Bridge Watchkeeping Guide

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
CONTENTS
Title Page
Contents 2
Advisory Group 3
Acknowledgements 4
A message from the Secretary General of the IMO 5
Foreword by the President of The Nautical Institute 6
Introduction 7—8
Chapter 1 Preparing for sea 9—20

Chapter 2 Watchkeeping in pilotage waters 21—30
Chapter 3 Pilot boarding and discharge 31—35
Chapter 4 Watchkeeping in coastal waters 36—42
Chapter 5 Watchkeeping during ocean passages 43—49
Chapter 6 Making a landfall and preparing for arrival 50—56
Chapter 7 Anchoring and Watchkeeping at anchor 57—64
Chapter 8 Watchkeeping in reduced visibility at sea ; 65—67
Chapter 9 Taking over a watch 68—71
Chapter 10 Calling the Master 72—75
Chapter 11 Responding to emergencies 76—82
Chapter 12 Error management 83—90
Chapter 13 Collision avoidance 91—102
Chapter 14 Record keeping 103—108
Chapter 15 Automated bridges 109—110
Conclusion 111—112
ANNEXES
Annex 1 Nautical Institute Bridge Watchkeeping Briefing .... 113—122
Annex 2 IMO Bridge watchkeeping requirements 123—126
Annex 3 IMO Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary 127—130
Annex 4 Passage Planning 131—136
Annex 5 IMO Pilot Boarding Arrangements 137
Annex 6 International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea 138—162
Annex 7 Review of references, inc. training videos 163—164
Annex 8 Glossary of terms 165—166
Annex 9 Log book entries 167—169
SAQ ANSWERS 170—179
INDEX 180
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE —2—

THENAUTICALINSTITUTE
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Advisory Group
Co-ordinator — Captain D.G.T.Greenhalgh MNI

Ship Manager
Shore based Sea going

Captain R.Beedel FNI Mr J. Brining AMNI
Marine Accident Adviser Third Officer
the late Captain J.C.Cox ExC FNI Captain A.Chopra ExC MNI
Fleet Manager Shipmaster/Training Manager
Captain G.T.Davis ExC FNI Mr A.Clarke MNI

Chief Marine Surveyor, Rtd. Chief Officer
Mr F.S.Greenfield MNI Captain D.Goddard MNI

Marine and Safety Manager Shipmaster, Rtd.
Captain N.H.Malpass MNI Mr J.REvans MNI

Ship Manager Onboard Training Manager
Captain J.L.C.Milne ExC MNI Captain D.C.Kettlety FNI

Principal Marine Surveyor,Rtd. Shipmaster
Mr K.A.Parsons MNI Captain M.R.Powell MNI

Fleet Training Manager Shipmaster
Captain A.J.Swift MNI Mr J.G.Preston AMNI

Senior Lecturer Simulation Third Officer
Captain W.N.Seybold FNI Captain P.J.D.Russell FNI

Shipmaster, Rtd. Pilot
Lead Writers
Mr C.J.Parker BSc FNI, Secretary
Captain T.C.Rooney BSc FNI, Consultant
—3— BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
A message from the Secretary General of the IMO

introducing The Nautical Institute Bridge Operations Programme
"Whenever a ship puts to sea, the Master and navigating officers have a duty
both in public and commercial law to navigate competently at all times. Upon
their actions depend the successful outcome of the voyage, safety at sea and
protection of the marine environment.
"Watchkeeping officers, through their diligence and professionalism,

provide a highly valued service to society. This contribution is recognised by
the IMO and I wish to pay tribute to the world's seafarers and those
organisations which are working with us to enhance safe ship operations."
W. A. O'Neil

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
FOREWORD
by Captain L.A.Holder, ExC MPhil FNI

President, The Nautical Institute
Competence in navigation and seamanship is based upon a sound

knowledge of principles and rules, experience at sea and proficiency in
carrying out duties diligently. This applies particularly to watchkeeping,
which requires all these elements to be brought together on the bridge of a
ship. The officer of the watch has to have personal qualities — being self-
reliant, not too proud to ask for assistance and always being willing to work
as part of a team.
It is surprising that there are so few books on watchkeeping. Part of the

reason is the expectation that all the skills will be learnt on the job, without the
need for written support. However, studies undertaken by The Nautical
Institute and information provided in our confidential marine accident
reporting scheme (MARS), indicate that training can no longer be taken for
granted and that practical assistance is needed to convey the attributes and
skills necessary to become a competent watchkeeper.
Bridge Watchkeeping is part of a programme of videos and training

guides which The Nautical Institute is helping to produce with the aim of
improving and updating navigational and watchkeeping skills. Further
details are given in Annex 7.
This study guide has brought together a team of experienced masters

and officers to pass on the experience they have gained over many years of
seafaring. The guide will help trainees and junior officers to improve bridge
watchkeeping performance. I wish all those following the course of study
success in becoming well organised, confident and efficient watchkeepers.

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this study guide on Bridge Watchkeeping. It has been

prepared in response to a demand for practical guidance for the officer of the
watch (OOW).
It is designed to pass on practical advice by senior officers in the hope

that their guidance will help to prevent many of the mistakes which they have
had to learn from bitter experience.
This guide is designed for self-study. The aim and objectives are listed
below. By working carefully and methodically through this guide OOWs
should have a better appreciation of their watchkeeping duties and how they
can support the Master and become an efficient and responsible member of
the bridge team.
Aim of the Guide

The aim of this self-study guide is to enhance standards of bridge
watchkeeping through a self-assessment programme which covers bridge
operations with respect tot-
Different stages of the passage
The tasks to be performed
The correct use of equipment
Application of reliable procedures
Support for the bridge team
Objectives
On successful completion of the guide the OOW should be able to
describe, state or list the duties of a watchkeeping officer and the practices
necessary tor-
Conduct a safe navigational watch
Hand over and accept a watch
Carry out the tasks required during each stage of a sea passage
Monitor the equipment which should be available for use during each
stage of a passage
Prevent the errors which can occur when carrying out tasks or using
equipment
Implement reliable methods of error checking
Support the Master, and the pilot when carried
Call for assistance
Work as a member of the bridge team
7— BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
It should be possible, with further watchkeeping experience, for the
OOW who follows the guidance in this book, to be able to carry out those
duties safely and confidently.
Assumptions
This self-study guide assumes that OOWs have undertaken basic
training in chart work and in the use of radar and navigation equipment. It
is also assumed that they have studied and understand the provisions of the
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGS).
Guide to studying
Each chapter contains some element of the overall objectives and details
of the tasks that combine to ensure a safe navigational watch. This is in the
context of the guidance provided by the International Maritime Organization
(IMO) Resolutions (see Annex 2) and the International Chamber of Shipping
(ICS) Bridge Procedure Guide.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

Self-assessment questions should be completed as they appear in the
text and should not be omitted. Without the SAQs this guide would be just
another text book. By all means discuss the answers to the SAQs with other
officers. However, this is an individual course of study, and readers should
persevere with each chapter, answering the SAQs to the best of their ability.
Use the space provided in the text to write the answers to the SAQs in
your hand writing. When it comes to revision, the answers will form part of
the learning process. Do not store the answers mentally but write them down
and then check with the text in case some important details have been
overlooked. Writing the answers in the space provided reinforces the lessons
to be learned.
In the text the SAQs are not numbered in sequence because when
checking the answer to one question the answer to the next question could be
seen. In the pages at the back of the book the answers are, however, in
sequential order. Some of the questions require information which can only
be found on board the ship.
An example of a self-assessment question

SAQ 1 — 1. From which sources do you obtain information about your
watchkeeping duties?

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 1 — PREPARING FOR SEA
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will be aware of the reasons for testing the
gear and checking that it is tested properly. You will be introduced to the concept of
'error chains'and the need to under stand shipboard operations, in order to communicate
effectively both onboard and with the shore. A final section reminds you of your role
in updating navigational information.
The ship in port

When a ship is in port, officers will supervise the loading and/or
discharge of cargo; ballasting or deballasting; the maintenance of the ship; the
maintenance of the machinery; the mooring arrangements which are affected
by the internal loading of the ship and the external rise and fall of the tide; the
security and the gangway and safe access to the ship.
Supplementary activities might include the loading of stores, security,

crew changes, shore gangs carrying out maintenance, surveyors carrying out
classification or statutory surveys and specialists servicing equipment.
The need for systematic testing

When so many activities are taking place and the ship's officers are
working either in watches or on individual items of maintenance, it is not
possible to be absolutely sure that everything has been put back in perfect
working order. Indeed, experience shows that this is often not the case. The
only way to find out if all the equipment is functional is to test it.
The need for seamanship

Before taking a ship to sea the Master must satisfy himself that the ship
is seaworthy. He will need to know, amongst other things, that:-
The cargo is stowed safely;
The ship is properly battened down;
All moveable objects are secured;
Bridge equipment tested and operational;
The main engine, auxiliaries and the steering gear are fully operational;
Personnel are back on board, properly rested and ready to perform their
duties.
The command structure

The Master has the ultimate responsibility for the safe and efficient
operation of the ship. The Master delegates authority fo the OOW througlv-
Standing orders The routine of the ship
Night orders Direct orders and discussion

An example of an extract from Master's Standing Orders is given on
pages 11 to 13. The OOW has a duty to carry out these orders to the best of his
or her ability. The OOW must comply with the Master's orders to ensure that
the Master can properly direct the activities to be carried out on board.
The responsibility of the OOW

The international standards for bridge watchkeeping are given in the
Convention on Standards of Training Certification and Watchkeeping 1995
as listed in Annex 2. Specifically, the primary responsibility of the OOW is
stated as follows:-
"The officer in charge of the navigational watch is the master's

representative and is primarily responsible at all times for the safe navigation
of the ship and for complying with the International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972."
Testing the gear

The Master's standing orders will usually delegate the testing of ship's
navigational equipment to the junior OOW, who must ensure its operational
readiness prior to sailing.
Failure to ensure that all equipment is tested and in working order can
lead to critical situations. For example, on one occasion a failure to test the
whistle prevented a pilot from communicating urgently, to another vessel in
a fairway, that he was turning to starboard. On another occasion, the
omission to put out the binoculars in the wheelhouse prevented an important
landmark from being identified.
Most errors can be corrected in time, but the aim of good watchkeeping
practice must be to ensure that the cause of an error chain is avoided
(see Chapter 12).
c Most ships require check lists to be used. Standing Orders generally
s state that the designated officer will verify each item and sign the list before
s< handing it to the Master prior to sailing.
b
Alternatively, a two-person system may be used whereby one person
reads out the item to be inspected and the other verifies its status. A typical
check list is provided on page 14.
Preparations in the engine room and engine control room

The OOW should, of course, be aware that as the ship prepares for sea,
preparation in the engine room and engine control room is also taking place.
(text continued on page 15)
TH
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE •10 —

MASTER'S STANDING ORDERS
M.V. Golden Rule
For the whole period of his watch the OOW is responsible for the safety of the
Ship until such time as he is formally relieved by another officer or the Master,
and until that time he shall remain at his place of duty. The OOW shall be
guided by the contents of international regulations and guidelines, but
paying particular attention to the following: -
PARAMOUNT CLAUSE —
THE SAFETY OF THE SHIP AND ITS PERSONNEL IS ALWAYS TO BE
THE PRIME CONSIDERATION, TAKING PRECEDENCE OVER ANY
OTHER. NO CONSIDERATION OF PROGRAMME, CONVENIENCE
ORPREVIOUS INSTRUCTIONS JUSTIFIES TAKING ANYRISK WHICH
MAY PLACE THE SHIP IN DANGER.
1 The first and foremost duty of the OOW is the keeping of a GOOD
LOOKOUT, using all means available, visual, audible and electronic.
2. The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea are to be

strictly observed. Do not hesitate to use the whistle or engine in obeying
these Regulations. When altering course for another vessel do so boldly
and in sufficient time to let any other vessel be in no doubt as to your
intentions.
3. If you are in doubt as to another vessel's intentions, or if the bearing of

any vessel on the port side is steady, call the Master, preferably when the
range still exceeds five miles.
4 In reduced visibility immediately comply with international regulations.

