LIST OF FORMULAS AND THEOREMS

Theorem 1. Basic Theorems on Limits

1. The limit of a constant is itself. If k is any constant, then, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌 = 𝒌.

𝒙→𝒄

2. The limit of x as x approaches c is equal to c. This may be thought of as the

substitution law, because x is simply substituted by c. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 = 𝒄
𝒙→𝒄

3. The Constant Multiple Theorem: This says that the limit of a multiple of a function
is simply that multiple of the limit of the function. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌 ⋅ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒌 ⋅ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒌 ⋅ 𝑳.
𝒙→𝒄 𝒙→𝒄

4. The Addition Theorem: This says that the limit of a sum of functions is the sum of
the limits of the individual functions. Subtraction is also included in this law, that is,
the limit of a difference of functions is the difference of their limits.

𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑳 + 𝑴.

𝒙→𝒄 𝒙→𝒄 𝒙→𝒄

𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙)) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑳 − 𝑴.

𝒙→𝒄 𝒙→𝒄 𝒙→𝒄

5. The Multiplication Theorem: This is similar to the Addition Theorem, with

multiplication replacing addition as the operation involved. Thus, the limit of a
product of functions is equal to the product of their limits.
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝒇(𝒙) ⋅ 𝒈(𝒙)) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) ⋅ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑳 ⋅ 𝑴.
𝒙→𝒄 𝒙→𝒄 𝒙→𝒄

6. The Division Theorem: This says that the limit of a quotient of the limits of the
individual functions, provided the denominator limit is not equal to 0.
𝒇(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝑳
𝒙→𝒄
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)
= 𝑴 , 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝑴 ≠ 𝟎.
𝒙→𝒄 𝒙→𝒄

7. The Power Theorem: This theorem states that the limit of an integer power p of a
function is just that power of the limit of the function. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝒇(𝒙))𝒑 = (𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙))𝒑 = 𝑳𝒑 .
𝒙→𝒄 𝒙→𝒄

8. The Radical/Root Theorem: This theorem states that if n is a positive integer, the
limit of the nth root of a function is just the nth root of the limit of the function,
provided the nth root of the limit is a real number. Thus, it is important to keep in
mind that if n is even, the limit of the function must be positive.
𝒏 𝒏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 √𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒏√𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐟(𝐱) = √𝑳.
𝒙→𝒄 𝒙→𝒄
Theorem 2. Let f be a polynomial of the form

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛

If c is a real number, then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐).

𝑥→𝑐

Theorem 3. Let h be a rational function of the form

𝑓(𝑥)
ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
where f and g are polynomial functions. If c is a real number and g(c) ≠ 0, then
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑐)
lim ℎ(𝑥) = lim = .
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑐)

Theorem 4. (Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)).

If a function f(x) is continuous over a closed interval [a,b], then for every value m between
f(a) and f(b), there is a value c 𝜖 [a,b] such that f(c) = m.

The Extreme Value Theorem

An extreme value of f, or extremum, is either minimum or maximum value of the function.

 A minimum value of f occurs at some x = c if 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ≠
𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙.
 A maximum value of f occurs at some x = c if 𝑓(𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ≠
𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙.

Theorem 5. (Extreme Value Theorem (EVT)). If a function f(x) is continuous over a

closed interval [a,b], then f(x) is guaranteed to reach a maximum and a minimum on [a,b].

Definition 2 (Continuity on ℝ). A function f is said to be continuous everywhere if f is

continuous at every real number.

Definition 3 A function f is differentiable at the number c if

𝑓(𝑐+ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Theorem 6. If a function is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.

RULE 1: The Constant Rule. If f(x) = c where c is a constant, then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0. The
derivative of a constant is equal to zero.

RULE 2: The Power Rule. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .

RULE 3: The Constant Multiple Rule.

𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 ℎ(𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑘 ℎ′ (𝑥).

RULE 4: The Sum Rule. 𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥) where g and h are differentiable functions,
then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑔′ (𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥).

RULE 5: The Product Rule. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)ℎ(𝑥) where g and h are differentiable functions,
then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)ℎ′ (𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥).

RULE 6: The Quotient Rule. Let f(x) and g(x) be to be differentiable functions with g(x) ≠
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓′ (𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′(𝑥)
0. Then 𝐷𝑥 [𝑔(𝑥)] = [𝑔(𝑥)]2
.

RULE 7: Derivatives of trigonometric functions

(a) 𝐷𝑥 (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥

(b) 𝐷𝑥 (cos 𝑥) = −sin 𝑥

(c) 𝐷𝑥 (tan 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥

(d) 𝐷𝑥 (cot 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥

(e) 𝐷𝑥 (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥

(f) 𝐷𝑥 (csc 𝑥) = −csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥

RULE 8: Derivative of an exponential function. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 .

Definition
Let f be a function that is continuous on an open interval I containing x0.
 We say that x0 is a critical point of f if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑓′(𝑥0 ) does not exist (that is, f
has a corner or cusp at (𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 ))).
 We say that the maximum occurs at x0 if the value 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is the largest number among
all other functional values on I, that is,
𝑓(𝑥0 ) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼
 We say that the minimum of f occurs at x0 if the value 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is the smallest among all
the other functional values on I, that is,
𝑓(𝑥0 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼.
 We say that an extremum of f occurs at x0 if either the maximum or the minimum
occurs at x0.

Theorem 7. (Fermat’s Theorem). Let f be continuous on an open interval I containing

x0. If f has an extremum at x0, then x0 must be a critical point of f.

