know the relationship between temporal fre-
quency ! and period T .
3. Be able to plot sinusoidal functions and obtain the amplitude, wavelength, spatial frequency, and phase constants from
a plot.
4. Be able to plot exponential functions.
5. Be able to convert between sine, cosine, and quadrature forms of sinusoidal functions.
6. Be able to manipulate inverse trigonometric functions.
7. Be able to apply a variety of trigonometric identities.

2 Introduction
Trigonometric functions pervade the mathematical language used to describe oscillations and waves. In this chapter I review
or introduce many notions and procedures related to trigonometric functions that will be useful throughout the course. Mas-
tering the mathematical techniques introduced in this chapter is critical to proceeding through the rest of the material in
this text.

1
2 Section 3

3 Basic sines, cosines, tangents

3.1 Dening relations

You are likely familiar with the geometric denition of trigonometric functions in which they are related to the sides of right
triangles. For the most part in this course, we will be interested in just thinking of the sines, cosines, and tangents as
input/output functions; given a value of  sin() returns a certain value. Sine, cosine, and tangent functions can be
dened by the following series expansions,
n=1
X 2n+1 3 5
sin() = (¡1)n =¡ + + ... (1)
(2 n + 1)! 6 120
n=0
n=1
X 2n 2 4
cos() = (¡1)n =1¡ + + ... (2)
(2 n)! 2 24
n=0
sin() 3 2 5
tan() = =+ + + ::: (3)
cos() 3 15

These denitions indicate that the argument of a sine, cosine, or tangent function is dimensionless (else terms with dierent
powers of  would have dierent dimensions and the series expansions would be meaningless). The argument, , of the
trigonometric functions is typically called the phase of the function. The phase can be expressed in dierent units. For the
expansions given above to be valid, the angle must be expressed using the dimensionless unit called the radian denoted by
rad. The radian is the metric system unit for phase. It has the geometric interpretation as the ratio of the arc-length of a
circle subtended by an angle and the radius of the circle. See Figure 1. Note that in this interpretation one complete circle
or cycle has a phase-angle of

circumference 2  r
cycle = = = 2  = 2  rad
radius r

This establishes the the conversion factor

1 cycle=2  radians (4)

Another commonly used measure of phase is the degree denoted  dened through the relation

360 = 2  rad (5)

r s

Figure 1. Geometrical denition of phase; in radian measure  = s/r

The radian is the SI (metric) system unit for phase and unless otherwise noted, we will express phases in
radians in this course. Since measures of phase are dimensionless they can be included when giving a phase
value or not, so long as one agrees to use a particular system of units. We typically include units for phase
quantities when it claries which phase unit is being used.

Problem 1. Find the metric system units of a, b, c, and d in the following expression. Assume that y and x are in meters
(m) and t is in seconds (s).
y = b cos(d t + a x + c)
Basic sines, cosines, tangents 3

3.2 Plots
Plots of the simple trigonometric functions and a few identities that will be of use to us in this course are illustrated by the
plots that are shown below. Note that sine and cosine functions repeat when  changes by 2 , while the tangent function
repeats when  changes by .

Sine function
1

0.5
sin θ

−0.5

−1
−2π θ0 −π θ0 + π 0 θ0 + 2π π 2π
θ
Figure 2. Plot of sin . Note that sin( + ) = ¡sin(), sin( + 2 ) = sin(), and sin(¡) = ¡sin().

Cosine function
1

0.5
cos θ

−0.5

−1
−2π θ0 −π θ0 + π 0 θ0 + 2π π 2π
θ
Figure 3. Plot of cos . Note that cos( + ) = ¡cos(), cos( + 2 ) = cos(), and cos(¡) = cos().
4 Section 4

Tangent function
5

tan θ 2.5

−2.5

−5
−2π − 3π −π − π2 0 π π 3π 2π
2 2 2

θ
Figure 4. Plot of tan . Note that tan( + ) = tan() and tan(¡) = ¡tan(). Also note that the tangent function goes
to 1 as  approaches odd multiples of  /2.

