Renewable Energy 43 (2012) 322e330

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www . elsevier . com/locate/renene

Symmetrical Switching of a Three-Phase Rectifier to improve the

power factor in the minihydroelectrics frequency control
1, .2, 3 1
Antonio Colmenar-Santos *, Lorenzo Alfredo Enríquez García *, Henry BoryPrévez , Clara Pérez-Molina

1
Industrial Engineering Higher Technical School Spanish University for Distance Education (UNED), Juan del Rosal St., 12, 28040 Madrid (Spain), E-mail
[email protected] (C.P.)

2
Polytechnic School of Chimborazo, Riobamba-Ecuador; E-Mails: [email protected] (L.A.)

3
Electrical Engineering, University of the Orient Headquarters Mella, Ave Casero S/N, Santiago de Cuba , Cuba; E-Mail: [email protected](H.B.)

Article Info Abstract

Article history: One way to produce electricity is by employing microhydroelectric power–centrals, many of them operate in isolated or
Received autonomous regime because there are not connected to the national electric system. Many of them that work in autonomous
Available online regime regulate frequency using ballasts loads connected in parallel with the costume load. This research analyses a bridge three-
phase rectifier type with switches in serial with the load commuted with symmetrical angle, assisting to the indexes effective
current, active, reactive, apparent and distortion power and power factor. The objective is to apply this rectifier commuted with
Keywords: symmetrical angle for the improvement of the power factor in micro hydroelectric power-stations that operate on isolated regime,
Rectifier; symmetrical switching; and that regulate frequency by changing the power dissipated in ballasts loads with alternating current in alternating current
converters. The expressions of the indexes previous of the alternating current in alternating current converter are summarized.
AC-AC converter; power factor; An example is calculated where both converters are compared demonstrating the advantage of the circuit with rectifier regarding
frequency control the power factor of the electric system.

1. Introduction

At the present time there is a world-wide energetic crisis, where several The authors on [5] proposed a control structure that ensures the voltage
countries have explored the renewable power sources. The hydraulic energy is and frequency regulation of an insulated induction generator.
one of the most important of them, which is improved by the construction of On [6] the authors report that in the United Kingdom there are small
hydroelectric power-stations and small sized hydroelectric power-stations hydroelectric power-stations operating on 120 places producing a power of 100
known as small, mini and micro hydroelectric to generate clean electricity (no MW with an unexplored potential of 400 MW. 1
fossil combustibles are used), therefore there is no poison gasses emitted to the The articles [7], [8] and [9] are related to the costs analysis, the reckoning
atmosphere such as the Carbon Dioxide. Ecuador uses this technology where of the optimum installation capacity to the small hydroelectric power-stations
16 hydroelectric power-stations are operating and are generating a power of 24 according to technical, economical and reliability rates and the selection of
MW, located mainly in the central zone of the country and there are planned to small centrifuge pumps used as a turbine in micro hydroelectric power-stations
install 10 mini hydroelectric power-stations more to increase the power respectively.
electricity in 170 MW [1,2]. On [10] the authors present the Power Electronics as the technology that
There is a project in Rwanda to Privately Develop Micro Hydroelectric brings the solution to problems that come from hydroelectric energy systems
power-stations, in which four companies build, each one, power-plants from such as Networks integration, machinery control, frequency and voltage control
100 to 150 kW to supply energy to a low voltage distribution net. [3] and the power factor improvement.
In the article [4] is propose an advanced structure of a micro hydroelectric The authors on [11] present the hybrid control to the fitting of an integrated
power-station based on a high speed turbine that is smaller, lighter, more control system of optimization of coordination to coordinate the generation and
efficient and stronger. The asset of the proposed design is that it is easiest and the voltage automatic control system, which has always been considered they
removes the mechanical adjustments trough a conditioning electronic power operate independently under the estimation of the active and reactive power
system to the connection to the electric network. control are disengaged.