Do not hesitate to use the whistle or slow down if necessary. Commence
plotting all targets forward of the beam, operate VHP on Channel 16,
and inform the Master and Chief Engineer. For the purpose of these
orders reduced visibility is anything less than four miles.
5 If severe line squalls or freak meteorological phenomena such as

waterspouts are observed, immediately alert any crew members on
deck by sounding one prolonged blast on the whistle, alter course to
keep clear if possible, and call the Master.
6 Watchkeepers are to use all means and opportunities in order to

establish the ship's position. All stellar positions obtained are to be
entered in the Deck Log Book, also the times of crossing significant
depth contours, e.g. the 200m line. The positions of all course alterations
are to be logged. Officers are to familiarise themselves with the full
operations, scope and limitations of bridge navigational equipment,
especially electronic. This means studying the manufacturer's
— 11 — BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
operational manuals provided.
7 Only one chart at a time is to be on the chart table, this being the largest
scale available for the area being navigated. Time spent in the chartroom
is to be limited to essential navigational duties.
8 At sea, gyro and magnetic compasses are to be compared frequently and

an azimuth bearing is to be taken after every major course alteration, or
at least once per watch.
9 All incoming radio or VHP warnings are to be drawn to the attention of

the Master (navigational, weather forecasts, etc.).
10 Officers are to read the Company Regulations and carry out the duties
prescribed therein. Officers are also to comply with all State regulations
and are to be conversant with all current 'M' Notices, Statutory
Instruments and Coast Guard requirements.
11 All OOWs are to familiarise themselves with the section on tropical

storms contained in the Mariners Handbook (pages 95-99) and to call
the Master immediately if any of the precursory signs of a tropical
depression are observed. In any event, the Master is to be notified
immediately of any fall in barometric pressure of 3mb or more in any
period of less than four hours. The practice of logging weather details
at the end of each watch is to be continued in port.
12 UNDER PILOTAGE. An accurate record of the ship's passage (passing

breakwaters, buoys, etc.) is to be kept in the Movement Book, together
with details of all whistle signals and speed reductions whilst passing
other vessels, moorings or shore installations.
13 AT ANCHORAGE. Use any or all of the navigational aids to monitor the

vessel's position and the relative positions of other ships. Shore transit
bearings are to be used whenever possible as the quickest means of 1
detecting a dragging anchor.
14 Most anchorages, however sheltered, can become untenable in a very

short space of time in sudden bad weather. It is therefore of the utmost
importance that at the first signs of deteriorating weather the main
engine is put on immediate notice and the Master and Bosun called.
15 IN PORT. For the whole period of his watch the OOW is responsible for
the safety of the ship and the correct stowage and operation of cargo
work, in that order, and he should ensure that:-
a) Gangways are fitted with a properly rigged safety net, well lit, and
a Shore Leave Board fitted. The Master / Chief Officer are to be consulted
for expiration of shore leave. No deck officer or crew member is to go
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE — 12-

ashore without first informing the Chief Officer, or in his absence, the
Master.
b) Prior to operation, the ship's cranes are to be thoroughly inspected
by the OOW to ensure that all securing devices have been released and
that the crane rails are free of obstructions.
c) During bunkering all scuppers are to be plugged, appropriate
signals displayed and sawdust, an empty oil drum and a foam fire
extinguisher placed near to the bunker connection. A deck officer must
always be up and about whenever bunkers are taken, even if cargo work
is finished or not taking place and the ship's Oil Contingency Plan
complied with.
d) Any hydraulic spills are to be cleaned up immediately.
e) Any deviation from the agreed loading procedure is to be brought
to the Chief Officer's or Master's attention immediately.
f) Any damage to the ship, ship's equipment or cargo, caused by
stevedores, is to be drawn immediately to the attention of the Gang
Foreman or Supervisor and the Chief Officer or Master be informed
immediately.
g) Moorings or and gangways are to be checked regularly, especially
in ports where swell surges are experienced.
h) Any delay in cargo work of five minutes or more is to be reported
to the Master prior to sailing from that port. No Log Book entries
concerning the delay are to be made until the Master or Chief Officer is
consulted.
i) The Chief Officer is to be notified immediately in the event of any
damaged cargo or holed containers are loaded.
j) A stowaway search is to be carried out prior to departure. The duty
Engineer is to be kept informed of all current ETS and gear tested one
hour prior to departure.
k) Any crane defects, especially involving possible override use, are
to be reported to the Chief Officer immediately.
A good officer, when faced with any unusual circumstance, will apply
COMMON SENSE AND THE GOOD PRACTICE OF SEAMEN to the
situation and act accordingly. If you find yourself thinking about calling the
Master then the time has clearly come to do so.
All officers are to sign and date these orders at the commencement of each
voyage.
RU.Sure
Master
Chief Officer Second Officer Third Officer
Date Date. Date
— 13 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
PRE-DEPARTURE CHECK LIST
BRIDGE AND NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT
M.V Golden Rule
checked and verified
1. Gyro and repeaters switched on and synchronized Q
2. Magnetic co: ipass and gyro repeater headings checked Q
3. Echo sounder checked Q
4. Speed/distance recorder checked Q
5. Electronic navigation aids checked Q
6. Clocks synchronized (including engine room) Q
7. Plotter recorder ready for use Q
8. Engine revolution indicator checked Q
9. Primary and emergency navigation lights tested and checked Q
10. Propeller and rudder checked clear of obstruction Q
11. "Not under command" and anchor lights and shapes checked Q
12. Steering gear tested both in primary and secondary systems
(both motors to be running when manoeuvring) Q
13. Auto-pilot and change-over arrangements tested
(SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 19-2) Q
14. Main engines ready and telegraphs tested Q
15. Bridge communications equipment (internal, external and
portable) tested Q
16. Signalling lamps tested Q
17. Whistle tested (if allowed by the Port's Regulations) Q
18. Bridge window wipers/clear view screens tested Q
19. Deck power available Q
20. Arrangements for pilot embarkation/disembarkation inc. overside
lighting, heaving line, pilot ladder, lifebuoy, etc checked Q
21. Binoculars available Q
22. Charts and navigational publications, i.e. Notices to Mariners,
etc., corrected up to date and courses plotted on the chart Q
23. Latest weather reports and navigational warnings received
and available Q
24. Passage plan prepared. Almanac, Tide Tables, etc., confirmed
available on board Q
25. Engine movement recorder checked Q
26. Anchors cleared away and ready for use Q
27. Mooring winches and capstans in good working order Q
28. Crew checked on board Q
29. Crew at their stations for leaving harbour Q
30. Documents, Certificates and Log Book checked Q
31. Security checked, stowaways and unauthorised personnel
searched for Q
On completion of the pre-departure checks this form is to be signed by the
responsible officer and handed to the Master.
Port Signed
Date...

The OOW should receive a report from the engine room that various
checks have been carried out. These will include:-
The engines are ready for manoeuvring
Power is available for deck machinery such as winches, windlass and
the gangway motor
Auxiliaries for generating extra power are made ready
Air is opened to the whistle
Water is made available on deck
Control systems are tested
Communications are tested
Steering gear, telegraphs and control systems checked with the bridge
When appropriate, the controllable pitch propeller control system is
verified and the thrusters operational.
Positive reporting
The risk of an error or omission increases as more people become
involved in the line of command. As a general rule the more threatening the
situation the shorter should be the line of command — for two reasons.
1. With fewer people involved, corrective action can be taken more
quickly.
2. There is less chance of an error in communication, particularly if
people are tense or anxious.
Because the proper working of the ship's equipment is vital to the safe
navigation of the ship the designated officer must verify that the ship's gear
has actually been tested personally. That officer can then give a positive
verbal report to the Master.
What happens if a fault is found?
The purpose of testing gear is to identify any possible faults before the
ship puts to sea. If a fault is found this must be reported to the Master
immediately, preferably with a recommended solution. However, it is the
Master who will decide what action to take.
Communications
The OOW has a key role to play on the bridge carrying out
communications. At busy periods the hand-held phone, the Very High
Frequency radio (VHP) and the internal telephones may all be in use.
Whenever possible, the IMO Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary
(listed in Annex 3) should be used.
As a general rule, keep bridge communications as short as possible.
Postpone non-essential communications until after the ship has finished
manoeuvring. When using hand-held phones in congested areas always
precede a message by stating the name of the ship. This will avoid any errors
which might arise from messages received and acted upon from outside by
mistake. Prepare, or have available, telephone numbers or VHP channels
before departure. Ensure that all hand-held phones are properly charged and
operational when the gear is tested.
—15 — BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

;
Comunications are a significant part of bridge,
From the video "Bridge watchkeeping", courtesy Videotel
Checking the passage plan

From the video "Bridge Watching", courtesy Videotel
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE — 16 —

The OOW will usually be required to supervise the ship's flags, which
will involve the ship's national flag, company flag and courtesy flags and the
international signal flags typically, P — I am about to sail, to be taken down
on sailing, G — I require a pilot, H — I have a pilot on board, to be used
appropriately.
The OOW must be aware of the vital need to keep the Master informed
of critical operations, e.g.
When ropes are clear of propellers and thrusters
The distance off the quay or next ship
The letting go of the anchor
The quantity of starting air available (if getting critical)
The state of the gangway
Where the tugs are situated and if made fast or not
Other vessels or objects close to the ship
The passage plan
Prior to sailing the navigating officer, usually the second officer, will
have prepared a passage plan which will have been verified by the Master.
The plan should be laid out from berth to berth and will need to be updated
with the latest information at sailing time. All watchkeeping officers should
be familiar with the plan prior to sailing, (see also Annex 4)
The Master will expect to find, on the bridge prior to sailing, the latest
weather information and navigational warnings. Any adverse weather which
is forecast—fog, rain, winds and sea state should be brought to his attention.
The time of departure will be used to assess:-
The height of the tide
Tidal currents
The need to ensure that the navigational lights and shapes required by
the Regulations are being complied with
The estimated times for operations such as when the pilot is due to
arrive or leave
The OOW should therefore satisfy himself that he has all the required
information to modify the passage plan, if necessary, in accordance with
changing times.
The OOW must ensure that paper recorders have an adequate supply
of paper and that all record books are in place with pens or pencils ready to
be used. Binoculars should be made available, compass errors checked,
azimuth mirrors placed on the repeaters and repeaters aligned correctly to
the master compass. The bridge must be in every sense ready for the intended
voyage. The chart area should also be checked to ensure that the charts are in
sequence, that navigational instruments are to hand and that the bridge
lighting is appropriate to day, dusk or night conditions.
At no time should cups of coffee, tea or any other liquid be put on the
chart table or near any electronic equipment keyboards or switches.

