Limits of Economj of i!~iaterlal in F'rame-strttctures.

589
Final results.--The departure of the curves iu a straight
horizontal line shows the presence of overtones as well as
the prime tone; while the fact that the curves appear to
asymptote to this line shows that the overtones die away
quicker than the fundamental.
By both methods of experiment we see that the two curves
agree best when p = ' 8 ; then substitute this value i n (9) and
we get a value for the frequency of vibration such that

N~ ='986.

I hope to make further experiments on tuning-forks or

bars of acoustic frequency. I desire to render my best thanks
to one of flay colleagues, Dr. E. H. Barton, for his kind help
in the work.
University College,Nottingham,
July 14, 1904.

LVIII. The Limits of Economy of lllaterial i~zFrame-structures.

By A. G. M. MIC~ELL, M.C.E., ,r

M A Xgiven
W E L L has shown t that for all frames under
system of applied forces
a

~./pt'~-E./j~=C, . . . . . (1)
where fp is the tension in any tie-bar of length lp, f~ the
thrust in any strut of length lq, and the first sum is taken for
all the ties, the second for all the struts. C is shown to be
a function of the applied forces and the coordinates of their
points of application, and independent of the form of the
frame.
Starting from this result, we can find in certain eases lower
limits to the quantity of material necessary to sustain given
forces, and also assign the forms of frames which attain the
limit of economy.
If the greatest tensile stress allowable in the material
which is to be employed ls P, and the greatest compressive
stress Q, the least volume of material in a given frame,
consistent with security, is

~.l,~ +~./q.~ =V . . . . . (2)

* Communicatedby the Author.

t ScientificPapers, it. pp. 175-177.
Phil. Mat. S. 6. Vol. 8. No. 47.2~ov. 1904. 2T
590 Mr. A. G. M. Michell on the Limits of
Now, considering a number of different frames in equi-
librium under the same set of external forces, in that one of
the frames in which V is least
2PQ.V+(P-Q)C is also 1east;

= ( P + Q ) ( E . I ' p f p + E . lqfq} is least,

or X. 1 I l l is least . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
where [fJ denotes the numerical value of the force in any
bar, and the sum is taken for both struts and ties.
One proof given by Maxwell of the equation (1) above
depends on consideration of the virtual work of the applied
forces and internal stresses during an imposed uniform dila-
tation or contraction of the frame. Consideration of a more
general type of imposed deformation will furnish information
as to the quantity X. 1 I f ] .
Let the space within a given boundary, which encloses a
number of different frames subjected in turn to the same set
of' applied forces, undergo an arbitrary deformation of which
the frames partake and such that n o linear element in the
space suffers an extension or contraction numerically greater
than e. ~l, where 8l is the length of the element and e a given
small fraction.
In this deformation, let any bar of length l of one of the
frames, A, undergo the small" change of length el, which is
to be taken as positive when it increases the existing strain
in the bar due to the applied forces, negative in the contrary
case. The increase in the elastic energy of the bar is elf,
and for the whole frame
X. e/f= 8W,
by the principle of Virtual Work, where SW is the virtual
work of the applied forces, and is independent of[the form of
the frame A.
Thus ~W = Z . e//~ Z . [ e ] l [ f ]
:v x . ~ [S] :t>~x. ~ [1]
or X 1A [f]A 4: ---~W
indicating by the suffixes that the inequality applies to the
frame A.
If, however, a frame, M, can be found, such that all its
parts have their strains increased equally and by as much
 Economy of Material in Frame-structures. 591
as any elementary line in the deformed space, i. e. if e = e in
all parts, the signs of inequality may be replaced by that of
equality, and
X. l~ [f~ ~ = a W , X. tA/A,
E

so that s [ f ] u is a minimum, and consequently from

(3), V~, the volume of material in the frame M, is also a
minimmn.
A frame therefore attains the limit of economy of material
possible in any frame-structure under the same applied
forces, if the space occupied by it can be subjected to an
appropriate small deformation, such that the strains in all
the bars of the frame are increased by equal fractions of their
lengths, not less than the fractional change of length of any
element of the space.
If the space subjected to the deformation extends to infinity
in all directions, the volume of the frame is a minimum re-
latively to all others, otherwise it will have been shown to be
a minimum only relatively to those within the same assigned
finite boundary.