1
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail:aco [email protected] (A.C.);
Tel.:+0034-913987788; Fax: +0034-913986028
 On [12] is proposed a model of the distributed generator vectorially In the article by Kurtz and Botteron [22], the authors propose as an
controlled to a power flow based on the method of three-phase current alternative to control the dissipated power in the ballast load, a three-phase
injection. To obtain the model the output current per phase equations are bridge rectifier diode type (Graets bridge) with a power MOSFET, which acts
formulated on stationary state. as a switch in series with the load, which, in order to improve the power factor
The author of [13] presents an approximation to the frequency control of at its input, is switched by Pulse Width Modulation. This control has the
an interconnected power system using the theory of variable structure systems disadvantage of using power devices of quick recovery that are more expensive
and the optimum control theory. A systematic procedure is developed to select and less available than devices of the same power but switched at low
the hiperplano commutation. The results obtained are based on simulation. frequency.
On [14] a simple mathematic algorithm is proposed to estimate the phase In the articles [29] and [30] new forms of switching to different
difference between the voltages and current that allows the calculation of power configurations of rectifier bridges with a resistive- inductive load, therein
factor from electric power systems. The author asserts that the phase difference shows that depending on the way the components switch, the bridge can
estimation with this algorithm is quick and is not affected when the current is consume or provide reactive power or neither. The difficulty applying these
distorted. methods has been the need to use multiple power devices (MCT, IGBT, GTO,
The articles commented on the previous paragraphs demonstrate the etc...) that allow achieving these forms of commuting but are more expensive
importance and the interest dedicated to the hydroelectric power sources from than the thyristors with the same power.
the scientist community. The purpose of this research is to switch with symmetric angle the rectifier
This article will be focused on the small hydroelectric power-stations proposed by Kurtz and Botteron [22], to improve the electrical system power
because they bring the electric service on intricate places without the need of factor of the micro hydroelectric power plants while controlling the dissipated
big water reservoir or flows, producing a minor environment impact. In some power in the auxiliary load.
of this micro hydroelectric power-plants (μCHs), as there are not connected to The parameters to be analyzed are effective current, active, reactive,
the Electro energetic National System, the frequency control gets done by apparent and distortion power and power factor.
keeping constant the water flow and changing the dissipated power in a The article presents the following structure: in section 1introduction is
ballasted load connected in parallel with the users load, so that the Generation performed; the section 2titled Methodology is divided into the sections 2.1, in
Power (PG), which is the one is trying to keep constant, is equal to the power which a brief overview of the terms of the levels of performance and energy of
dissipated on the o the ballasted load (PL) plus the power consumed by those the AC-AC converter is given and 2.2 in which is analyze the three-phase
users (PC) as is show on the Figure 1. Mathematically this is PG = PL + PC. [15, rectifier with a switcher in series with the load switched with symmetric angle
6]. obtaining the mathematical expressions of the performance and energy rates
depending on the switching angle; in section 3an application example to small
hydroelectric power plants is develop where Three-phase rectifier and AC-AC
converters are compared according to the mentioned rates and is proven the
advantage of using the rectifier according to the power factor on the generator
output; and Section 4, where the final conclusions of the article are given.

2. Methodology
2.1. Review on AC-AC converter.

Below the mathematical expressions of the performance and energy

parameters of the AC-AC converter previously mentioned are summarized. As
the system analyzed has three phases there is a converter at each phase that
Figure 1.General working scheme of the frequency control by ballasted Load.
regulates the amount of energy transferred from the alternator to the ballast
loads, as well as considering that the converters are connected in star, are
The method of frequency control for ballasts loads using electronic controllers switched to the same angle shot, was use the four-wire connection, just
offer the following avails: more efficient regulation, the schemes of control are analyzing one of the phases can get the results of the whole system.
more robust, flexible and accurate; they do not present wastages, since there In Figure 2 the simulation scheme of the AC-AC converter for one phase
are no moving pieces neither they require the necessary maintenance of the is shown using the professional software Psim 6.0 [31].
mechanical-hydraulic regulators.[15, 16, 17].

Nowadays, as national as internationally, on the μCHs that become

frequency regulated by ballasts loads is use an Alternating Current-Alternating
Current converter (AC-AC) to regulate the dissipated power on each
ballast resistance. To set some examples it appears on the papers from Garcia
in 2014[18], from Abreu in 2006 [19], from Kurtz and Botteron [22], from Fong
and et al in 2008 [23], from Hechavarria in 2008 [16], from Lee Dinh Suu in
2010 [24], from Suarez in 2010 [25], from Peña [26], from Vasquez [27] and
from Bory in 2010 [28]. Figure 2. Simulation scheme of the AC-AC converter.
 This simulation scheme presents: a sinusoidal voltage source (Vf)
minimum value, zero, since no power is transferred from the source to the load.
representing one phase of the alternator, with effective voltage (Veff) 110 V
The reactive power at the input to the AC-AC converter:
and frequency 60 Hz, the AC-AC converter formed by T1 and T2, two
thyristors connected in antiparallel, the triggers (G1 and G2) whose function is
to give the trigger pulse to the thyristors and its parameters are frequency (60 Ve2f 1  cos(2 ) 
Qent  (3)
Hz), number of switching points (two) and switch points (the desired shooting R  2 