4 General sine and cosine forms

Oscillatory functions that vary in both time and space describe wave motion. Later in this chapter I will be concerned with
oscillatory functions that vary only in time: these functions describe simple oscillatory motion. In this section, in which I
review some general properties of sine and cosine functions, I will consider functions that vary in space. Sines and cosines are
both oscillatory functions of a single frequency. Let us consider the functions
y(x) = A sin(k x + 's) (6)
y(x) = A cos(k x + 'c) (7)
In these expressions, A is the amplitude of the function, k is the angular frequency of the function and 's and
'c are the phase constants. If x represents a distance then k is typically called a spatial frequency. By convention, if
the function depends on time t, as in, for example A sin(! t + 's) the multiplier of the variable t is denoted !; ! is a tem-
poral angular frequency or more commonly, simply an angular frequency or a frequency in rad/s. Note that the same
function y can be described by either a sine or cosine form by adjusting the phase constant.

4.1 Sinusoidal functions of position: Amplitude, spatial period, and phase constant
4.1.1 Spatial period and wavelength
Sines and cosines both oscillate between -1 and 1. Thus the functions in Equations. (6) and (7) oscillate between A and ¡A.
Also, as indicated in Figures 2 and 3, sines and cosines are periodic functions that repeat each time their arguments change
by 2 . The spatial period or wavelength  is then related to the spatial frequency k by the relation,
k (x + ) + 'sor c = k x + 'sor c + 2 
k=2
k = 2  / (8)
Note that higher spatial frequencies correspond to shorter wavelengths. The phase constant shifts the positions of the
maxima of the functions along the x-axis in a manner below.

4.1.2 Phase constant

Consider a function y = A sin(k x + 's). Let us consider the role of the phase shift more carefully. Consider the variable X
k X = k x + 's

So that, X = x + 's
2
That is,
y = A sin(k x + 's) = A sin(k X)
General sine and cosine forms 5


Thus, when X = 0, which marks the starting point for the standard sine function, xstart = ¡'s . That is, as a function of
 2
x, the plot is shifted by ¡'s (toward the negative x-direction). This behavior is depicted in Figure 5. To sketch a cosine
2 
function, one could use this logic to note that the starting point of the cosine function would be xstart = ¡'c or express
2
the function in sine form and then use the routine given above for sine functions.

X=0 x=0 y
λ
xstart = −φs 2π

−λ 0 λ 2λ 3λ

−A

Figure 5. Plot of y = A sin(k x + 's). Note that the function is shifted from a standard sine function by an amount xstart =
 
¡'s . That is, if 's is positive, the function is shifted toward ¡x. I used 's = 0.75  in the plot.
2 2
 

Example 1. Sketch the function y = (1.5 m) sin x +  / 3 . Solution: This function has an amplitude of 1.5 m and a
2 2 m
wavelength of  = = = 2 m. The function is shifted along the x-axis by a distance of
k  /m
  2m 1
xstart = ¡'s =¡ = ¡ m. So a sketch looks like:
2 3 2 3
y
1.5 m
1
xstart = ¡ m
3

x
2m

¡1.5 m

Example 2. Consider the functions y1; y2; and y3 plotted below.

A) For each function determine the wavelength  and spatial frequency k.
B) Represent each function using the sine form of Eq. (6). To do this you will need to determine the phase constant 's.
C) Represent each function using the cosine form of Eq. (7). To do this, you will need to determine the phase constant
'c.