The OOW should switch on all relevant navigational equipment, calibrate
instruments, set up radars and check that all items are working properly. The
OOW can then fill in the pilot boarding card which will include:-
Port and date
The dimensions of the ship
Type of propulsion and manoeuvring speeds
Turning data
Draught
Any equipment or machinery defects
The latest compass error
The manoeuvring data relating to the ship should be prominently
displayed on the bridge.
Prior to sailing it is usually necessary to contact the harbour Vessel
Traffic Service (VTS) on VHP. The VTS will need to know the anticipated
sailing time at least 30 minutes before sailing so that they can advise inbound
or passing traffic to keep clear whilst the ship is manoeuvring off its berth. The
pilot will usually seek clearance to proceed at the time of sailing and the ship
must not "let go" until verification has been received that the ship will not
cause a hazard due to the movements of other ships in the channel or in the
vicinity. •*• :
Summary
The OOW has an essential role to play in ensuring that, from a
navigational point of view, the ship is in all respects ready to proceed to sea
andshould:-
D Check that all equipment is operational
D Verify that all equipment is properly tuned, calibrated and checked
D Record all defects
D Prepare all recording systems and ensure that books and logs are to
hand with adequate resources of paper
D Update the passage plan with respect to time dependent factors
D Ensure up-to-date weather information is available
O Ensure latest navigational warnings are available
D Obtain all relevant VHP working channels to be used during the
planned departure
D Ensure the watertight integrity of the ship can be controlled
D Contact the shore VTS sufficiently in advance of the sailing time to
enable them to manage the traffic safely
O Ensure all communication equipment is functional
D Ensure the gangway is taken in and stowed securely
CJ Complete the pilot boarding card to the Master's satisfaction
O Ensure the ship is flying the correct flags
O Ensure the ship is generally ready for sea. Any unusual items should be
reported to the Master immediately, such as an unclosed hatch, lighters and
barges still attached alongside, a gangway net still in place, any loose items
on deck, pipes, wires or telephones still connected to the shore, or any other
item which might be affected by the movement of the ship.
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE —18 —

NOTE THE RANDOM SAQ NUMBERS ARE
DESIGNED TO AVOID READ OVER IN THE ANSWERS
Chapter 1 — SAQs
SAQ 20. From which sources do you obtain information about your OOW
duties?
SAQ 73. What is positive reporting and why is it necessary for the testing
of equipment before the ship sails?
SAQ 41. What must the Navigating Officer do to ensure that the ship's
passage plan is updated prior to sailing?
SAQ 92. What reports are expected from the engine room to the bridge
prior to sailing?
S AQ 7. If the Master told you to check all was clear on the shore side, ready
for departure, what would you look for?
Learning how to take compass bearings — an essential bridge

watchkeeping skill
Photo , Courtesy V.Ships

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 2 — WATCHKEEPING IN PILOTAGE WATERS
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will be aware of your responsibilities when
navigating with a pilot on board. You will read how to monitor the progress of the
ship and the status of the bridge equipment. The concept of 'situational awareness'
will be introduced and you will recognise that in order to monitor progress it is
necessary to plan ahead.
Information the pilot needs to know about the ship

When the pilot boards he will want to know essential information about
the ship. This will include the draught, in case of depth restrictions in the port
approach, and the effects of 'squaf. He will also want to know the revolutions
and speeds at standard telegraph settings, the number of propellers, type of
engines, rudder configuration, thruster availability and so on.
It is important that you are able to complete and update the pilot card
accurately. A typical pilot card is shown on page 22.
The manoeuvring data should be prominently displayed on the bridge.

This gives turning circles, stopping distances and other information in
different load conditions.
Unmooring
Many activities will be taking place and the OOW must make sure that
the duties that are assigned to him or her are carried out. These will usually
be:-
Assisting with communications
Handling the telegraph
Operating the bridge engine controls
Recording key information in the "bell book' or 'manoeuvring book'
Switching on the appropriate navigation lights
Switching off deck lights
Monitoring helm orders
Monitoring engine movements and rudder angles
If the OOW has been assigned to the telegraph it is essential to stand near
the telegraph until critical manoeuvres are completed. The OOW must be
attentive to the orders of the pilot and always repeat the order and confirm
the engines are responding properly. In this way the pilot knows his order is
understood.
PILOT BOARDING CARD
Ship's name: M.V Golden Rule Date:...........................

Call sign: W X Y Z Year built: 1985
Draught: Aft m/........ ft in Forward m/......... ft in
Deadweight: 63,000 tonnes Displacement:................................ tonnes
SHIP'S PARTICULARS
Length overall: 215 m Breadth: 32 m
Anchor chain: Port 11 shackles Starboard 12 shackles
Bulbous bow: Yes / No (1 shackle = 27.5 m / 15 fathoms)
Bow Thruster: Yes / No Stern Thruster: Yes / No
Power: Power:
Type of engine: Mitsui B + W -7

Maximum power: 9,500 kW (12,990 HP)
Speed (knots)
Manoeuvring engine order Rpm/pitch Loaded Ballast
Full sea speed 100 13-0 14-0
Full ahead 80 10-6 11-0
Half ahead 70 9-3 10-0
Slow ahead 50 6-6 7-0
Dead slow ahead 40 5-3 5-5
Dead slow astern 40
Slow astern 50
Half astern 70
Full astern 80
Full ahead to full astern: 230 s Astern power: = 50 % ahead

Maximum number of consecutive starts: 21
Minimum RPM: 30 = 4 knots
Any temporary defects affecting the manoeuvring and control of the ship:
ssr
Many serious manoeuvring accidents are caused by a wrong engine
response. By checking the engine revolutions gauge each time the OOW will
be preventing an 'error chain' starting.
What is meant by monitoring?

Monitoring is making sure that an activity is having the desired effect.
For example, when the pilot orders "Port 15°", the rudder indicator should be
watched to make sure that the rudder turns 15° to port. This seems elementary.
But what would happen if the helmsman, instead of putting on 15° of port helm
brought the ship's head 15° to port? Without monitoring this manoeuvre
carefully, a serious mistake could occur.
The main and valuable role of the OOW during pilotage is to monitor
the instruments and progress of the vessel and provide backup to the Master
and/or pilot.
To monitor progress it is necessary to plot the ship's position frequently.

During pilotage the OOW should know where the ship is and where it will
be at predetermined intervals.
By monitoring the courses steered, the helm movements, and noting the
passing of buoys or position off conspicuous points of land, the OOW will be
able to assess if a mistake is made by the pilot. Buoys and floating beacons can
be out of place and the ship's position should be verified independently
whenever possible.
Useful advice is given in the IMO convention Annex 2:-

"If the OOW is in any doubt as to the pilot's actions or intentions, he
shall seek clarification from the pilot; if doubt still exists, he shall notify
the Master immediately and take whatever action is necessary before the
Master arrives".
Master/pilot relationship
Pilots are engaged for a variety of reasons, depending upon
circumstances, which include pilotage based upon local knowledge, liaison
with shore authorities, ship handling and bridge support.
The duty of the pilot is to direct the navigation of the ship. The pilot
liaises with the VTS and other vessels in the vicinity, and advises on the use
of tugs, of anchors, moorings and towing lines.
The IMO convention states:-

Despite the duties and obligations of a pilot, their presence on board does
not relieve the Master or officer in charge of the watch from their duties and
obligations for the safety of the ship. The Master and pilot shall exchange
information regarding navigation procedures, local conditions and the ship's
• 23 — BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
characteristics. The Master and officer of the watch shall co-operate closely
with the pilot and maintain an accurate check of the ship's position and
movement.
Situational awareness
Closely linked to monitoring is the concept of 'situational awareness'.
This is the ability to know where the ship is in relation to the fairway, land and
dangers to navigation, and the proximity of other traffic. This awareness is
most easily acquired by looking outside and comparing what is seen with the
chart or the radar.
It is often felt, particularly by inexperienced officers, that the radar

picture gives the best situational awareness, and that the radar can be
compared with the chart without looking outside. The danger with this
practice is that the radar picture may be disorientated, the range scale
mistaken, and small targets undetected.
Situational awareness, from which the progress of the vessel can be

assessed, requires three monitoring activities:-
Examination of the chart
Recognition of conspicuous lights or marks by looking out and
conducting personal visual identification
Verification of distances and collision risk by monitoring the radar
Planning ahead
The pilot will have a clear understanding of the time it will take to reach
the pilot boat depending upon speed, current, visibility, availability and so
on. He will have discussed his plan with the Master and the Master or pilot
should brief the OOW on details of the intended passage.
Many other people on board will also want to know the ship's
navigational plan:-
The engineers will want to plan for "Full Away"
The Officer forward will want to secure anchors
The Master will want to make the approach to the pilot boat and plan the
next course
The appropriate crew members will want to know when and on which
side to to rig the pilot ladder
The OOW will be expected to make certain that those who need to know are
kept informed of progress. To do this it is necessary to plan ahead:-
Distances to the pilot boat should be noted on the chart
At key points the distance to the pilot boat can be verified
The estimated time of arrival can then be updated
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE -24 —

Once the progress of the ship is assessed against the Estimated Time of
Arrival (ETA) at the pilot boat, arrangements can be made to call extra hands,
if needed, to rig the pilot ladder. The Master should be advised as required.
The need for added vigilance in pilotage waters

The difference between navigating deep sea and in pilotage waters is
the shortage of time in confined areas to correct a navigational error.
The OOW has an essential role to play in monitoring progress in such

a way that any error is detected in time to prevent an incident.
Summary
O Have the pilot boarding card ready
O Have the sequence of charts in order
O Verify the pilot's instructions
O Monitor the ship's manoeuvring
O Check the compasses regularly and on each significant change of
heading
O Record essential information
D Do not wander about the bridge if ordered to work^the telegraph until
manoeuvring is completed
O Be attentive
O Monitor the steering
O Monitor under keel clearance
O Monitor the weather
O Keep tidal information up to date
O Develop situational awareness
O Positively identify significant navigational marks and features by eye
D Use the radar intelligently
O Fix the ship regularly to monitor the pilot in coastal waters
D Assess risk of collision and advise the pilot
O If doubts about intentions exist call the Master
O Keep ETA at the pilot boat updated
D Call the Master and other hands as appropriate
D Be particularly vigilant in confined waters
D Keep the VTS informed of progress as required
D Ensure the correct lights, flags and shapes are being displayed.
— 25- BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

Chapter 2 — SAQs
SAQ 33. List the main items to be updated on the pilot card.
SAQ 84. Why is it necessary to contact the port VTS station prior to
sailing?
SAQ 19. How would you monitor the navigation of the pilot?
SAQ 67. How would you, conveniently, check the compass error in
pilotage waters?
SAQ 50. How would you know what VHP channels to monitor when
leaving port?
SAQ 3. You are alone on the bridge with the pilot and you notice a course
alteration which you do not think is correct. What are you going to do?