angle shown), load resistance representing the ballast load in a phase (R = 4.03)
This power is positive, indicating that the network consumes it from the
and current and voltage markers (IL and VR) to display the waveforms of the
net. In Figure 4 the input reactive power divided between the maximum active
converter input current and voltage in the load respectively.
The operation of the simulation scheme is as follows: for the positive half
power against power firing angle is plotted, it is zero for  0, and

cycle of the input voltage T1 is triggered at  angle after the zero crossing,    . When    / 2 reactive power reaches its maximum value of
causing it to pass to the conducting state allowing the power flow to pass from 0.318 times the maximum active power, this is the maximum power

the source to the load. During the negative half cycle is triggered T2 at  consumption of the network. When   0 , reactive power is zero, since there
angle after zero crossing, causing it to pass to the conducting state allowing the is no phase difference between the fundamental component of the input current
power flow to pass from the source to the load. By changing the firing angle and the input phase voltage.
power flow is controlled.
In Figure 3 the most significant waveforms of both voltage and current of
the above circuit to an angle of 60° are shown to exemplify.

Qent / P 0
Figure 4. Graphical behavior of the relation against the shooting angle.

An important aspect to mention is that each AC-AC converter, useful to

control the power to be dissipated in a ballast resistor, consumes inductive
reactive power contributing to worsen the power factor at the generator
terminals.

Figure 3.Most significant graphic wave forms from the AC-AC converter. (a) voltage source, (b)
voltage at the load, (c) current on the line the same load.
The input apparent power to the AC-AC converter:

The effective value of the input Current is: Ve2f 1  sen(2 ) 

S ent     
(4)
R   2 
Ve f 1 sen(2 ) 
When 
I rms     (1)  0 , apparent
R   2 

(1)power has its maximum value, which is equal

to the maximum active power dissipated in the load resistor. For    ,

The Active Power in the input to the AC-AC converter:
the source does not deliver power to the load so that the apparent power is
zero, its lowest value.
Ve2f  sen(2 ) 
Pent     
(2)
R  2
(2)
The input distortion power to AC-AC Converter:

When  0 , the Active Power reaches the maximum value

V 2 2 Ve2f
P 0 
ef
, which corresponds to the behavior of the converter, since for Tent  2 (   )  (2   )sen(2 )  cos(2 )  1 (5)
R 2R
this value, the source sees a pure resistance and this P 0 is the power For   0 , Tent  0 because the input current to the converter is
dissipated in this resistance. When    , the input power reaches its not distorted. For    Tent  0 as the input current is zero.
,
 For    / 2 distortion power reaches its maximum value of 0.386 represents the alternator; phase bridge rectifier diode(BD3), switch (SI)
times the maximum active power. representing a switching component known as power bipolar transistor or
IGBT; gating (G1) that represents the control unit, and its function is to apply
Now the power factor is determined:
a pulse to the switcher according to the switch form with symmetric angle and
angle value desired, with switching frequency parameters (360Hz), number of
1 sen(2 ) 
fp     (6) switching points (2) and switch points(desired angle and width); load resistance
  2 
 (R), which represents the ballast load (R = 4.03) and markers of voltages and
currents (Va, Vb, Vc, VR, ILa, IL Band ILC) displaying the wave forms of the
For   0 fp  1 , because for this angle as the input current to the
phase voltages, the load voltage and line currents respectively.
converter is perfectly sinusoidal and is in phase with the input voltage.
As the system is three-phase and therefore there is an AC-AC converter in The scheme operates as follows: the diodes of the bridge lead up to 120°
and switched every 60°, then to switch with a symmetric control angle, IS
 
each phase, which is supposed to commute with the same reference angle, the
closes an angle after the natural switching point and opens at the same
expressions of total power and power factor are:
before next natural switching point, from this behavior can be state that the
•Three-phase active power P3ent
adjustment range is: 0   .
6

sen(2 ) 
In Figure 6, the most significant wave forms of both voltage and current
Ve2f 
P3ent  3Pent  3   
2 
(7) of the rectifier circuit for an(7)
angle equal to 150°are represented.
R 