2 2 2
1.5 1.5 1.5
1 1 1
0.5 0.5 0.5
y1 (m)

y2 (m)

y3 (m)

0 0 0
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1 -1 -1
-1.5 -1.5 -1.5
-2 -2 -2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x (m) x (m) x (m)
6 Section 4

Solution:
A) The wavelength is the repeat distance for the wave and the spatial frequency is given by Eq. (8). The repeat distance
is conveniently measured as the peak to peak distance (indicated in the rst plot). So,
For y1:  = 1 m; k = 2  / = 2  /m
For y2:  = 1 m; k = 2  / = 2  /m
For y3:  = 2 m; k = 2  / =  /m
B) y1: Using the results from A) and reading the amplitude from the plot,
y1 = (2 m) sin[(2  /m) x + 's]
The phase constant 's can be conveniently obtained by reading the value of xstart from the plot
'
xstart = 0 = ¡ s 
2
's = 0
Note that, of course, since the sine function is periodic, other solutions exist that dier from this one by multiples of
2 . I have shown that,
y1 = (2 m) sin[(2  /m) x]
y2: In this case,
'
xstart = 0.75 m=¡ s 
2
x 0.75
's = ¡ start 2  = ¡ 2  = ¡3  /2
 1
y2 = (2 m) sin[(2  /m) x ¡ 3  /2] = (2 m) sin[(2  /m) x +  /2]
Note that in the last equality above I used the fact that a phase shift of 2  leaves the function unchanged.
y3:
y3 = (2 m) sin[(2  /2 m) x + 's]
1 '
xstart  m=¡ s 
6 2
x 1/6 
's = ¡ start 2  = ¡ 2 =¡
 2 6
y3 = (2 m)sin[( /m) x ¡  /6]
C) Repeating the procedure for the cosine function:
y1:
y1 = (2 m) cos[(2  /m) x + 'c]
'
xstart = 0.25 m=¡ c 
2
x 0.25
'c = ¡ start 2  = ¡ 2  = ¡ /2
 1
y1 = (2 m) cos[(2  /m) x ¡  /2]
y2:
y2 = (2 m) cos[(2  /m) x + 'c]
'
xstart = 0=¡ c 
2
'c = 0
y2 = (2 m) cos[(2  /m) x]
y3:
y3 = (2 m) cos[2  /(2 m) x + 'c] = (2 m) cos[( /m) x + 'c]
'
xstart = 0.75 m=¡ c 
2
x 2/3
'c = ¡ start 2  = ¡ 2  = ¡2  /3
 2
'c = ¡2  /3
y3 = (2 m) cos[( /2 m) x ¡ 2  /3]
Note that for each function the phase constant for the cosine representation is  / 2 less than that for the
sine representation. Generally,
'c = 's ¡  /2 (9)

See the last of the trig identities in the next section for the general rule for moving between sines and cosines to represent
the same function. Example 2 illustrates the sometimes useful and sometimes annoying fact that there are
many equivalent ways to express the same oscillating function. One of the goals of this chapter is to give you the
capability to move easily between dierent representations of the same oscillatory function.
General sine and cosine forms 7

Problem 2. Consider the function plotted below.

A) What is the amplitude of this function? B) What is (approximately) the wavelength of this function?
C) What is (approximately) the spatial frequency of this function?
D) Express (approximately) this function in sine form. E) Express (approximately) this function in cosine form.
2

1
y (m)

−1

−2
−4 −2 0 2 4
x (m)

 
2
Problem 3. Sketch the function y = (0.5m) sin x ¡  /5
4m

4.2 Some trig identities

The last four lines of identities below are worthy of particular note.
cos = adj/hyp sin = opp/hyp tan = opp/adj = sin /cos
sin(0) = 0; cos(0) = 1 ;
sin( /2) = 1; cos( /2) = 0
sin() = 0; cos() = ¡1
sin(3  /2) = ¡1; cos(3  /2) = 0
2  radians = 360
sin2 + cos2 = 1
sin(1 + 2) = sin(1) cos(2) + cos(1) sin(2)
cos(1 + 2) = cos(1) cos(2) ¡ sin(1) sin(2)
2 sin(1) sin(2) = cos(1 ¡ 2) ¡ cos(1 + 2)
2 cos(1) cos(2) = cos(1 ¡ 2) + cos(1 + 2)
2 sin(1) cos(2) = sin(1 ¡ 2) + sin(1 + 2)
sin(¡) = ¡sin(); cos(¡) = cos(); tan(¡) = ¡tan()
sin( ¡ ) = sin(); tan( + ) = tan()
sin( + ) = ¡sin ; cos( + ) = ¡cos() sin( + 2 ) = sin () cos( + 2 ) = cos()
sin(   /2) = cos(); cos(   /2) = sin()