NAVIGATIONAL
AWARENESS
EXERCISE
Tracks are drawn on a chart area and you are asked to bring the ship in
from sea.
Purpose
The aim of the exercise is to make you aware of situations which can
develop and which, if left unattended, may quickly deteriorate into critical
situations.
The exercise emphasises the need to plan ahead, to be vigilant, to apply

good seamanship and to be able to respond in such a way that the passage is
completed safely.
EXERCISE: WATCHKEEPING IN PILOTAGE WATERS. WHAT TASKS SHOULD THE OOW HAVE PERFORMED?
Start conditions:- Day; Wind — South West Force 3; Tide — Half an hour before High Water; Visibility —1.0 mile
A location in pilotage An event in pilotage waters A possible incident? A possible cause(s) of the Incident could have
waters incident? been avoided by:
Q18. Three miles from the Rendezvous with pilot Unable to distinguish light Racon temporarily
pilot station cutter to embark pilot vessel from cutter extinguished
Q 43. Two miles from the Too late or too early at the Pilot cutter not available Pilot cutter not given ETA
pilot station pilot station
Q77. At the pilot station Ship going ahead at 4 knots, Pilot cutter closing on Pilot cutter not advised of
heading 270° opposite side to pilot ladder heading and speed for
disembarking
Q29. At the pilot station Embarking the pilot Injury to pilot Pilot ladder improperly
rigged
Q53. Between the pilot Tuning to 270°T Vessel overshoots turn and 1. Helmsman not
station and WP1 is in danger of running accustomed to steering
aground 2. Turn not planned
3. Gyro wander
A location in pilotage Aneventinpilotagewaters A possible incident? A possible cause(s) of the Incident could have
waters incident? been avoided by:
I
n Q35. Alter course at WP1 Passing close to light vessel Set down on light vessel Ship at slow speed in tidal
stream
z
—
a
H Q88. Between WP1 and Abeam of Bl Very close to Bl 1. Bl out of position
WP2 2. Ship drifted to right of
track
Q 61. Between WP1 and A vessel injunction Passage Collision risk ignored 1. Target presence
WP2 approaches from before the undetected
starboard beam 2. Target movement not
determined
Q 6. Between WP2 and Approaching WP3 Closing WPS very quickly 1. Engine speed too fast
WP3 2. Flood tide rate increases
Q97. Between WP2 and Searching for on radar WPS lost 1. Sea clutter
WPS 2. Fall off in radar
performance
Q71. Between WP3 and Securing bow and stern Crew not available to secure Crew not warned in time
the berth tugs tugs
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 3 — PILOT BOARDING AND DISCHARGE
Purpose
On studying this casestudyyou will be aware of the dangers and risks tohuman
life which can occur if the pilot ladder is rigged incorrectly. Information andgu idance
is given to demonstrate the correct way of supervising the required boarding
arrangements for pilots.
Introduction
The following case study is taken from the confidential Marine Accident
Reporting Scheme (MARS) carried out by The Nautical Insti tute and published
monthly in the Institute's Journal SEAWAYS. Annex 5 contains practical
guidance on boarding arrangements for pilots.
CASE STUDY
\
MARS 93041 Pilot Ladder Accident

New Zealand. Night time. SW25/30 knots. Raining.
Whilst disembarking from an outward bound vessel a pilot fell from the
pilot ladder and spent eight minutes in the sea before he could be rescued by
the pilot launch. The evidence from the pilot and crew of the launch suggests
the fall was caused by slackness in the ladder taking up when the pilot's
weight on the ladder became effective.
After leaving the berth the Third Mate (3/O) left the bridge to supervise
rigging the pilot ladder on the starboard side. The crew were busy securing
containers on deck, so the 3/O rigged the ladder on his own. He said that,
after rigging the ladder, he tested it by putting his weight on it; he was,
however, of light build. He did not know where the manropes for the
starboard ladder were stowed and he did not get the manropes from the port
side.
When he later escorted the pilot from the bridge the 3/O did not take a
torch or a hand-held VHP radio to communicate with the bridge. The pilot did
not have a torch either. Illumination of the ladder was provided by a gangway
light facing forward and a searchlight from the bridge, although the ship's
side was very well lit, the deck area was partly shadowed by the adjacent stow
of containers. The pilot did not make a thorough security check of the ladder
due to the inadequate lighting on deck. He requested manropes and was
offered a totally inadequate heaving line which he refused. He was wearing
a lifejacket of old design which did not have an automatic light.
Pilot boarding is a hazardous operation which must be properly
supervised at all times.
From the video "Bridge Watchkeeping", courtesy Videotel
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE — 32

When the Master saw the pilot fall he immediately ordered 'stop engine'
and 'hard a starboard', he also called the pilot launch but they were too busy
to answer until they had retrieved the pilot; the Master then offered any
assistance that he could provide. The 3/O did not watch the pilot go down the
ladder and only heard the splash. He ran to the bridge shouting "man
overboard" as he could not make himself heard against the noise of the wind
and rain. He did not throw the life buoy and marker stowed alongside the
pilot ladder, a set was thrown from the bridge.
The inboard end of the ladder was permanently secured with shackles
through thimbles on the end of each set of side ropes. Rope lashings were then
used to seize the side ropes in order to adjust the ladder length. Access over
the side was through an opening in the bulwark set inboard 400/500 mm
from the sheer strake. The opening in the bulwark was not full depth but
stopped 200/300 mm above deck level. The ladder, when hanging over the
side, passed from the securing eye pads on the deck up over the lip of the
bulwark opening, then down at approximately 45° to the point where it
crossed the sheer strake and then vertically down the ship's side.
There were three places at which the ladder treads could foul:-
On the underside of the bulwark plating immediately above the securing
lashings
On the top lip in the bulwark access
On the inboard side and top of the sheer strake
In an area of poor lighting, these points could easily be overlooked. It

would need more than a cursory glance to see if they were holding back quite
a large amount of slack in the ladder, this can be a common fault and has been
noted on several occasions. The pressure of a lightweight person testing the
ladder may not be sufficient to take up the slack.
The investigators concluded that, for whatever reason, there was slack
somewhere inboard of the point where the ladder passed over the sheer
strake. As the pilot's weight, and movement of the ladder caused by his
descent, shook the fouled ladder free, the combination of a falling ladder
followed by a sudden jerk loosened his hand hold sufficiently to throw him
clear.
Several factors would have made a contribution to this accident:-

Poor lighting to the deck area at the top of the ladder possibly prevented
the correct lashing of the ladder when it was adjusted for length at the
initial rigging. It also prevented proper inspection of the ladder prior to
disembarkation
Neither the 3/O nor the pilot carried a torch to supplement the ship's
fixed illumination
No man ropes were used, these would have provided additional
support when the ladder slipped
If the pilot had not been wearing a lifejacket he would almost certainly
have spent longer in the water. It allowed the crew of the pilot launch to see
him, in spite of the lifejacket not being fitted with a light. The retrieval was
achieved with considerable difficulty due to inadequate emergency lighting
aboard the pilot launch and the fact that the life buoy and light from the ship
were dropped too far from the man in the water to be of any use and the bad
weather prevailing at the time of the accident.

Chapter 3 — SAQs
SAQ 82. List the correct way of rigging a pilot ladder (see Annex 5).
SAQ 56. Who should be in attendance when a pilot is on the ladder, and
why?
SAQ 87. What safety equipment must be provided at the pilot ladder?
*
SAQ 44. What provision must the OOW make for boarding and
disembarking pilots in the dark?
SAQ 64 Why must the pilot ladder be rigged so that it does not touch the
water?
SAQ 37. Approaching the pilot vessel in fog, the Master of the pilot vessel
says "I can see you on the radar now 135° at 2 miles". Where would you
look to find the pilot vessel and why?
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 4 — WATCHKEEPING IN COASTAL WATERS
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you should be able to understand how to organise
yourself effectively. You will be shown how to take charge of a watch. The concept of
control is introduced. Your responsibilities for safe navigation and collision avoidance
are discussed so that you will understand how to set your priorities and how to
manage your time. The need to maintain a proper lookout is examined and a final
section will remind you that at times, when there is a potentially dangerous situation
arising, you should call for assistance.
Setting course after the pilot has left

Often it is necessary to alter the ship's head in order to create a lee from
the prevailing wind and waves whilst the ship is slowed or stopped to enable
the pilot to leave. Once the pilot boat is away and clear, the Master will work
up the speed to Full Away and manoeuvre to regain the track towards the
next way point. When the ship is steady and the Master is satisfied that no
danger exists he will hand over the charge of the ship to the OOW.
Taking over the watch

Having assisted the Master to check the ship's position, the OOW has a
duty to be prepared to take over the watch and must-
Confirm where the ship is going by examining the chart, working out
the time to the next alter course and the approximate estimated position
at the end of the watch
Check the radar is working properly, operate the log and confirm its
reading and input
Verify the track, compass errors, course to be steered and mark them on
the course board
Be familiar with the weather forecast and tidal stream
Be familiar with conspicuous buoys and land marks for use in navigation
Note significant changes in depth for comparison with the depth
recorder
Look over the side to check that the pilot ladder is in and that there are
no other loose items attached to the ship in the water
Look out to see if there is any threat from traffic in the area
Verify that items likely to be wanted are available, including sunglasses,
illumination at night (bulbs working), tea, cocoa or coffee and so on
Know the names of the bridge team and where they are located
Be aware of the activities of the crew for example on deck stowing
mooring ropes, securing cargo, etc.
Obtain a positive report that the anchors are secured
Obtain a positive report that any side openings used for pilot access
have been securely closed

The key elements to a successful handover are planning and being
prepared.
Master's instructions or Night Orders

When the Master formally hands over the watch he should confirm that
the OOW is happy with the situation and say "You now have the watch". The
OOW should then repeat "I have the watch".
Before going below he will either write down his instructions in the
night order book or in day time tell the OOW when he expects to be called
unless there is a need for his presence on the bridge.
Typically, for an inexperienced junior OOW, the Master may require

calling if any ship has a closest point of approach (CPA) of less than 2 miles,
and half an hour before the next alteration of course.
For an OOW with some experience this might be for a CPA of less than
1 mile and 15 minutes before an alter course.
For an experienced OOW the Master may simply request to be informed

of any difficulties and when the ship has altered course in accordance with the
plan.
It takes time for the Master to know the capabilities of his officers and
it is up to the OOW to demonstrate competence to him,
Keeping the situation under control