Theorem 8. (Extreme Value Theorem). Let f be a function which is continuous on a

closed and bounded interval [a,b]. Then the extreme values (maximum and minimum) of f
always exist, and they occur either at the endpoints or at the critical points of f.

Theorem 9. (Chain Rule). Let f be a function differentiable at c and let g be a function

differentiable at f(c). Then the composition g ∘ f is differentiable at c and

𝐷𝑥 (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑐) = 𝑔′(𝑓(𝑐)) ⋅ 𝑓 ′ (𝑐).

Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic and Inverse Tangent Functions. Suppose u is a

function of x. Then
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
 𝑑𝑥
(ln 𝑢) = ∙
𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
 𝑑𝑥
(𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑢) = ∙
1+𝑢2 𝑑𝑥
Theorem 10. If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then every antiderivative of
f on I is given by 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶, where C is an arbitrary constant.

Terminologies and Notations

 Antidifferentiation is the process of finding the antiderivative.
 The symbol ∫ , also called the integral sign, denotes the operation of
antidifferentiation.
 The function f is called the integrand.
 If F is an antiderivative of f, we write
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶

 The symbols ∫ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥 go hand and hand and 𝑑𝑥 helps us identify the variable of
integration.
 The expression 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶 is called the general antiderivative of f. Meanwhile, each
antiderivative of f is called a particular antiderivative of f.

Theorem 11. (Theorems on Antidifferentiation)

(a) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶

(b) If a is any constant, then ∫ 𝑎𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

(c) If f and g are defined on the same interval, ∫[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

𝑥 𝑛+1
(d) If n is any real number and n ≠ -1, then ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ 𝐶.

Theorem 12. (Theorems on integrals yielding the exponential and logarithmic

functions)

(a) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑎𝑥
(b) ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑎 + 𝐶. 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑎 > 0 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 ≠ 1.
1
(c) 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| + 𝐶.
Theorem 13. (Antiderivatives of Trigonometric Functions)

(a) ∫ sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶

(b) ∫ cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
(c) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
(d) ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝐶
(e) ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶
(f) ∫ csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 + 𝐶

Theorem 14. (Theorems on integrals yielding the exponential and logarithmic

functions)

1. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑎𝑥
2. ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑎 + 𝐶. 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑎 > 0 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 ≠ 1.
1
3. ∫ 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑥| + 𝐶

FORMULAS
1. ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝐶 = ln|sec 𝑢| + 𝐶
2. ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sin 𝑥| + 𝐶
3. ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶
4. ∫ csc 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|csc 𝑥 − cot 𝑥| + 𝐶

INTEGRALS OF INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

𝑑𝑢
1. ∫ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑢 + 𝐶
√1−𝑢2
𝑑𝑢
2. ∫ 1+𝑢2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑢 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑢
3. ∫ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑢 + 𝐶
𝑢√𝑢2 −1
SUMMARY/TABLE OF INTEGRALS

1. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶 11. ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶

2. ∫ 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 12. ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶
3. ∫[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 13. ∫ csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥 𝑛+1 14. ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝐶
4. ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ 𝐶, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 ≠ −1
15. ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sin 𝑥| + 𝐶
5. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝐶
𝑥

𝑎𝑥
16. ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶
6. ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑎 + 𝐶 17. ∫ csc 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|csc 𝑥 − cot 𝑥| + 𝐶
1
7. ∫ 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑥| + 𝐶 𝑑𝑥
18. ∫ 2 2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑎) + 𝐶
𝑥
𝑥 √𝑎 −𝑥
8. ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
19. ∫ 𝑎2 +𝑥2 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑎) + 𝐶
9. ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
10. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶 20. ∫ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 ( ) + 𝐶
𝑥√𝑥 2 −𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎

Definition 6. A partition 𝓠 of an interval 𝚰 is a refinement of another partition 𝓟

of 𝚰 if 𝓟 ⊆ 𝓠, meaning, 𝓠 contains all partition points of 𝓟 and more.

Geometric Interpretation of the Definite Integral

Let f be a positive continuous function on [a,b]. Then the definite integral

𝑏 𝑛

∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑘∗ )Δ𝑥

𝑎 𝑛→∞
𝑘=1

is the area of the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑏.

Consequently, the definite integral does not depend on the variable x. Changing this
variable only changes the name of the x-axis but not the area of the region. Therefore,
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

COMPUTING DEFINITE INTEGRALS BY APPEALING TO GEOMETRIC FORMULAS

Using the geometric interpretation of the definite integral, we can always think of a definite
integral as an area of a region. If we’re lucky that the region has an area that is easy to
compute using elementary geometry, then we are able to solve the definite integral
without resorting to its definition.
Theorem 15. Suppose 𝒬 is a refinement of 𝒫. Then, any (left, midpoint, right)
Riemann sum approximation of a region R relative to 𝒬 is equal to or is better than the same
kind of Riemann sum approximation relative to 𝒫.

Theorem 16. (Linearity of the Definite Integral). Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be positive continuous
functions on [𝑎, 𝑏] and let 𝑐 ∈ ℝ. Then,

𝑏 𝑏
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑐𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
(𝑏) ∫ (𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

Definition 7. Let f be a continuous positive function on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then

𝑎
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑎
𝑎 𝑏
(𝑏) ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
𝑏 𝑎

Theorem 17. (Additivity of the Definite Integral). Let f be a positive continuous

function on a closed and bounded interval Ι containing distinct numbers 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐. Then
𝑏 𝑐 𝑐
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 no matter how 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 are ordered on the interval Ι.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTOC)

Let 𝑓 be a continuous function on [𝑎, 𝑏] and let 𝐹 be an antiderivative of 𝑓, that is,
𝑏
𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥). Then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎).