VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(AUTONOMOUS)
B.Tech VI Semester Supplementary Examinations, Nov/Dec - 2017
(Regulations: VCE-R11/11A)
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
(EEE)

1a) Derive the expression for the ratio error of CT

Percentage ratio error= nominal ratio –actual ratio *100

Actual ratio

=Kn-R* 100
R
1b) Extend the range of electrostatic voltmeter
Two methods :

2a) Three phase electro dynamometer type power factor meter.

2b) Find the phase angle and ratio error:

Phase angle ϴ=I0 cos (α+δ) /n Is

α= Sin-1Iw/Io
δ=36
Phase angle ϴ = 0.143°

Ratio error =Kn-R/R

Kn=2000/5=400
R=n+9.48 sin (22.02+36)/5
R= 401.608

Error=400-401.608/400= - 0.402%
3a) Weston type of frequency meter
3b) Solution
a) Power = VI cos Ф
=250*12*1=3000W
The power loss in current coil = I2 Rc=122*0.11=15.84W
Error = (15.84/3000)*100
= 0.528%
The power loss in pressure coil =V2/Rp
= 2502 *6500
= 9.6W
Error =9.6/3000*100
=0.32%
b) Power = 250*12*0.4
=1200W
Error =15.84/1200 *100
=1.2%
Error= 9.6/1200*100
=0.8%

4a) Single phase induction type energy meter

Explain about shunt magnet, pressure coil

Series magnet, current coil
Cu shading bands
Braking magnet
Aluminum disc
Recording mechanism
4b) Solution:
(i) Direct loading:
Power consumed in pressure coil circuit =(220)2 /8800=5.5W
Power consumed in current coil circuit=220*5=1100W
Total Power consumed=5.5+1100=1105.5W
(ii) Phantom loading
Power consumed in pressure coil circuit = (220)2 /8800=5.5W
Power consumed in current coil circuit=6*5=30W
Total Power consumed=5.5+30=35.5W
5a) Calibration of voltmeter and ammeter using DC potentiometer

THEORY:-

The calibration is the process for determining the correct values of mesurand by compared with
the standard ones. The potentiometer is extensively used for a calibration of voltmeter and
ammeter .The procedure for standardization of the potentiometer is illustrated by the following
example.

PROCEDURE:- The slide wire has a total length of 200 cm and a resistance of 200 n. The
emf of the standard cell is 1.0186 V. Switch 'S' is thrown to "calibrate" position and the sliding
contact is placed at 101.86 cm mark on the slide wire scale. The rheostat Rh is now adjusted
so as to vary the working current. This adjustment is carried on till the galvanometer shows no
deflection when key 'K' is pressed. Under these conditions, the voltage drop along the 101.86
cm portion of the slide wire is equal to standard cell voltage of 101.86 V. Since the 101.86 em
portion of the slide wire has a resistance of 101.86 n, the working current in fact has been
adjusted to a value.

5b) Polar type AC potentiometer

Polar Type Potentiometer

In this potentiometer, the magnitude of the unknown voltage is measured from one scale, and
its phase angle is directly on the second scale. The arrangement is made to read phase angles
up to 360°. The voltage is read in the form of V∠θ.

Coordinate Type Potentiometer

The coordinate type potentiometer has two scales to read the inphase V1 component, and the
quadrature component V2 of the unknown voltage V. These voltages are 90° out of phase with
each other. The potentiometer is constructed in such a way so that the potentiometer read both
the positive and negative value of V1 and V2 and covered all the angle up to 360°.
Applications of Potentiometer
The AC potentiometer has numerous applications. The few of them are explained below in
details.
1. Voltmeter Calibration – The AC potentiometer directly measures the low voltages up to
1.5V. The higher voltage is measured by either using the volt box ratio or two capacitors in
series with the potentiometer.
2. Ammeter Calibration – The measurement of the alternating current may be measured by
the use of non-inductive standard resistor with the potentiometer.
3. Wattmeter and Energy Meter Testing – The testing circuit of the Wattmeter and the
energy meter is same as that of the DC measurements. The phase shifting transformer is
connected to the potentiometer to vary the phase of the voltage on the current. Thus, the voltage
and current may vary at different power factor.
4. Measurements of Self Reactant of a Coil – The standard reactance is placed in series with
the coil whose reactance is to be measured.
5. Other Applications – The AC potentiometer is used for engineering measurement in which
the accuracy of 0.5 to 1% is essentials. The AC potentiometer is also used for measuring the
voltage which must be resolved into two components. It gives the accurate results in magnetic
testing and precise testing of instrument transformers.