Chapter 1 demonstrated the importance of checking the gear prior to
sailing. Chapter 2 described how to monitor instruments and the pilot's
navigation. This chapter introduces a third concept which is control.
The principle of control can be explained as follows:-

A ship steers a straight course
External forces such as currents or winds cause the ship to deviate from
the track
The navigator discovers that the ship has deviated from the track on the
chart by taking a fix
The navigator corrects the course to bring the ship back on track.
The elements of control can be described as:- steady state, deviation,

feedback, correction and steady state.
The same principle exists within the steering system of the ship.
Similarly, the Master keeps control on board by setting a standard through his
orders. If he finds they have not been complied with he will want to know
why and correct the situation.
•37- BRFDGE WATCHKEEPING

What has control got to do with watchkeeping? When in charge of a
watch there are two equally important functions which must be controlled:-
The safe navigation of the ship at all times
Collision avoidance
In navigation, the ship is being controlled against the intended track. In

collision avoidance the ship is being controlled in response to other traffic in
accordance with the collision regulations (COLREGS).
How should the OOW organise the navigation of the ship? The
international convention states:-
"The largest scale chart on board, suitable for the area and corrected with
the latest available information, shall be used, fixes shall be taken at frequent
intervals, and shall be carried out by more than one method whenever
circumstances allow. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall
positively identify all relevant navigation marks."
The OOW should always aim to fix the ship at regular intervals. It is then
easy to project the previous fix interval forward on the chart with dividers to
establish the estimated position where the ship should be when recording the
fix next time. ,
The need to fix the ship at "frequent intervals" requires further

explanation. A fix should be taken whenever the vessel alters course and at
regular intervals thereafter.
The fix interval should be such that the vessel can not be set appreciably
off track or into danger by the anticipated effects of tidal stream, wind or
currents in the period between successive fixes.
Typically, having discharged the pilot in an estuary, the fix interval may
be 15 minutes or less. When the ship reaches open water the fix interval may
increase to half an hour.
How should the OOW organise collision avoidance?

There is a conflict between the two demands of maintaining a given
track and altering course to avoid a collision. This conflict becomes more
critical in narrow waters. Also, navigation requires position over the ground,
whereas collision avoidance is concerned with the position of the ships in the
water relative to each other. Circumstances demand that the OOW must take
appropriate action to avoid collision first, and then seek to resume the track.
A number of critical situations can arise such as having to avoid a fleet

of fishing vessels or the ship may have to alter course to starboard for a
succession of ships which means that there is a risk of running aground in
shallow water.

If situations like these develop:-
Call the Master
Consider slowing down or stopping the ship
Managing time on watch

Experience shows that traffic makes irregular demands on attention
whereas navigational fixing should be carried out regularly. It is therefore
essential to plan watchkeeping around the demands of the need to maintain
a lookout to identify other vessels. The ship is not put at undue risk if there
is a variation in the fix interval. However, the ship is put at risk if the OOW
is preoccupied with navigation when there is a risk of collision.
As vessels approach one another on a collision course, there are three

phases which can be identified: an early period when the target is detected
but when action to avoid collision can be deferred; a critical period when
action must be taken; and a terminal period when it is too late to prevent
impact.
The beginning and end of each period relate to a range of the values
which are determined by the relative speed of approach of the two vessels
concerned. The table below shows some typical relative speeds and the times
to their collision point.
Time (minutes) to Potential Collision Point

Distance Combined Approaching Speed (knots)
nml 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
5 30-0 20-0 15-0 12-0 10-0 8-6 7-5 6-7
4 24-0 16-0 12-0 9-6 8-0 6-9 6-0 5-3
3 18-0 12-0 9-0 7-2 6-0 5-1 4-5 4-0
2 12-0 8-0 6-0 4-8 4-0 3-4 3-0 2-7
1 6-0 4-0 3-0 2-4 2-0 1-7 1-5 1-3
0-5 3-0 2-0 1-5 1-2 1-0 0-9 0-8 0-7
For example, if a merchant ship first detects a fisherman at four miles

and their relative approaching speed is 20 knots, then the time of collision, if
no action is taken, will be 12 minutes later.
If, however, there is a terminal period of one mile and a relative

approach speed of 20 knots, then the critical period for the same fishing vessel
first identified at 4 miles will be 12 minutes — 3 minutes = 9 minutes.
It is possible for ships to draw up their own limits to the terminal period
which will be based upon their ability to manoeuvre. The limitation of the
critical period will depend on such factors as obstructed vision and blind arcs,
but above all the ability to detect a small vessel in reasonable time.
Review
An OOW in coastal waters can become very busy. If the work load
increases and there is a worry that a dangerous situation might develop —
call the Master.
It is a fact that "the more busy we become the less we tend to plan
ahead." This means that in dense traffic the OOW may become so preoccupied
solving immediate problems on the bridge that situational awareness is lost
or the OOW may fail to notice a new collision risk developing.
Learning to recognise this point of overload takes time and that is why,
initially, the Master sets out to control the behaviour of inexperienced
personnel by requiring to be told about any ship within a specified CPA.
With experience the Master will leave you to make your own decisions
on watch.
There are of course other routines which have to be carried out on watch
such as record keeping, taking compass errors and testing the automatic pilot.
These will be dealt with in the next chapter.
*
Summary
O Plan ahead before taking over the watch
O Check the track, compass errors and courses
n Check the compass error at least once a watch
CJ Make keeping a lookout the priority
O Assess risk of collision and take action if necessary
O Fix the ship at regular intervals, if practicable
O Fix more frequently in confined waters
n Call the Master before a potentially dangerous situation becomes
critical
O Observe changes in the weather
n Study the chart and expect to find new landmarks before they are seen
n Maintain situational awareness, particularly if the ship has to deviate
widely to avoid traffic
D Be prepared to use the engines, if necessary, to ensure adequate sea
room
D Be prepared to call a lookout to the bridge if necessary
D Be prepared to call a helmsman to the bridge if necessary
"The OOW must ensure that at all times the ship is never put into a
situation of uncontrollable risk."

Chapter 4 — SAQs
SAQ25 When examining the chart, prior to taking over the watch, what
will you be looking for?
SAQ 13. You are aiming to rnake good a track of 090°T. The ship is
allowing 7° drift to port for a current from the starboard bow, and a
Leeway Angle of 3° for a wind on the port side. The Gyro Error is 2° low
and the Compass Error 4° W. What is the Gyro Course and Compass
Course to steer?
SAQ 47. a) What do you mean by a fix interval, b) Your ship is doing 12
knots. There is a current across the track of three knots towards the danger
and a wind blowing in the same direction adding 1 knot of drift. The track
is parallel to a sand bank at 1 mile. What should be the fix interval?
SAQ 76. Which should take priority — navigation or collision avoidance?

Why?
S AQ 90. You are OOW on a 20 knot container ship and you detect a small
target at 4 miles approaching at 5 knots with a terminal period of 1 mile.
Calculate the critical period . ,„
SAQ 51. Why would you not trust the radar to give you warning of small
vessels in coastal waters?
SAQ 79. Give some examples of when you would call the Master for
assistance.
SAQ 96. A steering system is a control system. How does it work?
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE — 42 •

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 5 — WATCHKEEPING DURING OCEAN PASSAGES
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will be aware that routine activities on the
bridge must be secondary to keeping a vigilant look out. Out of sight of land,
navigational accuracy depends upon instruments and you must ensure that monitoring
them deep sea has a higher priority. The value of maintaining traditional celestial
navigation is discussed and you are encouraged to use spare time to practise this skill
and to prepare for more busy coastal passages.
To every threat there must be an adequate response

In the last chapter it was demonstrated that the combined closing speed
of two ships travelling at twenty knots means that in 15 minutes they will
have approached 10 miles closer to each other. This emphasises the need to
detect approaching vessels early and the essential requirement to keep an
efficient lookout. *•
Out of sight of land the principal threat to a ship at sea is the risk of
collision from other ships. For this reason the watch must be organised
around the need to maintain a vigilant look out. All other duties will be
secondary.
The international regulations for preventing collisions at sea state:-

"Every vessel shall at all times maintain a proper look out by sight and
hearing as well as by all available means appropriate in the prevailing
circumstances and conditions so as to make a full appraisal of the situation
and the risk of collision".
What is a proper look out? An analysis of reports received by The

Nautical Institute over the past 20 years indicates that in open waters the
predominant cause of collision was failure to maintain a proper lookout. In
some cases the ships, fishing vessels or yachts were not seen or even detected
at all and in other cases they were detected too late to avoid a close-quarters
situation.
Watchkeeping demands a balanced assessment between keeping a

visual lookout, monitoring the radar and referring to the chart.
Experienced watchkeepers are constantly seeking to verify the situation,

and part of the reason for this is that it is not possible to predict, with certainty,
what other vessels are going to do based upon past observations.
When conducting a visual lookout, the eye is most likely to detect new
targets when they break the line of the horizon. Targets can also be obscured
-43 — BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

r
in blind arcs caused by window frames and cargo gear. The OOW will need
to move position on the bridge frequently to obtain a clear view of the
surrounding sea.
The following table provides a comparison between the merits of visual

and radar observation which can be used when deciding lookout priorities.
It must not be forgotten that the OOW also has to be vigilant concerning
activities onboard and the effect of weather on the ship, crew and equipment.
Table
ADVANTAGES OF THE EYE ADVANTAGES OF RADAR
Reliable Generally reliable
Sensitive to colour Does not get tired
Can assess heading Accurate range information
Can identify small targets Stable bearing platform
Can see light configurations Simplifies the overview
Can assess ship types Can penetrate fog
Can identify conspicuous marks Better penetration in rain and snow
Can identify flashing lights Useful for predictive collision avoidance
Has better discrimination Predictive navigation (parallel index)
Can see changing weather patterns Can have longer range (height of aerial)
Can see effect of sea on vessel Can have low down port approach aerial to
Not affected by blind arcs (if observer moves) minimise clutter
LIMITATIONS OF THE EYE LIMITATIONS OF RADAR

Poor at assessing distance (worse at night) Misses small targets
Subject to night adaptation Can miss substantial targets in clutter
Degradation through glare (worse with age) Can de-tune
Gets tired searching Prone to inherent and input errors
Binoculars needed for early identification Targets need transponders for positive
(particularly on high speed vessels) identification
Is prone to interference
Cannot discriminate as well as the eye
Cannot identify ship types or operations
Cannot assess aspect immediately
Bearings less accurate than compass
Do lookout priorities vary?

In clear weather a visual search of the sea area around the ship is the
quickest and most certain way of keeping a look out. Having detected a ship
it is useful to verify its distance on the radar.
In restricted visibility the reverse process is more effective where the

target will be identified first on radar and then looked for by eye to check its
heading and collision threat.
Why over-reliance on radar should be avoided

There are obvious reasons and less obvious reasons for not relying
implicitly on just a single instrument for the safety of the ship.