4.3 Quadrature form and a useful theorem

An oscillating function is said to be written in quadrature form when it is written as a sum of a sine and cosine term of
the same frequency and with zero phase constant:
y(x) = Q cos(k x) + R sin(k x)
There is a useful theorem associated with this form, namely:
Theorem 1. If
Q cos(k x) + R sin(k x) = C cos(k x) + D sin(k x) (10)
for all x ranging at least over one cycle of the function, then,
Q = C and R = D (11)

Proof. Multiply Eq. (10) by cos(kx) and integrate over one cycle, (here I'll choose 0 to 2 /k but any cycle would do),
Z 2/k Z 2/k Z 2/k Z 2/k
Q cos2(k x)dx + R cos(k x) sin(k x)dx = C cos2(k x)dx + D cos(k x) sin(k x)dx
0 0 0 0
Q( /k) + 0 = C  /k + 0
Q=C
8 Section 4

Using Q = C in Equation 11, leads directly to R = D 

A second simple proof relies on the notion that in any cycle there will be a point where the cosine function is 1. At this
point the sine function will be zero so that Equation (10) reduces to
Q (1) + R (0) = C (1) + D (0) ) Q = C
The fact that when the cosine function reaches a maximum, the sine function of the same frequency and phase is zero indi-
cates that sine and cosine functions are in quadrature with each other; sine and cosine functions are, in a certain technical
sense, orthogonal to each other

4.4 Conversion between quadrature form and amplitude and phase form
Consider the function

y(x) = A sin(k x + 's) (12)

This sine function can be written in quadrature form by using one of the trig identities and the theorem of the previous sub-
section:
y(x) = A sin(k x + 's) = A sin(k x) cos('s) + A cos(k x) sin('s) = Q cos(k x) + R sin(k x)

That is, the quadrature amplitudes for a function originally in sine form are
R = A cos 's Q = A sin 's (13)
A similar procedure can be used to relate the cosine form directly to the quadrature form:
y(x) = A cos(k x + 'c) = A cos(k x) cos('c) ¡ A sin(k x) sin('c) = Q cos(k x) + R sin(k x)
R = ¡A sin 'c Q = A cos 'c (14)
Again I remind you that being able to easily go back and forth between the dierent ways of writing har-
monic functions sometimes simplies calculations and is necessary in order to communicate clearly with
those who choose a dierent functional form.
 
10
Example 3. Express the function y = (3 m) cos t ¡ 1.5 in quadrature form. Solution: Use the identity
s
cos(1 + 2) = cos 1 cos 2 ¡ sin 1 sin 2
So
     
10 10
y = (3 m) cos t cos(¡1.5) ¡ sin t sin(¡1.5)
s s
   
10 10
y = (3 m) (cos(¡1.5)) cos t ¡ (3 m) sin(¡1.5) sin t
s s
   
10 10
y = (0.212 m) cos t + (2.99 m) sin t
s s

Example 4.
A) Express the function y = (4 m) cos((10/s) t) ¡ (3 m) sin((10/s) t) in cosine form. Solution: Use a trig identity to expand
the cosine form and then equate the result to the function in quadrature form. This allows for a determination of A
and ':
     
10 10 10
A cos t + ' = A cos ' cos t ¡ A sin ' sin t = y = (4 m) cos((10/s) t) ¡ (3 m) sin((10/s) t)
s s s
A cos ' = 4 m
¡A sin ' = ¡3 m
A sin ' 3
= tan ' = ) ' = 0.6435 one choice
A cos ' 4
4
A cos(0.6435) = 4 m)A = m=5 m
cos(0.6435)
 
10
y = (5 m) cos t + 0.6435
s
B) Express the function y = (4 m) cos((10/s) t) ¡ (3 m) sin((10/s) t) in sine form. Solution. The sine form is shifted from
the cosine form by  /2: 's = 'c +  /2. So,
   
10 10
y = (5 m) sin t + 0.6435 +  /2 = (5 m) sin t + 2.21
s s
General sine and cosine forms 9

Problem 4.
 