6a) DC Crompton’s potentiometer

The slide-wire type of potentiometer described in the previous article is not a practical
form of construction. The long slide wire is awkward, and even for the length shown cannot be
read to a very great degree of precision. Modern laboratory type potentiometers use
calibrated dial resistors and a small circular wire of one or more turns, thereby reducing the
size of the instrument. The circuit of a simple laboratory type potentiometer is shown in the
below figure. There is one dial switch with fifteen steps, each having a precision resistor. There
is also a single turn circular slide wire. For the case shown, the resistance of slide wire is 10 Ω
and the dial resistors have a value of 10 Ω each. Thus the dial has a total resistance of 150 Ω
and in addition, the slide wire has a resistance of 10 Ω. The working current of the
potentiometer is 10 mA and therefore each step of dial switch corresponds to 0.1 V.

The slide wire is provided with 200 scale divisions and since the total resistance of slide
wire corresponds to a voltage drop of 0.1 V, each division of slide wire corresponds to 0.1/200
= 0.0005 V. It is quite comfortable to interpolate readings upto 1/5 of a scale division and
therefore with this potentiometer it is possible to estimate the readings upto 0.0001 V.
 Laboratory type potentiometer

This potentiometer is provided with a double throw switch which allows the connection
of either the standard cell or the unknown emf to be applied to the working circuit. A key and
a protective resistance (usually about 10 KΩ) is used in the galvanometer circuit. In order to
operate the galvanometer at its maximum sensitivity provision is made to short the protective
resistance when near the balance conditions.

The following steps are used when making measurements with the above potentiometer:

1. The combination of dial resistors and the slide wire is set to the standard cell voltage.
Supposing the value of emf of the standard cell is 1.0186 V, the dial resistors put at 1.0 V and
the slide wire is put at 0.0186 setting.

2. The switch S is thrown to the calibrate position and the galvanometer key is tapped while
the rheostat is adjusted for zero deflection on the galvanometer. The protective resistance is
kept in the circuit in the initial stages so as to protect the galvanometer from being getting
damaged.

3. As the balance or null point is approached, the protective resistance is shorted so as to

increase the sensitivity of the galvanometer. Final adjustments are made for zero deflection
with the help of the rheostat. This completes the standardisation process for the potentiometer.

4. After completion of standardisation, the switch 'S' is thrown to operate position thereby
connecting the unknown emf into the potentiometer circuit. With the protective resistance in
the circuit, the potentiometer is balanced by means of the main dial and the slide wire.

5. As the balance is approached, the protective resistance is shorted, and final adjustments are
made to obtain true balance.

6. The value of unknown emf is read off directly from the settings of the dial adjust slide wire.

7. The standardisation of the potentiometer is checked again by returning the switch S to the
calibrate position. The dial settings are kept exactly the same as in the original standardisation
process. If the new reading does not agree with the old one, the second measurement of
unknown emf must be made. The standardisation should be again checked after the completion
of the measurement. This potentiometer is a form of Crompton's Potentiometer
6b) Solution:
(a)Resistance of 101.8cm length of wire= (101.8/200)*400=203.6Ω
The working current Im=1.018/203.6=0.005A=5mA
(b) Total resistance of the battery circuit=resistance of rheostat + resistance
of slide wire
Resistance of rheostat Rh=total resistance-resistance of slide wire
= (3/5*10-3)-400=600-400=200Ω
(c) Range of voltage = (5*10-3)*400=2.0v
(d) A length of 200cm represent 2.0 volt and therefore 1mm represent a voltage of
(2/220)*(1/10) =1mV

7a) Loss of charge method:

In the loss of charge method unknown resistance is connected in parallel with the capacitor
and electrostatic voltmeter. The capacitor is initially charged to some suitable voltage by
means of a battery of voltage V and then allowed to discharge through the resistance. The
terminal voltage is observed during discharge and it is given by,

V=v exp (-t/CR) (OR)

V/v = exp (-t/CR)
Or insulation resistance is given by,
R= t/(C ln V/v)
= 0.4343 t / (C log V/v)

The variation of voltage v with time is shown in figure,

From above equation, it follows that if V, v, C, and t are known the value of R can be computed.
If the resistance R is very large the time for an appreciable fall in voltage is very large and thus
this process may become time-consuming. Also the voltage-time curve will thus be very flat
and unless great care is taken in measuring voltages at the beginning and at the end of time t, a
serious error may be made in the ratio V/v causing the considerable corresponding error in the
measured value of R. more accurate results may be obtained by change in the voltage V-v
directly and calling this change as e, the expression for R becomes:
This change in voltage may be measured by a galvanometer. However, from the experimental
point of view, it may be advisable to determine the time t from the discharge curve of the
capacitor by plotting the curve of log v against time t. this curve is linear as shown in the second
figure and thus the determination of time t from this curve for the voltage to fall from V to v
yields more accurate results. Loss of charge method is applicable to some high resistances, but
it requires a capacitor of very high leakage resistance as high as resistance being measured.
The method is very attractive if the resistance being measured is the leakage resistance of a
capacitor as in this case auxiliary R and C units are not required.