Firstly, if the radar is faulty or there has been an error setting it up, the
whole ship might be put at risk without the OOW realising.
Secondly, it is easy to focus on specific echoes and miss other potentially

hazardous echoes on another part of the screen.
Thirdly, the radar itself, particularly in rain, may not be able to detect
significant targets.
To minimise the risk of error, the OOW should check the radar with the
visual scene regularly. ,
The value of a good lookout

Most ships, during the hours of darkness and in poor visibility, require
a crew member to be posted as a lookout, generally on the bridge.
Such crew members should have good eyesight and be able to

communicate with the OOW. Sometimes they have eyesight problems and
this should be quietly tested by noting when lights are seen.
The OOW must ensure that the safety of the ship is not put at risk
through the inability of the lookout to keep a vigilant watch.
The effectiveness of the lookout will be considerably increased if he or

she is properly briefed about what to expect and when ships and lights should
be detected.
Lookouts should be encouraged to relate what they see to the radar. On

many ships lookouts are encouraged to keep a visual and radar watch.
Whenever the lookout is sent below for any reason like calling the watch
or calling hands to stations, the OOW must ensure that a visual watch is
maintained.
Priorities when navigating out of sight of land

When out of sight of land the ship has to be navigated by instruments.
It is, therefore, vital that the instruments are properly calibrated and checked
regularly and the ship's progress monitored.
Direction is provided by the compass and special attention must be

given to monitoring the courses steered and checking the compass errors.
The course will be checked at each watch change and during each
watch. After any significant course alteration the OOW must check the
compass error. The gyro must be checked against the magnetic compass
regularly and a compass error obtained by external observation. The error
must be properly recorded.
• — 45 — BRIDCE WATCHKEEPING
Position will generally be obtained from the Global Positioning System
(GPS) which has proved to be very reliable. Because of this officers tend to
trust it implicitly and that can lead to problems because:-
Future waypoints may have been wrongly put into the processor, eg in
error by 10° or 10'.
The level of integration varies, but a fault may develop in any of the
connecting circuits
The set itself may be faulty or break down
Each watch, the principal instruments directing the navigation should

be checked against an estimated position so that if a deviation is detected the
situation can be controlled.
The value of celestial navigation

The ability to be able to take sights and calculate the ships position
independently of navigational aids ensures that in the event of failure the
prudent navigator can rely on his or her ability to navigate the ship and all
those on board safely to harbour.
Masters and officers brought up using more traditional^methods of

navigation are confident in their own self reliance. There have been many
occasions when this knowledge has been invaluable.
Many companies whose ships are fitted with Satellite Navigation

(SatNav) have a statement in their instructions that watch keeping officers
must take at least one sight per day.
At noon it is reassuring to check the SatNav with the latitude obtained

from celestial observation.
Routines and time on watch

If the OOW was fully occupied navigating and manoeuvring to avoid
collision in coastal waters, then there will be time deep sea to do other bridge
duties.
For any major project which requires undisturbed concentration — like

calculating sights or planning a passage — the OOW must ask for an
additional lookout to be posted to the bridge. It is, however, the responsibility
of the OOW to make sure that undue reliance is not placed upon an
inexperienced lookout.
The OOW must learn to carry out other bridge duties without becoming
distracted from the main purpose of maintaining an effective lookout.
On no account must the OOW ever leave the bridge without a relief.

Other duties must be so organised so as not to interfere with the
keeping of a proper lookout.
The use of television and radio entertainment on the bridge must be

strongly discouraged in spite of the excuse that they are being used to obtain
weather forecasts. The fact is that a number of serious accidents involving
loss of life have occurred for this reason.
Similarly, radar guard rings may not always be actuated by other

vessels and must not be relied upon to the detriment of keeping a proper
lookout.
The use of radio communications

Mostly, the OOW is monitoring and receiving incoming radio messages,
but equally important is the use of radio for warning other vessels of hazards
to navigation.
There is a requirement to monitor VHP Channel 16 and the digital

selective calling channel 70. Similarly, the ship must monitor N AVTEX on 518
kHz and the distress frequency of 2187-5 kHz and the radio telephony
frequency of 2182 kHz. . - ,.„.,„,..
Distress messages may be broadcast on a variety of frequencies and the

GMDSS receiver is likely to be situated on the bridge if fitted. The OOW must
be familiar with the systems for receiving and transmitting urgent messages
and should inform the Master in the event of any such communications.
Summary
D When on ocean passages keeping a look out must have priority
D Check the instruments being used to navigate the ship regularly and
monitor the position each watch
O Practice celestial navigation regularly
O Monitor radio communications for routine messages and ensure that
emergency channels are operational and being monitored
O Use any spare time productively to plan ahead for the next phase of the
voyage
O Always post a look out if a bridge task is likely to preoccupy your time
D Learn to break off tasks at frequent intervals so that it becomes a habit
O Avoid entertainment on the bridge. It may provide a fatal distraction
D Monitor changes in the weather and regularly observe the barometer
n Keep records up to date

Chapter 5 — SAQs
SAQ 15. List the items to be checked and monitored each watch.
SAQ 32. What advantages does the eye have over the radar?
SAQ 59 When would you instruct a lookout to assist you on the bridge?
SAQ 81. How would you brief a lookout?
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE — 48 -

SAQ 62. List the ways of obtaining a compass error out of sight of land.
SAQ 22. When would you call the Master, out of sight of land?
SAQ 75. List the information required by the Master at noon each day.
. 49 _ BRIDGE W ATCHKEEPING
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 6 — MAKING A LANDFALL
AND PREPARING FOR ARRIVAL
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will be aware of the need to identify the
coastline positively when making a landfall. At this time there is, invariably, an
element of doubt and the risk of placing the ship in danger if predictions are wrong.
As the ship approaches port there will be other duties to perform which emphasise the
value of planning. -• -..
Approaching land
All Masters will expect to be called prior to making a landfall. It is
important that they are present on the bridge as they are probably the most
experienced navigators onboard and will therefore be best able to assess the
situation correctly.
The OOW will also have to be more aware of traffic and the possibility
of fishing vessels operating in the area. There is a need to keep a particularly
good lookout for small vessels during this phase of navigation.'
In poor visibility, approaching land can be hazardous and the radar(s)

will be the principal navigational instrument to confirm the ship's position.
A lookout should be posted.
The land never lies

After a long ocean passage in poor weather it is quite possible for a ship
without electronic fixing aids onboard to be fifty miles away from its
estimated position when making a landfall.
Usually ships do obtain sights and at least one position line will have
been established, for example the latitude at noon. The estimated position
will usually be within twenty miles of the ship's actual position.
GPS will ensure that the ship has an accurate position and landfall
should be a matter of routine. The fact remains that the instrument may have
an error or the OOW may misread it. It is not until there is a positive
confirmation of the land that the Master will feel comfortable.
Why is making a landfall so critical?

Until the land is positively identified it is not possible to know if the ship
is likely to approach:-
Sandbanks and shoals offshore
Rocks
Other obstructions

If, for example, a mountain is wrongly identified or a promontory is
mistaken on the radar and the ship turns in the wrong direction, a grounding
may occur.
A landfall is critical because in the first instance it is usually only

possible to obtain one bearing. If that bearing is wrong the ship may be at risk.
So there are two uncertainties when making a landfall. Firstly, the ship's
position, and secondly the identification of the land. It is to reduce these
uncertainties that good navigational practices must be developed.
Prudent navigation
The OOW should try always to obtain a fix in the ocean and monitor the
GPS. Nobody knows for certain when the last fix will be taken prior to making
a landfall, particularly in bad weather.
Useful information can be obtained from the depth contour on the chart.
The depth recorder should be on and checked against the chart. If there is a
significant difference from that anticipated, inform the Master immediately.
Extra care should be taken to identify any light by its exact characteristics
and to verify the ship's position on the position line by calculating the
distance at the time it appears.
Radar identification of headlands is less certain and it is still prudent to

sight lights and lighthouses visually whenever possible. In most landfall
locations they have been conveniently provided. ,
This may seem old-fashioned, but on making a radar landfall the OOW
cannot be certain initially whether the echo is the coastline or a ridge inland.
Doubt will remain until the ship is close enough to verify the shoreline.
Rising and dipping distances

These are obtained from the height of a light and the distance the light
travels until it reaches the horizon and the height of eye enabling the observer
to see it from the ship. The information can be found in navigational tables
available on the bridge.
Example
The extract overleaf is taken from Nories Tables.
To find out the distance at which a light can be seen for the first time, two
entries are needed.
First, find the height of the light. Secondly, note down your own height
of eye.
For example, the height of the light, taken from the chart, is 56 metres.
Your height of eye is 21 metres.
Distance light to horizon = 15.6 miles

Distance observer to horizon = 9.5 miles
Distance to first sighting = 25.1 miles
TABLE FOR FINDING THE DISTANCE OF

TERRESTRIAL OBJECTS AT SEA
Distance of horizon for various heights of eye
Height of Horizon Height of Horizon Height of Horizon

eye distance eye distance eye distance
metres feet n. miles metres feet n. miles metres feet n. miles
1 3.3 2.1 21 68.9 9.5 41 134.5 13.3

2 6.6 2.9 22 72.2 9.8 42 137.8 13,5
3 9.8 3.6 23 75.5 10.0 43 141.1 13.7
4 13.1 4.1 24 78.7 10.2 44 144.4 13.8
5 16.4 4.7 25 82.0 10.4 45 147.6 14.0
6 19.7 5.1 26 85.3 10.6 46 150.9 14.1

7 23.0 5.5 27 88.6 10.8 47 154.2 14.3
8 26.2 5.9 28 91.9 11.0 48 157.5 14.4
9 29.6 6.2 29 95.1 11.2 49 160.8 14.6
10 32.8 6.6 30 98.4 11.4 50 164.0 14.7
11 36.1 6.9 31 101.7 11.6 51 167.3 14.9

12 39.4 7.2 32 105.0 11.8 52 170.6 15.0
13 42.7 7.5 33 108.3 12.0 53 173.9 15.2
14 45.9 7.8 34 111.6 12.1 54 177.2 15.3
15 49.2 8.1 35 114.8 12.3 55 180.4 15.4
16 52.5 8.3 36 118.1 12.5 56 183.7 15.5

17 55.8 8.6 37 121.4 12.7 57 187.0 15.7
18 59.1 8.8 38 124.7 12.8 58 190.3 15.9
19 62.3 9.1 39 128.0 13.0 59 193.6 16.0
20 65.6 9.3 40 131.2 13.2 60 196.9 16.1
Finding the dipping distance of a light

GPS accuracy
When using GPS it must be remembered that different continents and
land areas were surveyed from different datums. The latitude and longitude
of the land may not, therefore, match the reading on the GPS and the GPS may
need to be re-set.
In some areas differences of 5 to 10 miles exist. Under these circumstances

it is the chart datum which is presenting misleading information, because the
land never lies.
Summary — making a landfall