2
A) Express the function y1 = (1 m) sin x ¡  /3 in quadrature form.
5m
   
10 10
B) Express the function y3 = (1 m) cos x ¡ (2 m) sin x in cosine form.
m m
   
10 10
C) Express the function y3 = (1 m) cos x ¡ (2 m) sin x in sine form.
m m

Problem 5. (20 pts) In this problem, I will lead you through a procedure that allows you to write the function
f (x) = (1 m) cos(k x ¡  /3) + (2 m) sin(k x ¡  /4)
in cosine form. This method can be extended to write the sum of any number of sinusoidal functions of the same spatial
frequency as a single cosine function.
A) Write (1 m) cos(k x ¡  /3) in quadrature form.
B) Write (2 m) sin(k x ¡  /4) in quadrature form.
C) Combine the results of A) and B) to write f (x) in quadrature form.
D) Write the result from C) in cosine form.

4.5 Sinusoidal functions of time

Sinusoidal functions of time can be written in the forms

y = A sin(! t + 's)
y = A cos(! t + 'c)
y = R sin(! t) + Q cos(! t)

Here, ! is the temporal frequency or just frequency with units rad/s or just 1/s. The repeat time for the motion is called the
period of the motion and is here given the symbol T . The period is determined from the fact that sines and cosines have a
phase-period of 2  so

! (t + T ) + 's or c = ! t + 's or c + 2 
!T =2
2
T= (15)
!

4.6 Notable phase shifts and other identities

I wish to note that the trig identities listed in Section 4.2 indicate that sine and tangent functions are odd and the cosine
function is even. Further, shifting a sine or cosine  is the same as introducing an overall factor of ¡1, while shifting a tan-
gent function by  leaves the function unchanged. Shifting a function by an integer multiple of 2  leaves the function
unchanged. as noted above the phase in sine and cosine forms dier by  /2: 'c = 's ¡  /2.
   
4 4  17 
Example 5. Are the functions y1 = (2m) sin x ¡  /6 and y2 = ¡(2 m) cos ¡ equivalent?
m m 3
Solution: I will try to apply transformations that got from y1 to y2...
   
4 4 2
y1 = (2m) cos x ¡  /6 ¡  /2 = (2m) cos x¡ 'c = 's ¡  /2
m m 3
   
4 2 4 
y1 = ¡(2m) cos x¡ +  = ¡(2m) cos x+ -phase shift introduces ¡sign
m 3 m 3
   
4  4 17 
y1 = ¡(2m) cos x + ¡ 6  = ¡(2m) cos x¡ Shifts by multiples of 2  leave function unchanged
m 3 m 3
y1 = y2 The functions are equivalent.

Problem 6. Consider the function y = (2 m) sin ((10/ s) t ¡  / 4). Indicate whether each of the following waveforms is
equivalent to y? Briey justify your answers.
1. (2 m) cos((10/s) t + /4) 2. (2 m) cos((10/s) t ¡ 3  /4) 3. (2 m) cos((10/s) t ¡  /4)
4. (¡2 m) sin((10/s) t ¡  /4 + ) 5. (2 m) sin ((10/s) t + 7  /4)
p
6. (2 m) sin((5/s) t + ¡ /4) 7. ( 2 m) [¡cos((10/s) t) + sin((10/s) t)] 8. (¡2 m) sin ((¡10/s) t +  /4)
p
9. (¡2 m) cos ((¡10/s) t + 3  /4) 10. ( 2 m) [cos((10/s) t + ) ¡ sin((10/s) t ¡ )]
10 Section 4

4.7 Inverse trigonometric functions

4.7.1 General case: two solutions sets
In this course, the problem of inverting a trigonometric functions to nd the positions or times that a trigonometric function
has a given value will often be encountered. In this section I sketch a method that can be used to solve this sort of problem.
The key facts to keep in mind are that trigonometric functions are periodic with a period of 2  and, in general, a trigono-
metric function takes the same value twice in any given period. Let us jump right into an example.
 