 Three-phase reactive power Q3ent

Ve2f 1  cos(2 ) 
Q3ent  3Qent 3
R   (8) (8)
2
 Three-phase apparent power S3ent

Ve2f 1 sen(2 ) 
S 3ent  3S ent  3   
2 
(9)

(9)
R Figure 6. Graphics of the most significant waveforms of three-phase rectifier switched with symmetric
angle. (a) Voltages of each phase of the source, (b) voltage at the load, (c) line current of phase A.

 Three-phase power factor fp3 The wave form of the input current to the rectifier, as shown in Figure 6c for
the phase a, has a period I L  2 whose analytical expression is given
P 1 sen(2 ) 
fp3  3ent     
  2 
(10) by Eq. (11).
(20)
S3ent 0    
 6 6 
 
 
2.2. Analysis of the Bridge type three-phase rectifier with as switcher in series 2 3Ve f
 sen           
with the ballast loads witched with symmetrical angle.  R 6 6 2 
        
Within this section is shown in Figure 5 the simulation scheme of three- 0 2 2 
 
phase rectifier with a switcher in series with the ballast or ghost load and the 

2 3Ve f
R

sen   
6
       5   
2 6 
expressions of performance and energy rates previously mentioned according  
 5      7   
i L ( )  0 
to the commutation angle are obtained. 6 6
 

Figure 5. Simulation scheme of the three-phase rectifier with a switch



2 3Ve f
R

sen   5
6
 7      3   
6 2 
 
0 3      3   
in series with the ballast load.  2 2 
 


2 3Ve f
R

sen   5
6
 3      11   
2 6 
0 11      2   

 6 6

Then in Figure 6c shows that the converter input current per phase has odd

symmetry and half-wave, which implies that: a0  0 , an  0 for all n

and bn  0 when n is pair. Since the coefficient a1 is zero, the three-phase

The elements of the scheme are: three-phase sinusoidal voltage rectifier to the commutation switch tested does not consume or generate
source(VSIN3) with 60Hz and a line voltage of 190.53Veffective that reactive power for any possible value of the power switching angle.
 b1
Determining the coefficient b1 : P3ent  3Ve f (17)
2
I L
9Ve2f   3 sen(2 ) 
     
4
8  
 i   sen( )d 
P3ent 2 cos( 2 )
b1  R  3 2 2 
(18)
I L
L
0
  (12)   0 (42)
  sen( )d
2 For the total active power is maximum
2 3Vef
sen   
8
 9Ve f   3
2

2 R 6 P3ent máx    

6
 R  3 2    6
and for it is zero, the

3 2Ve f   3 sen(2 ) 
b1    2  cos(2 )   (13)
P0 
Ve2f
R  3 2 2  (53)
R
minimum value. If set and divide the Eq. (18) for P0, is
obtain the normalized expression of the total active power, in which the graph
This coefficient indicates how much is the amplitude of the first harmonic
shown in Figure 7 an approximately linear behavior of this (compared with the
of the current for each rectifier input terminal depending on the angle reference line) is seen, thus making this switching rectifier with symmetric
switching. angle commutation in an ideal component of the control loop frequency.

The effective value of the input current is:

3Ve f   3 sen(2 ) 
I1rms    2  cos(2 )   (14)
R  3 2 2  (64)

For   0 , the effective value of the fundamental component of the

input current to the converter reaches its maximum value:

3Ve f   3
I1rms máx     and for   6 it becomes
R  3 2 
cero, its lowest value.

The offset angle 1 is zero for any value of the control angle, indicating that

there is no phase difference between the phase voltage and the first harmonic
of the input current to the rectifier, which corroborates the stated above, the
Figure 7.Graphical behavior of the relation P3ent / P0 against  .
rectifier does not consume or generate reactive power.