D Always try to fix the ship's position and be as up to date as possible on
ocean passages
O Call the Master in accordance with his instructions. If land is seen early,
call the Master immediately
O Use the depth recorder and ensure it is set to the correct scale
n Positively identify lights, lighthouses and the coastline
D Use the rising distance to improve the accuracy of the first land based
position
D Having positively identified the ship's position relative to the land,
adjust course if appropriate
n Re-calibrate electronic navigational aids if necessary
Preparing for arrival

Once landfall has been made the ETA can be worked in more detail,
allowing for currents. '
Pre-planning should provide details of the VHP radio channels for

calling the pilot station, the port coast radio station and the port control
centre.
A number of activities will need to be completed before arrival and the

OOW must ensure that all officers and crew are called in time to carry out
these tasks.
The Chief Engineer will need notice to prepare the engines for
manoeuvring arvd to make sure the necessary auxiliaries are available and
working.
The Officer forward will need to prepare the anchors and ensure that the
mooring ropes and wires are on deck and the mooring drums operational.
The pilot ladder and gangway will need to be prepared. The Master will
need to be informed in time to take charge of the ship when approaching the
pilot.
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
On many ships, preparation for cargo work will also be taking place.
Prior to taking on board the pilot the OOW should complete the pilot
boarding card, using the corrected draught worked out by the Chief Officer
which will vary from the departure draught due tor-
Consumption of bunkers
Consumption of water
Redistribution of oil and water in the tanks
Ballasting and de-ballasting
It is important for pilots to know the trim of the vessel because it affects
the manoeuvring characteristics.
Summary — preparing for arrival

D Having made the landfall, work out an accurate ETA
D Whilst the watch is still 'quiet', confirm a list of VHP calling channels for
reporting, obtaining the pilot and port entry
O Recognise that a number of activities will be undertaken prior to arrival
O Follow the Master's instructions
D Be prepared tor-
Call the engine room / chief engineer / control room
Have the pilot ladder rigged
Find out which side to have the gangway rigged and moorings ready for
berthing
Call the appropriate Officers to break out anchors and moorings
Pass on information about cargo work

Chapter 6 — SAQs
SAQ 27. Why is making a landfall so critical?
SAQ 86. What should you tell the Master when he comes to the bridge,
prior to making a landfall at night?
SAQ 17. What preparations would you take when making a landfall in
poor visibility? ~~ •
SAQ 69. What activities need to be undertaken prior to arrival?
SAQ 55. Why is it important to establish correctly in advance which "side

to" when berthing?

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 7 — ANCHORING AND
WATCHKEEPING AT ANCHOR
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will know how to support the Master when
approaching an anchorage and whilst anchoring the ship. Once the ship is 'brought
up' on the anchor cable you will almost certainly be left on the bridge to keep an anchor
watch. The final section will make you aware of hazardous situations which can occur
and how to respond.
Anchoring
There are four main approaches to anchoring which require different
planning in each case. They are:-
A request to anchor in a designated position
A need to anchor in a waiting area
A need to anchor in the shelter of land
The need to anchor in a river which may be tidal
' — • * • ^.
Anchoring in a designated position

The Master's aim will be to have the ship's head stopped over the
ground over the centre of the designated anchorage.
Taking note of the increased effect of tidal currents as the ship slows
down the Master will control the speed of the ship and its progress along the
track. This can be very difficult if there is a strong cross wind and the ship is
in ballast. i --•"
Where possible the Master will approach the anchorage head to the
prevailing forces of wind and/or tide, as this provides the best method of
control and assists in slowing down the ship.
The approach to an anchorage will usually be planned in advance.

Where possible the approach to the anchoring position will be along a
carefully selected transit. Such an approach, used in conjunction with a
parallel index, will provide an accurate check to alert the OOW and the
Master if the ship deviates from the track. At night, greater reliance may have
to be placed upon the use of radar.
The Master will need to be kept informed of the distance to the

anchorage so the points at which speed reductions are to be made should be
marked on the chart. Pre-determined cross bearings and radar ranges will
help the OOW to determine exactly when the critical points in the approach
are reached so that the OOW can keep the Master fully informed of progress.
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
The OOW has an essential role in assisting the Master with his planned
approach, giving the course and distance to go to the anchoring position
using information from the chart, the compass and radar. The OOW may
work the telegraph or remote engine controls and may be given the task of
navigating the vessel in accordance with the plan.
Supporting and monitoring the Master requires the OOW:-

To discuss the approach with the Master
To monitor the depth recorder, the helmsman and the autopilot
To control and monitor the engines
To check the ship's speed either by noting the log or measuring it from
the chart
Responding to the Master's request for information
To be aware of which anchor is being used and the shackles to be let go
At the appropriate point the order will be given to let go. The OOW must
verify the position independently with bearings of other navigational marks
to fix the position of the ship in case it is accidentally out of position or the
anchor is lost. From this position the swinging circle can be drawn on the
chart, depending upon the number of shackles used. • • -:
•a
When the ship is brought up and the anchor bars put in place, the Master
will decide the level of readiness for the engines and pass on this instruction
before going below. The OOW must then fix the ship again to verify that the
anchor is holding, that there is room to swing and to ensure that the ship is
within the swinging circle.
Anchoring in a waiting area

In this situation it is often not possible to plan the exact anchoring
position in advance. The Master will satisfy himself that it is safe to anchor
the ship in the chosen area. He will then slow the ship down well in advance
and search visually or on radar for a suitable anchorage position with
sufficient room for the vessel to swing.
He should always approach the 'hole' coming up astern of other vessels

and in a tight anchorage will have to over-run the position he wishes to
occupy so that when he lets go of the anchor and comes back on the chain he
ends up where he wants to be.
Instead of aligning the ship to the shore the Master will choose his
anchorage in relation to the other ships, from which he will ask the officer of
the watch for bearings and distances.
Once the anchor has been let go the OOW must fix the ship in relation
to the shore for the reasons given above.

The approach in a crowded anchorage can be critical and the OOW can
be of great assistance if he keeps a vigilant lookout to see if any other ships are
moving and to tell the Master immediately, as well as monitoring the courses
and engine movements.
Anchoring in the shelter of land

Particularly on small low-powered vessels, this is a regular occurrence in
rough weather.
When choosing an anchorage the Master will be aware of how the

direction of the wind will veer or back and will select an anchor so that if a
second anchor has to be let go it will not cause a foul hawse.
The distance off land is the critical factor when letting go in these
situations and the OOW should monitor this carefully.
In stormy weather the engines will be kept in readiness in case the

anchor(s) drags. The Engineers must be told the severity of the situation so that
they do not start some maintenance which will prevent the engines from being
used in an emergency.
Swinging
\ circle
Anchor
lot go
position
Bearing as nearly \
as practical on this
beam will indicate
if the anchor is dragging
For a vessel at anchor, fix the ship at the time of letting go allowing a measured distance
from the anchor on the bottom to the bridge where the bearings are taken and inscribe
the swinging circle on the chart. Then monitor the anchor bearings either by radar
ranges ahead or astern or by beam bearings.
The anchor watch must be so organised as to monitor any drag which
might occur before the ship gains momentum.
If drag does occur call the Master at once. Consider laying out more
cable, using the engines or letting go a second anchor.
•59 — BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

Anchoring in a tidal river
When anchoring in a strong current and narrow channel the critical time
is when the ship stops in the water, as it is then without steerage and a 'kick
ahead' on the engines may cause a sheer.
It is most important, therefore, that the anchors are lowered to the water
in advance so that when the brake is released the anchor cable will run free
at very short notice.
Frequently, in rivers, there is not enough room for the ship to turn on a
long anchor chain when, for example, the tide changes and it has to be held
short. To compensate for this the engines may be needed at certain critical
times to prevent too much drag on the anchor.
As the current reaches its faster ebbs and flows it may be necessary for
the OOW to use the engines.
Accurate position fixing and the use of a cross bearing to ascertain if

there is any drag is essential.
What should the OOW look out for whilst at anchor?

As with all previous approaches to keeping a lookout, the first
requirement is to assess the level of threat, and this varies according to
circumstances.
There are four types of threat which can all have damaging consequences:-
Dragging due to wind and current
Another vessel bearing down on the ship at anchor
Own ship turning one way and a neighbouring ship turning the other
way as the tide changes creating a possibility of contact between the
vessels
Own ship turning in such a way as to run aground
However, anchor bearings should be checked at least every hour and

more frequently in conditions of strong currents, wind and waves.
A useful technique is to use the radar range ring on a conspicuous point

ahead or astern of the vessel and this should be checked at similar intervals.
If the ship appears to be dragging her anchors call the Master

immediately.
When in an anchorage where other vessels may be in close proximity

there is little time available if something does go wrong.
During an anchor watch vigilance is still important and the aim is to

detect any threat early. All vessels are moving slowly and are less able to
THE N AUT1C AL INSTITUTE — 60 —

manoeuvre. This can give rise to a classic misjudgement, for example by
Masters wanting to cut across the bow of an anchored ship.
Under these circumstances the other ship cannot move fast enough and
is carried down on the current.
At an anchorage ships can usually be identified by name. Early signs of

a problem can often be overcome by communicating on the VHP. The OOW
must realise that talking may be insufficient to prevent an incident and must
be ready to take action.
If the engines are on "stand by" be prepared to use them to manoeuvre,

even with the anchor down, and call the Master.
If the OOW suspects that a collision might happen he should sound at

least 5 short and rapid blasts on the whistle, flash the aldis and call an officer
to go forward urgently to pay out more cable.
In a river situation it is possible to give the ship a considerable sheer just

by applying helm and this manoeuvre should be considered.
Be prepared to monitor the activities of the crew if they are working over
the side.
Other routines
The OOW must ensure that the ship is properly lit at night, that she
exhibits the correct lights and sounds signals in fog.
Often the ship will be waiting for orders or working cargo. Attentive
monitoring of the VHP or Satellite Communications (SatComs) will be
required.
In many places piracy and illicit boarding is a major problem. The

monitoring of all approaching craft and a vigilant inspection of the ship's side
is the primary protection the ship has against this threat. Precautions for
securing the accommodation should be taken.
If unauthorised persons are seen boarding it is suggested that the

OOW sounds the general alarm, blows the whistle and takes precautions
to lock out the boarders.
Summary
D Anchoring demands teamwork
O Verify the plan with the Master
O Support the Master during the approach with bearings or distances
O Monitor the speed of approach
D Monitor the course and approach bearings
O Keep a lookout for other vessels moving
O Fix the ship when the anchor is let go and continue to monitor the
position
n Maintain a vigilant anchor watch
O Check anchor bearings and/or radar distances regularly
D Assess any threat early
O Be prepared to use the engines to prevent dragging
D Be prepared to warn other vessels
O Be prepared to apply evasive manoeuvres
D Monitor shore based communications
O Monitor the movement of small boats
D Protect the security of the vessel
CJ Call the Master as soon as a potentially dangerous situation is identified
D Monitor the situation of the crew, particularly if they are working over
the side
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE -62