The condition e= e can evidently be satisfied when all the

bars of a frame have stresses of" the same sign. The test
deformation to be applied is then a uniform dilatation or con-
traction (according as the frame is in tension or compression)
of a space enclosing the frame and extending to any finite
boundary or to infinity at pleasure.
The simplest minimum frames of this special class are : - -
I. Ties and struts subjected to a single pair of equal and
opposed forces.
II. Triangular and tetrahedral frames under forces applied
at the angles of the figure, and acting along lines
which intersect within the figure.
III. Catenaries in general, the points of application of the
applied forces, as well as the forces themselves, being
given.
In all these cases the minimum volume of the frame is
v-X'l[f] 8W X.~Frcosa
P -- eP -- eP
X. F r cos •,
P
where F is one of the applied forces, r the distance of its
point of application, R, from an arbitrary fixed point O,
2T2
592 Mr. A. G. M. MieheU on the Limits of
8 the angle between R e and the direction of F, and P is the
allowable stress in the material.
A more general class of frames satisfying the condition
e=e, consists of those whose bars, both before and after
the appropriate deformation, form curves of orthogonal
systems.
In such a system the test strains may be equal and of the
same sign, or equal and opposite, in directions at right angles,
without the strains in the bars being exceeded by those of
any other lines in the field. In the first case the strain is
evidently the same in all directions ; in the second, if k, --~.
are the strains in the principal directions, the strain in any
direction at an angle 8 to one of them is ___Xcos 28=X ~,
.'. Wx'] ~ Ix].
The condition that a two-dimensional orthogonal system
shall remain orthogonal after equal and opposite extensions
of its two series of curves, is that the inclination between
any two adjacent curves of the same series is constant
throughout their length. This is easily seen as follows : -
Let 1 be the elementary length, $ the change of direction
of the curve $1, between its points of intersection with two

adjacent curves R1R2 of the other series, and let m be the

elementary length of 1~1 between the two curves Sl, $2 of
the S-series, m being taken small in comparison with 1.
Let the curves of the S-series be extended by the ~mall
fraction X of their length.
If the element remains rectangular the change in the angle
(~ must be equal to the change in the inclination of the
elements R1 and R 2 to each other,
dl m)
.-. =_x dl =x,/,"
m, dH/

Take now a new element, with sides of comparable length,

l, n, formed by the pairs of curves R1R2, S1S~. Let 5V be
 Economy of Material in Frame-structures. 593
the change of direction of R1 between $1 and Sk, and let ~/
be the extension of the R curves,

S~v

Then, as before, ~----~/~; and making a circuit around

the element, since the angles remain right angles,

de d4F
but ~ . n-- - ~ . l = 0 , because the angles were right angles
before the deformation. Thus since X~=~X, by assumption
d~
d~-0' and d~ ~0 . Q.E.D.

There are two general classes of orthogonal curves satis-

fying the required conditions, viz. :--
I. Systems of tangents and involutes derived from any
evolute curves.
(Since such systems are bounded by the evolute curves,
the corresponding frames are in general of minimum volume
only relatively to others with the same finite boundaries.)
II. Orthogonal systems of equiangular spirals, with systems
of concentric circles and their radii, and rectangular
networks of straight lines, as special cases.
Frames whose bars coincide with the curves of any of
these systems are therefore frames of minimum quantity
of material, for any system of forces consistent with their
equilibrium and continuity of displacement.
Frames may also be built up of parts of different systems
of these classes provided that continuity of displacement is
secured along the lines of junction.
Examples of such frames of minimmn quantity of material,
for some elementary systems of forces, are given in the
accompanying figures.
Compression bars in each case are indicated by thick, and
tension bars by fine, continuous lines. Those portions of the
594 Mr. A. G. M. Michelt on the Limits of
lines of principal strain on which material bars are not required
are shown by dotted lines.
1. (Fig. 1.) A single force F applied at A, and acting at
right angles to the line AB, is balanced by an equal and
opposite ibrce and a couple, of moment F x AB, applied at B.