The displacement power factor is one. The apparent total input power:

The effective value of the input current to the rectifier is: S3ent  3Vrms I rms (19)

TI L   2
4  2 3V 
2 3 6 Ve2f 1  sen(2 ) 
 iL ( )2d  4   ef sen(   6) d
4 3
I rms  S 3ent    2  cos(2 )   (20)
R  3
(75) 2 2 
TI L 0 2    R 
(15)

6
For   0 , the total apparent power to the rectifier input reaches its
3 6 Ve2f 1  3
2 3 Vef 1  3 sen(2 )  maximum value S 3ent máx     . For
I rms    2  cos(2 )   R  3 2 
 3
(16) (86)
R 2 2 
  6
, the three-phase apparent power is zero, its lowest value, since the

Calculating the total active power at the rectifier input using the fundamental source gives no power to the load. This power has an approximately parabolic

harmonic component of the input current in phase with the phase voltage. curve as indicated by Eq. (20).
 Phase distortion power is determined as: These results were expected and demonstrate that the rectifier that switches
on the way previously described does not consume nor provides reactive energy
T3ent  S32ent  P32ent (21) (212) as an improvement over the current use of the
to the net, which is considered
AC-AC converters, which consume reactive power contributing to worsen the
2 power factor at the generator output.
9V 2
2  3 sen(2 ) 
T3ent   2  cos(2 ) 
ef
 (22)
(22)
R 9  2 2 
3. Results and Discussion
For   0 T3ent  1.687 P0 , nonzero value because the rectifier input
3.1. Application example of the rectifier.
current is distorted. For    , T3ent  0 , since the input current is
6 In this section, an example is developed to illustrate the advantages of the
zero. three-phase rectifier switched with symmetrical angle versus AC-AC converter

Below the graphic of the total input distortion power split between P0 against which is currently employed in the frequency control in a μCH by ballast load.

the angle  is shown, where is emphasized that for    / 12 this power Suppose that after having a record of measurements of power, voltage an
reaches its maximum value of 2.999 times P0. defective current in a μCH, is known to have a low active power demanded by
users, PUMIN, is 3kW; the maximum active powered manded by users, PUMAX, is
12kW and at a certain time the power demanded by users is PU =7.5kW with a
lag power factor fpU =0.7.
Example development–Considering that to control the power to be
dissipated in the ballasts loads will be use a three-phase rectifier switched with
symmetric angle is necessary to find the value of the ballast resistance, this
value is calculated from the maximum active power should consume the three-
phase rectifier, if is this: PBD3máx = PUMAX - PUMIN = 9 kW, then

evaluating equation (18) for   0 has to be:

9V 2 
ef 3
R      7.3689 
(26)
ballast  P
BD 3 máx 3 2 

Figure 8. Graphic of T3ent / P0 aganst the commutation angle. The chosen value of the ballast resistor is Rballast = 7.3 Ω, because it allows

Then the power factor is determined: the frequency control when the power of the users is minimum.

The values of resistance and inductance per phase that represent the users
9Ve2f   3 sen(2 ) 
  2  cos(2 )  
R  3
load in ascertain in time of the day when they demand PU with a power factor
P 2 2 
fp  3ent  (23)
of 0.7 are: RU =2.37  and
(23) LU = 6.418mH respectively. The total reactive
S 3ent 3 6 Ve2f 1   3 sen(2 ) 
  2  cos(2 )   power consumed by users and the effective current in each phase for these
R  3 2 2 
conditions are: QU= 7.65kVAR and IU=32.47A.
In the time of the day that users consume the power PU, the rectifier should

3  3 sen(2 ) 
be consuming an active power PBD3 of 4.5 kW and this is achieved with
fp    2  cos(2 )   (24)   0.282 rad (16.16°).
2 3 2 2  (24)
For this  value and Rballast, the effective current, power and power
factor in the rectifier input are:

It should be noted that for   0 fp  0.956 , because the input  The effective current eq. (16), IBD3A = IBD3B = IBD3C = 20.27 A.
current to the rectifier for this angle is distorted. The power factor has an
 The total active power eq. (18) PBD3= 4.5006 kW.
approximately parabolic curve as indicated by Eq. (24).
 The total reactive power: QBD3 = 0 kVAR.
It is recalled that a total reactive power at the rectifier input is:
 The total apparent power eq. (20) SBD3 = 6.690 kVA.

a1  The total power distortion eq. (22) TBD3= 4.950 kVAD.