7b) Kelvin double bridge:

In this post we will see the Kelvin double bridge. It is used for the measurement of low
resistances. The Kelvin double bridge is the modification of the Wheatstone bridge and
provides greatly increased accuracy in measurement of low value resistance. An understanding
of the Kelvin bridge arrangement may be obtained by the study of the difficulties that arise in
a Wheatstone bridge on account of the resistance of the leads and the contact resistances while
measuring low valued resistance. The Kelvin double bridge incorporates the idea of a second
set of ratio arms-hence the name double bridge-and the use of four terminal resistors for the
low resistance arms.

Figure shows the schematic diagram of the Kelvin bridge. The first of ratio arms is P and Q.
the second set of ratio arms, p and q is used to connect the galvanometer to a point d at the
appropriate potential between points m and n to eliminate effect of connecting lead of
resistance r between the unknown resistance, R, and the standard resistance, S. The ratio p/q is
made equal to P/Q. under balance conditions there is no current through the galvanometer,
which means that the voltage drop between a and b, Eab is equal to the voltage drop Eamd.

kelvin double bridge

Now the voltage drop between a and b is given by,

Above equation is the usual working equation for the Kelvin Double Bridge. It indicates that
the resistance of connecting lead, r, has no effect on the measurement, provided that the two
sets of ratio arms have equal ratio. The former equation is useful, however, as it shows the
error that is introduced in case the ratios are not exactly equal. It indicates that it is desirable
to keep r as small as possible in order to minimize the errors in case there is a difference
between ratios P/Q and p/q.

8a) Direct deflection method:

The figure shows the measurement of high resistance using direct deflection method. For
measurement of high resistance such as insulation resistance of cables, a sensitive
galvanometer of d’Arsonval type is used in place of the micro ammeter. In fact many sensitive
type of galvanometers can detect currents from 0.1-1nA.therefore, with an applied voltage of
1kV, resistance as high as 10^12 to 10*10^12O can be measured. The first figure shows the
direct deflection method for measurement of high resistance having metallic sheath. The
galvanometer G shows the current between the conductor and the metallic sheath. The leakage
current is carried by the guard wire wound on the insulation and therefore does not flow through
the galvanometer as shown in figure. Cables without metal sheaths can be tested in a similar
way if the cable, except the ends or ends on which connections are made, is immersed in water
in a tank. the water and a tank then forms the return path for the current .the cable is immersed
in slightly saline water for about 24 hours and the temperature is kept constant at about 20
degree Celsius and then the measurement is taken as shown in second figure.
The insulation resistance of the cable is given by,

In some cases, the deflection of the galvanometer is observed and its scale is afterwards
calibrated by replacing the insulation by a standard high resistance (usually 1MO), the
galvanometer shunt being varied, as required to give a deflection on the same order as before.

8b) Find the measured value of the resistance and the error.
Actual value = 1Ω
The current carrying capacity of the resistance =100mA
A 100mV resistance of 50Ω is used to measure the drop across the resistance

9a) Wien bridge

The Wien bridge is a type of bridge circuit that was developed by Max Wien in 1891.[1] The
bridge consists of four resistors and two capacitors. At the time of the Wien bridge's invention,
bridge circuits were a common way of measuring component values by comparing them to
known values. Often an unknown component would be put in one arm of a bridge, and then
the bridge would be nulled by adjusting the other arms or changing the frequency of the voltage
source. See, for example, the Wheatstone bridge. The Wien bridge is one of many common
bridges.[2] Wien's bridge is used for precision measurement of capacitance in terms of
resistance and frequency.[3] It was also used to measure audio frequencies.
The Wien bridge does not require equal values of R or C. At some frequency, the reactance of
the series R2–C2 arm will be an exact multiple of the shunt Rx–Cx arm. If the two R3 and R4
arms are adjusted to the same ratio, then the bridge is balanced.

The bridge is balanced when:

The equations simplify if one chooses R2 = Rx and C2 = Cx; the result is R4 = 2R3.
In practice, the values of R and C will never be exactly equal, but the equations above show
that for fixed values in the 2 and x arms, the bridge will balance at some ω and some ratio of
R4/R3.