10 
Example 6. Find the positions at which the function y = (2 m) cos x ¡  /7 takes on the value y = ¡0.5 m.
m
Solution: Set,
 
10 
(2 m) cos x ¡  /7 = ¡0.5 m
m
So that,
 
10 
cos x ¡  /7 = ¡0.25
m
10 
x ¡  /7 = cos¡1(¡0.25) (16)
m
Now the inverse cosine of ¡0.25 has many values. We wish to denote all of these values. Begin by noting that
cos() = cos(¡) so that  and ¡ have the same cosine. A calculator or computer algebra program will typically give one of
the values of cos¡1(¡0.25). I nd that one of the values is
1 = cos¡1(¡0.25) = 1.8235
Another value is then
2 = cos¡1(¡0.25) = ¡1 = ¡1.8235
Further, shifting a phase by a multiple of 2  does not change its cosine so all of the values of cos¡1(¡0.25) can be written as
(
1q = 1.8235 + 2 q 
cos¡1(¡0.25) = q = 0; 1; 2:::
2q = ¡1.8235 + 2 q 
Note the introduction of the parameter q, which allows for a compact listing of values.
Using these results in Equation (16) gives two sets of solutions for the value of x such that y = ¡0.5 m:
10 
x1q ¡  /7 = 1.8235 + 2 q 
m
1.8235 + 2 q  +  /7
x1q = m=(0.2q + 0.07233) m q = 0; 1; 2:::
10 
10 
x2q ¡  /7 = ¡1.8235 + 2 q 
m
¡1.8235 + 2 q  +  /7
x2q = m=(0.2 q ¡ 0.04376) m q = 0; 1; 2:::
10 
2 2
Note that the wavelength of this function is  = = m=0.2 m; Within each solution set, the values repeat every . The
k 10 
function is plotted in Figure 6.

1
y (m)

−1

−2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x (m)
Figure 6. Plot of y = (2 m) cos((10 /m) x ¡  / 7). The function has the value y = ¡0.5 m at each intersection of the curve
with the red line.
General sine and cosine forms 11

It is useful to note that

 and ¡ have the same cosine (17)

 and  +  have the same tangent (18)
 and  ¡  have the same sine (19)

The third of these relations can be veried by considering Figure 7 and the denition of sine in vector analysis. Similar veri-
cations of the rst two relations can be made. In vector analysis, the sine of an angle that a vector with its tail at the
origin makes with the positive x-axis is the ratio of the y-coordinate of the vector to the length of the vector. Consider the
~1 and V
two vectors V ~2 shown in Figure 7. Note that y1 = y2, x1 = ¡x2 and that 2 =  ¡ 1. Then,
y1
sin 1 = q
x21 + y12
y2 y1
sin 2 = sin( ¡ ) = q =q = sin 1 
x22 + y22 x21 + y12

~2
V
y2 ~1
V y1
2

1

x2 x1 x

Figure 7. Note that the angles 1 and 2 =  ¡ 1 have the same sine.