Fig. 1.
%

," ,,i-

~,~ \ /\ ..k~A.,- n,./ I-<. z "

/'

I~'--i'-"T V -F- - T -

/
I
/
% % o, -,
"". ~ Il
s
/(

The minimum frame is formed of two similar equiangular

spirals having their origin at B and intersecting orthogonally
at A, together with all the other spirals orthogonal to these
and enclosed between them.
All the spirals of one syries art~ equally extended, those of
the other system equalI2 comp essea m the same degree.
The spirals may be extended to infinity, and the infinite field
will remain continuous with equal and opposite strains in the
principal directions ~at all points. The necessary volume of
material is infinite if the frame is continued to a mere point
at B ; but if forces equivalent to the force F, and the couple
F x AB at B, are distributed over a small circle with its
centre at B, and of radius r0, the volmne necessary is

Fa.log a . +
r 0

where a----AB, and P, Q are the stresses allowed for tension

and compression.
2. Centrally-loaded Beam.--(Fig. 2.) A single force, F, is
applied at C, the middle point of the line AB~ and is balanced
by equal parallel forces at A and B.
 Economy of J/late'rial in Frame-structures. 595
The minimum frame is composed of the two quadrantal
bars D F and EG, having their common centre at C, of all

Fig. 2.

i!

i~... / \
I .4 \ /
, ",I "./"~/ ' Xl~ ''~ [ /-"K / P~ x -, /

/ "X ,4
II/S %'. ;4 , ~ ",,, %-
,tN" X s D W,,
x "\ '/\ ~', ,\ , x /'t,
7/
",. ,I / \ I \ / \
/x
". / 4
/ ,

, ,., <,-\,,-,./,/ 7_
".,"" \ /">."
\ , 7 ;"- -r \z, ." - /I /~
/\ ~-/
v. L "//,v i

/ /\ / i \ ~%

/ / %

the radii of t~hese quadrants, and their four tangents AD,

AE, BF, and BG. The orthogonal system is completed and
extended to infinity as indicated by the dotted lines.
The quadrants above C and all straight lines extending
obliquely downwards and outwards from the line of action of
F are compressed, all the other lines extended.
The necessary volume of material is
~r 1 1

where a-----AC = CB.

2a. (Fig. 3.) With the same applied forces the condition
may be imposed that the frame shall lie wholly on one side
of the line AB.
The form of the minimum frame is then as in fig. 3, and
consists of the semicircle on AB and its radii. The figure to
be subjected to the test deformation consists of the semi-
infinite plane below AB, all the radii from C being extended
and the semicircles about C compressed.
596 Mr. A . G. M. M i c h e l l on t/te Limits of
The m i n i m u m v o l u m e of the frame is

and therefore exceeds the frame of~ s 2, in which no

limitation of extent was imposed, in the ratio 2wr : (2 + ~r), or
1"22 : 1.
Fig. 3.

K _-- / \

/ _l
/

Fig. 4.

" "~ '\ /~ / d "z'ir,

-/ ,' - , .-..- , ,'," ..-'\ '....

--.....,~-.,
--,: , -..//
c , ..,
,.-
/ ~. / ~.~ ~ \ .,.\/ \

' ~ ' ' " / ' , X. " " ' ~ " / '

.'..,-..,,E.,x,,_,,_,,_,,_,,_,~.
"" ' ' ,-.-9"<G - '.T-'"', _
~,.
I~" / ~" / I ' \

/
3. (Fig. 4.) Constructions similar to that of figs. ~ & 3
give the miMmum h'ames for three forces, two o~' which are
 .Economy of Material in Frame-structures. 597
equal and directed to a point on the line of" action of the
third outside the triangle formed by the points of application
of the forces. Fig. 4 is an example.
The sectors DCG ~, FCE ~ undergo uniform bulk compres-
sion, the remainder of the field pure shear as in fig. 2.
The volume of the frame is
1_) 1},
where a is the angle ECG.
4. (Fig. 5.) Equal and opposite couples applied at points
A~ B on the straight line AB.
Fig. 5.

t]

The minimum frame consists of the series of rhumb-lines

inclined a~ 45 ~ to the meridians of the sphere having its
poles at A and B.
All the rhumb-lines of one series and all similar lines on
spheres concentric with the spherical frame are uniformly
and equally extended, all the lines orthogonal to these on the
spheres equally compressed.
The third system of orthogonals~ viz., radii from the centre
of the sphere, are unchanged in length and simply rotated
about the axis AB.
The minimum ~olume of the frame is
2L 1
~ l~ tan ( 4 § 2 ) • (~- -{- ~),
where L is the moment of the transmitted couple, 2a----AB,
and X is the latitude of small circles about each pole
corresponding to the'circle of radius r0 in Case 1.
Melbourn%April 19, 1904.