9b) Dual slope type digital voltmeter

Initially a pulse is applied to reset the counter and the output of flip-flop will be at logic '0'. The
switch Sr is in open condition and the switch, Si is in closed condition. Now, the capacitor 'C'
starts to charge. Once the output of the integrator becomes greater than zero, the output state
of the comparator changes which in turn opens the AND gate.
When the gate opens the output of the oscillator (clock pulses) are allowed to pass through it
and applied to the counter. Now the counter counts the number of pulses fed to it. As soon as
it reaches its maximum count that is the counter is preset to run for a time period r,, in this
condition the maximum count will be'9999', and for the next immediate clock pulse the count
changes or goes to '0000' and the flip-flop will be activated. Therefore, the output of flip flop
becomes logic 'I' which in turn activates the switch drive circuitry. This makes the switch Si,
to open and Sr to close (i.e., the supply of Vi will be stopped. and the supply of V is applied to
the integrator) with this applied signal the output of the integrator will be a constant negative
slope i.e., its output signal linearly decreases to zero. This again makes the output of the
comparator to change its state which in turn closes the gate. Here, the discharging time t2 of
the capacitor is proportional to the input voltage signal Vi. During this discharging period the
counter indicates the count. As soon as, the negative slope reaches zero volts the comparator
changes its output state to 'zero' which in turn locks the gate. Once, the output of integrator
becomes zero (or the input of the comparator is zero) the counter will be stopped and the
counted pulses are displayed (which directly gives the input voltage). From the above equation,
it is clear that the measured voltage signal's accuracy does not depend on the time constant of
the integrator.
Advantages:
1. Depending on the requirement the accuracy and sped can be varied.
2. It can provide the output with an accuracy of +-0.005% in 100ms
3. This technique exhibits excel lent noise rejection since the integration process eliminates
both noise and super imposed A.C.

10a) Owen’s bridge:

Definition: The bridge which measures the inductance in terms of capacitance is known as
Owen’s bridge. It works on the principle of comparison i.e., the value of the unknown inductor
is compared with the standard capacitor. The connection diagram of Owen’s bridge is shown
in the figure.
The ab, bc, cd and da are the four arms of Owen’s bridge. The arms ab are purely inductive
and the arm bc is purely resistive in nature. The arm cd has fixed capacitor and the arm ad
consists the variable resistor and capacitor connected in series with the circuit. The unknown
inductor L1 of arm ab is compared with the known capacitor C4 connected to the arm cd. The
bridge is kept in balanced condition by independently varying the resistor R2 and the capacitor
C2. At the balanced condition, no current flows through the detector. The end points (b and c)
of the detector are at the same potential.

Phasor Diagram of Owen’s Bridge

The current I1, E3 = I3R3 and E4 = ωI2C4 are all on the same phases and are represented on the
horizontal axis. The voltage drop I1R1 in the arm ab is also represented on the horizontal axis.
The sum of the inductive voltage drop ωL1I1 and the resistive voltage drop I1R1 gives the
voltage drop E1 of the arm ab. When the bridge is in the balanced condition the potential E1
and E2 across the arm ab and ad are equal. Thus, it is shown on the same axis. The voltage
drop V2 is the summation of the resistive voltage drop I2R2 and capacitive voltage drop I2/wC2.
The I2 of the arm ad lead by 90º with the voltage drop V4 of the arm cd because of the fixed
capacitor C4. The current I2 and the voltage I2R2 are represented on the vertical phases shown
in the figure above. The supply voltage is obtained by adding the voltage V1 and V3.

At balance condition,

On separating the real and imaginary part we get,

,
10b) Successive Approximation type DVM:

The successive approximation type DVM is special type of potentiometric DVM in which a
digital divider is used in the place of linear divider. The servomotor replaced by
electromagnetic logic. The comparator compares the output of digital to analog converter with
unknown voltage. The digital to analog converter successively generates the sequence of digits.
The signal is sent to the output for display, when the output of digital to analog converter
becomes equal to the unknown voltage. It is a special analog to digital conversion technique
which is also known as binary regression. The block diagram of successive approximation type
DVM is shown in above figure. The comparator is used to compare the output of digital to
analog converter with unknown input voltage. The comparator output is given to the sequencer
and logic controller. The sequence of code is generated by the sequencer which is applied to
digital to analog converter. The output of DAC is available at position 1 and the unknown
voltage which is to be measured is available at position 2. The logic control is used to drive the
clock. The clock signal is used to connect the switch at position 1 or 2.