Problem 7. (20 pts)

A) Find all of the values of  for which sin  = 1/3.
B) Find all of the values of  for which cos  = 1/3:
 
2
C) Find all of the values of x for which sin x = 1/3.
2m  
2 1
D) Find all of the values of x at which the function y = (1 m) sin x ¡  /3 has the value y = m.
2m 3

4.7.2 Special cases: one solution set

As discussed above, all of the solutions to an equation of the form cos  = x can be conveniently split into the two sets,

1q = calc + 2 q  q = 0; 1; 2:::

2q = ¡calc + 2 q 

where calc is one solution (that might be provided by a calculator) to cos¡1(x) = . Similarly, the solutions to an equation
of the form sin  = x can be conveniently split into the two sets,

1q = calc + 2 q  q = 0; 1; 2:::

2q =  ¡ calc + 2 q 

where calc is one solution (that might be provided by a calculator) to sin¡1(x) = . If x is 0, ¡1, or 1 there is a convenient
way to express all of the solutions in a single set. These solutions are listed below.

cos() = 1 ) q = 2 q  q = 0; 1; 2:::

cos() = ¡1 ) q = 2 q  + 
cos() = 0 ) q = q  +  /2
sin() = 1 ) q = 2q  +  /2
sin() = ¡1 ) q = 2q  ¡  /2
sin() = 0 ) q = q 
12 Section 5

 
4
Example 7. Find all of the values of x for which y = (2 m) sin x ¡  /6 = ¡2 m. Solution:
m
 
4
(2 m) sin x ¡  /6 = ¡2 m
m
 
4
sin x ¡  /6 = ¡1
m
4
xq ¡  /6 = 2 q  ¡  /2 q = 0; 1; 2:::
m
 
(2 q  ¡  /2 +  /6) q 
xq = m= m¡ m
4 2 12

 
2
Problem 8. Find all of the values of t for which x = (2 m) cos t ¡  /6 = 0.
s

5 Exponential functions

Exponential functions of position or time have the form

y = Aex y = A e t

The arguments of exponentials are dimensionless, so in the SI system of units  has dimensions of 1/m and  has units of
1/s. Typical exponential plots are shown below.

Exponential function
15

10
y (m)

0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x (m)
(2m) exp(−2x/m) (2m) exp(2x/m)
Figure 8. Exponential functions

Example 8. At what value of x does the function y = (2 m) e¡2x/m take the value 1 m? Solution:

1 m=(2 m) e¡2x/m
1
= e¡2x/m
2
ln(1/2) = ¡2 x/m
 
1
x=¡ m ln(1/2) = 0.347 m Consistent with gure...
2
Additional Example Problems with Solutions 13

Problem 9. Consider the function x = (0.25 m) e ¡(0.5/s)t.

A) At what value of t will this function take the value 0.1 m?
B) Sketch this function for positive values of t.

6 Summary

6.1 Some Important Statements

 The same function can be represented by a sine function, a cosine function, or in quadrature form.
 The repeat phase dierence of a sinusoidal function is 2 .
 Shifting a sine or cosine function by a phase of  is the same as introducing a multiplicative minus sign.

6.2 Symbols, Names, and Units

Name Symbol Value/Units
amplitude A m
spatial frequency k rad/m or 1/m
spatial period (wavelength)  m
temporal frequency or just frequency ! rad/s or 1/s
period T s

6.3 Equation Summary

Name Equation Comment
2
Spatial frequency k=

Sine cosine forms 'c = 's ¡  /2

Sinusoidal function spatial oset xstart = ¡('c or s)
2
2
Frequency !=
T
T
Sinusoidal function temporal oset tstart = ¡('c or s)
2
 and ¡ have the same cosine

 and  +  have the same tangent

 and  ¡  have the same sine

sin(1 + 2) = sin(1) cos(2) + cos(1) sin(2)

cos(1 + 2) = cos(1) cos(2) ¡ sin(1) sin(2)

7 Additional Example Problems with Solutions

  
6
Example 9. Consider the function y = (3 m) sin x +  /5 .
m
A) What is the amplitude of this function. Answer: A = 3 m.
6
B) What is the spatial frequency of this function? Answer: k =
m
2 1
C) What is the spatial period (wavelength) of this function? Solution:  = = m
k 3
D) Sketch this function. Be sure to label and scale the axes and to accurately display where the function passes through
 1/3
the x-axis. Solution: xs = ¡ ' =¡  /5 m=¡0.033 m:
2 s 2
14 Section 7

2.5

y (m)m

−2.5

−0.5 0 0.5 1
x (m)