Q3ent  3Vef 0 (25)
2  The power factor eq. (24): fpBD3 = 0.6727
 In the generator terminals to the load conditions imposed by the users and  Power phase distortion, eq. (5) TfACAC = 1.157 kVAD, total TACAC= 3.470

the rectifier, the total active power (PL), total reactive power (QL), total apparent KVAD.

power (SL), total distortion power (TL) and the factor power (fpL) are:  The power factor of Eq. (6), fpACAC = 0.7071.

 The total active power PL = 12.00 kW. At the generator output, represented by VSIN3, the active power is PG

 The total reactive power QL = 7.65 kVAR. (W), the reactive power is QG (kVAR), the apparent power SG (VA), the

 Total Apparent Power: SL =15.070 kVA. distortion power (TG) and power factor (FPG).

 The total distortion power: TL = 4.950 kVAD.  The total active power PG = 12.00 kW.

 Power factor: fpL = 0.7966.  The total reactive power: QG = 10,514 kVAR.

Figure 9 shows the scheme used for the simulations in the professional  The total apparent power: SG =16.331 kVA.

software Psim 6.0[31].  The total distortion power: TG = 4.950 kVAD.

 Power factor: fpG = 0.735.

The Table 1 named Comparison between the simulation results of the

three-phase rectifier switched with symmetric angle and the AC-AC converter
shows the simulation results of both schemes.

Variable Three-phase AC-AC

Rectifier Converter
ILa, ILb, ILc (generator 45.61 A 49.45 A
output)

IaBD3, IbBD3, IcBD3, 20.25 A -

Figure 9. Simulation scheme with three-phase rectifier.

IaCACA, IbCACA, - 19.27 A
IcCACA
The elements of the scheme are: sinusoidal voltage source VSIN3, which
represents the alternator; users load, RL users; the proposed three-phase W3L 12.002 kW 12.004 kW
rectifier consisting ofBD3, IS and G1;the ballast load Rballast; AC VAR3L 7.656 kVAR 10.522 kVAR
ammeters(ILa, IIb, IIc, Ilua, ILub, ILuc, IaBD3, IbBD3 and IcBD3) measuring VAPF3L (S) 15.065 kVA 16.323 kVA
the effective values in each phase of the current in the generator terminals, the
VAPF3L, (fp) 0.7966 0.7354
load that represent the users and in the proposed rectifier respectively and the
W3BD3, W3CACA 4.501 kW 4.504 kW
Watt meters, varmeters and apparent power and power factor meters (W3L,
VAR3BD3, VAR3CACA -0.067 VAR 2.685 kVAR
VAR3L, VAPF3L, W3u, VAR3u, VAPF3u, W3BD3, VAR3BD3 and
VAPF3BD3) to measure the total power and power factor at the alternator VAPF3BD3, VAPF3CACA 6.690 kVA 6.364 kVA

output, at the users load and at the input of the rectifier bridge respectively. (S)

The simulation scheme representing the currently employed system differs VAPF3BD3, 0.6728 0.7077
from the one shown in Figure 9 on the replacement of the three-phase rectifier VAPF3CACA, (fp)
with three AC-AC converter, each connected between one phase and the neutral Table 1. Comparison between the simulation results of the three-phase rectifier switched with
of the generator and that the names of the measuring instruments and therefore symmetric angle and the AC-AC converted.

of the measured variables associated with these converters end with AC-AC.
From the results shown in Table 1, an excellent correspondence between
In the current scheme the three ballast resistors are Rballast 1= Rballast 2= Rballast
calculated andsimulated values is observed.
3 = 4.03 Ω, one for each AC-AC converter. For these AC-AC converters
From Table 1is also noted that the reactive power value obtain by simulation
consume1.5kW must be switched at an angle of 90°, resulting in:
for the scheme with the rectifier can be considered null due to its small size,
 Effective converter input current eq. (1),ICACA= 19.30 A. this is the fundamental difference between the scheme employing the three-

 Active power per phase, Eq. (2) PfACAC= 1.5 kW, total PACAC = 4.5 kW. phase rectifiers witched with symmetric angle and the currently use scheme
with AC-AC converters.
 Reactive power per phase, Eq. (3) QfACAC = 0.955 kVAR, total QACAC =
The total reactive power consumed by the three AC-AC converters to
2.864 kVAR.
control the angle of each converter of 90° represents a 37.4% of the total
 Apparent power per phase, Eq. (4) SfACAC= 2,123 kVA, total SACAC = reactive consumed by users and a 27.23% of the total reactive power at the
6,369 kVA. output of the generator.
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