Example 10. Express the function in Example 9 in

   
6   6 3
A) cosine form. Answer: y = (3 m) cos x+ ¡ = y = (3 m) cos x¡
m 5 2 m 10
B) quadrature form. Solution: Use the trig identity: sin(1 + 2) = sin(1) cos(2) + cos(1) sin(2):
        
6 6 6
y = (3 m) sin x +  /5 = (3 m) cos( /5) sin x + (3 m) sin( /5) cos x
m m m
     
6 6
y = (2.43 m) sin x + (1.76 m)cos x
m m

Example 11. Analytically nd all of the values of x at which the function in Example 9 has the value y = 1 m. Solution:
  
6
y = 1 m=(3 m) sin x +  /5
m
  
1 4
= sin x +  /5
3 m
 
6
asin(1/3) = x +  /5
m
 
6
1st set 0.340 + 2 q  = x1 q +  /5 q = 0  1; 2:::
m
0.340 ¡  /5 + 2 q  1
x1q = = q m¡0.0153 m
6  /m 3
 
6
2nd set  ¡ (0.340) + 2 q  = x2q +  /5
m
1
x2q = q m+0.115 m
3
Example 12.
A) For what values of  (in radians) is sin() = 0? List all of the values. Answer:  = q  q = 0; 1; 2:::
B) For what values of  (in radians) is sin  = ¡1? List all of the values. Answer:  = (2 q + 1)  +  /2 q = 0; 1; 2:::
C) for what values of  (in radians) is sin  = ¡1/4? List all of the values. Solution:
 = sin¡1(¡1/4)
 = ¡0.253 + 2 q  and  + 0.253 + 2 q  q = 0; 1; 2:::
D) For what values of  (in radians) is cos  = 0? List all of the values. Answer:  = (2 q + 1)  /2 q = 0; 1; 2:::
E) For what values of  (in radians) is tan  = 3? List all of the values. Solution:
 = tan¡1(3)
 = 1.249+q  q = 0; 1; 2:::

Example 13. Consider the function y = (2 m) cos ((10/ s) t +  / 4). Determine whether each of the following waveforms is
equivalent to y? Briey justify your answers.
1. (2 m) sin((10/s) t ¡  /4) Answer: Not equivalent, 's = 'c +  /2 = 3  /4 =
/ ¡ /4.
2. (2 m) sin((10/s) t + 3  /4) Answer: Equivalent, 's = 'c +  /2 = 3  /4
3. (2 m) cos((10/s) t + 9  /4) Answer: Equivalent, shifting by 2  does not change a cosine function.
4. (¡2 m) cos((10/s) t + 5  /4) Answer: Equivalent, shifting by  is equivalent to an overall ¡ sign.
Index 15

p
5. ( 2 m) [cos((10/s) t) + sin((10/s) t + )] Answer: Equivalent:
y = (2 m) cos ((10/s) t +  /4) = (2 m) cos( /4) cos((10/s) t) ¡ (2 m) sin( /4) sin((10/s) t)
p p p p
y = ( 2 m) cos((10/s) t) ¡ ( 2 m) sin((10/s) t) = ( 2 m) cos((10/s) t) + ( 2 m) sin((10/s) t + ) 

Example 14. Consider the function plotted below.

A) What is the wavelength of this function? Answer: The separation between peaks is the period.  = 2 m.
2
B) What is the spatial frequency of this function? Solution: k = =  /m

C) Express (approximately) the function in sine form. Solution:
 

y = (2 m) sin x + 's
m
 2 2 1 
xstart = ¡ ' ) 's = ¡ xstart = ¡ =¡
2 s   2 m 5 5
 
y = (2 m) sin x¡
m 5
2

1.5

0.5
y (m)

−0.5

−1

−1.5

−2
−1 0 1 2 3
x (m)

Index

amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 sine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
angular frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 spatial frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 spatial period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 temporal frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
phase constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 trig identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
quadrature form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4