Chapter 7 — SAQs
SAQ 10. How many miles does it take your vessel to stop from a
manoeuvring speed of 12 knots, fully loaded, (i) with no astern power (ii)
with maximum astern power?
SAQ 68. How can the OOW best assist the Master when approaching an
anchorage?
SAQ 34. What is the purpose of lowering the anchor out of the hawse pipe
when approaching an anchoring position?
SAQ 48. What is the maximum speed through the water that your ship
can anchor without risking breaking the cable?
SAQ 93. What various options are available to a ship at anchor when
faced with a threat of collision from an oncoming ship?
SAQ 65. Apart from navigational safety, what else should you do on
anchor watch?
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 8 — WATCHKEEPING IN
REDUCED VISIBILITY AT SEA
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will be aware that in reduced visibility at sea
there is a need to monitor the radar carefully and that a lookout should be posted to
keep a visual lookout and to monitor any sounds. The need to call the Master is
emphasised and the use of engines discussed.
Calling the Master

Masters invariably require to be called whenever there is reduced
visibility due to fog, rain, snow, sandstorms, squalls or any other condition
which makes it difficult to see how the other vessel is heading. Master's
standing orders should specify the limits of poor visibility. This may vary
with ship type and location.
jt
Assessing the threat
In reduced visibility, the best way to assess the threat of collision is by
monitoring the radar display. However, as was demonstrated in Chapter 5,
the radar has limitations. A lookout should be posted, therefore, to keep a
visual watch and to listen for any sound signals. The Institute's guidance is as
follows:-
"When restricted visibility is encountered or expected, the first

responsibility of the officer of the watch is to comply with the relevant rules
of the applicable regulations for preventing collisions at sea, with particular
regard to the sounding of fog signals, proceeding at a safe speed and having
engines ready for immediate manoeuvres. In addition he should;
(a) inform the master;
(b) post a proper lookout and helmsman and, in congested waters, revert
to hand steering immediately;
(c) exhibit navigation lights;
(d) operate and use the radar.
It is important that the officer of the watch should know the handling
characteristics of his ship, including its stopping distance, and should
appreciate that other ships may have different handling characteristics"
In addition the OOW should be prepared to close watertight doors in

accordance with regulations and company instructions.
Assessing the collision risk

As soon as the ship enters fog or other conditions of restricted visibility
the applicable collision regulations change and any evasive manoeuvres are
undertaken under the principles of Rule 19. See also Chapter 13 & Annex 6.
There is more uncertainty about the movements of target vessels in fog.
For example, they may be vessels fishing or not under command. It is,
therefore, very important that the OOW takes EARLY action to avoid a close
quarters situation.
Rain and snow are two conditions which not only reduce visibility but
significantly reduce the ability of the radar to detect targets. If two radars are
fitted the S band radar should be operational as well as the X band radar.
Masters need to know in advance about the onset of any condition

which is likely to reduce visibility. This is to avoid being confronted with a
"hidden target" at short range as the ship enters rain, fog, snow or even a sand
storm. The OOW therefore has a duty to keep a vigilant lookout for fog and
to scan the radar at long range for deteriorating weather conditions. If any
changes are observed, call the Master.
The Master will use his judgement in accordance with the COLREGS to
proceed at a safe speed and will usually want to be on the bridge in reduced
visibility. However, everybody needs rest after prolonged periods and the
OOW should ensure that in these circumstances approaching vessels are
given a wide berth.
It should be remembered that stopping the engines in an emergency has

little immediate effect and that it takes time to reduce speed even when the
engines are going astern. The OOW should be ready to use the engines but
must be aware well in advance what effect this will have on the manoeu vr abili ty
of the ship and the limited effect that can be expected in a close quarters
situation.
Vessels such as ferries and naval craft are much more manoeuvrable
than many vessels and respond more immediately to engine and helm
movements. However, for most fully laden vessels this is not so.
Summary
O Observe the weather and call the Master when visibility deteriorates
O Monitor traffic in the area, and comply with the provisions of Rule 19
D Observe the other provisions of the COLREGS
O Post a lookout
a Put the engines to standby — inform the engineers if appropriate
D Be prepared to use a helmsman if a critical situation is developing
O Work the automatic plotting aids (ARPA) systematically
O If no automatic plotting facility exists, prepare to plot selected targets
manually
O Be prepared to close watertight doors
D Be prepared to reduce speed, stop, or turn out of danger
D If possible, consult the Master before any critical evasive manoeuvres
are required
L
Chapter 8 — SAQs
SAQ 83. What is a safe speed?
SAQ 9. Why is it important to sound fog signals?
SAQ 46. If the Master and yourself are using the same ARPA what should
you check?
SAQ 38. Besides the collision risk, what else should you be monitoring on
watch in reduced visibility?
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 9 — TAKING OVER THE WATCH
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will appreciate the need, when changing the
watch, to verify that the ship is proceeding according to plan, that all risks have been
recognised and that the equipment is functioning normally.
Changing the watch — the need to provide continuity

The ship is operational throughout the day and night and the Master
therefore has to lay down procedures to be followed to ensure continuity of
operation when the watch changes. This is an effective time to check the
navigation and status of the ship's equipment and can be used to prevent error
chains developing (see Chapter 12).
The ship is navigated to meet the requirements of the passage plan,

avoid other traffic and follow as closely as possible the track laid down on the
chart. The Master will require to be informed of progress and his instructions
are recorded in the Night Order book, annotation on the chart or passed on
verbally during the day.
If the OOW receives verbal instructions to call the Master at a given time,
which may go over into another officer's watch, it is good practice to make a
note of the call time at the appropriate position on the track on the chart to
remind the next OOW.
Calling the relief

On some ships this is done by the standby man, on other ships by the
internal telephone.lt is good practice, particularly with heavy sleepers, to
make a follow-up call.
What should the relief do when coming to the bridge?

So many accidents have occurred during the change of a watch because
of talking in the wheelhouse, failure to check the course, and failure to look
out and establish any collision risk, that the International Convention states:-
"The relieving officer shall ensure that the members of the relieving watch
are fully capable of performing their duties, particularly as regards their
adjustment to night vision. Relieving officers shall not take over the watch
until their vision is fully adjusted to the light conditions.
Prior to taking over the watch, relieving officers shall satisfy themselves
as to the ship's estimated or true position and confirm its intended track,
course and speed, and UMS controls as appropriate and shall note any dangers
to navigation expected to be encountered during their watch.

Relieving officers shall personally satisfy themselves regarding the:
1. standing orders and other special instructions of the master

relating to navigation of the ship;
2. position, course speed and draught of the ship;
3. prevailing and predicted tides, currents, weather, visibility and the
effect of these factors upon course and speed;
4. procedures for the use of main engines to manoeuvre when the main
engines are on bridge control; and
5. navigational situation, including but no limited to:
5.1 the operational condition of all navigational and safety
equipment being used or likely to be used during the watch,
5.2 the errors of gyro- and magnetic compasses.
5.3 the presence and movement of ships in sight or known to be in
the vicinity.
5.4 the conditions and hazards likely to be encountered during the
watch, and
5.5 the possible effects of heel, trim, water density and squat on
under-keel clearance.
If at the time the officer of the watch is to be relieved when a manoeuvre

or other action to avoid any hazard is taking place, the relief of the officer
should be deferred until such action has been completed."
Handing over the watch

Once the relieving officer has stated "I now have the watch" the
watchkeeper coming off watch should then make sure that all the log book
entries are complete, there is an accurate position or a dead reckoning
position on the chart and that the course boards are written up.
It is against these standards that the incoming officer can check the
watch arrangements.
The relieved officer should ensure that fire and security rounds of the
ship are carried out to inspect for fire or anything unsafe like loose cargo on
deck, equipment not stored away, deadlights that are not dosed at night and
anything unusual which might require attention.
Summary
D Always be fit for bridge duty
O Arrive early and in time to adjust to the bridge situation
D Read, understand and sign the Master's night orders
O Never sign orders you do not fully understand — always seek advice
n Do not take over the watch until your eyes have become adjusted to
night vision
D Never take over a watch until all manoeuvring has been completed and
the ship is safely on course
D Check on the watch complement and make sure the lookout is posted and
a helmsman is near and ready if required
tU
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 10 — CALLING THE MASTER
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will know when you must call the Master,
the reasons for keeping the Master informed, and why you should seek his advice
before dangerous situations arise.
Calling the Master to the Bridge

Junior officers are often concerned that they might be inconveniencing
the Master by calling him to the bridge. However, Masters need to be called
as soon as possible if a difficult situation is developing, as he is most likely to
be able to help the OOW resolve the problem.
Masters have more confidence in OOWs who demonstrate their

willingness to call the Master than those OOWs who allow dangerous
situations to develop.
The OOW, by calling the Master early, will be able to learn from the
experience of the Master when he comes to the bridge. The OOW has a duty
to call the Master early and this must be the guiding principle at all times.
The Master's responsibility

The Master has the ultimate responsibility for the safe and efficient
operation of the ship. He is likely to be the most experienced navigator on the
ship and will probably have dealt with most situations before.
The OOW therefore has a duty to comply with his orders and to keep
the Master informed of progress. The OOW should ask the Master about any
unusual or potentially dangerous occurrences.
If the Master has to be called in an emergency he will arrive on the bridge

in a hurry and will need some time to assess the situation. The OOW must be
ready to brief the Master immediately he arrives, starting with the most
threatening situation and then informing him of the general scene, ie other
ships in the area, what they are doing and proximity to land.
Some examples of situations where the Master will expect to be called

are listed below, but each Master will define his own requirements:-
A give way vessel standing on
The ship found to be unexpectedly heading for land
The presence of a fishing fleet
Difficult multi-ship encounters
Situations where the work load on the bridge has become excessive
Making a landfall
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE -72-

Significant alter course positions
Times of reduced visibility
When there is a change in the sea state
When revolutions decrease by more than 15%
Any unusual occurrences such as changes in the weather, unusual ship
movements, sickness, accidents, and difficulty maintaining course and
speed , ,. ,
The Master will always prefer to be called early, before the ship is in a
dangerous situation. This often requires judgement on behalf of the OOW
and to help resolve this issue the Master will often request to be called
whenever a vessel is to approach within a specified CPA.
What the international regulations require

There are specific regulations about calling the Master, because the
Master has the ultimate responsibility for ship safety. The OOW must keep
him informed of threatening situations. The international convention states:-
"The officer of the watch shall notify the Master immediately in the
following circumstances:-
(a) if restricted visibility is encountered or expected;
(b) if the traffic conditions or the movements- of other ships are
causing concern;
(c) if difficulty is experienced in maintaining course;
(d) on failure to sight land, a navigation mark or to obtain soundings
by the expected time;
(e) if, unexpectedly, land or a navigation mark is sighted or change in
soundings occurs;
(f) on the breakdown of the engines, steering gear or any essential
navigational equipment, alarm or indicator,
(g) if the radio equipment malfunctions;
(h) in heavy weather, if in any doubt about the possibility of weather
damage;
(i) if the ship meets any hazard to navigation, such as ice or derelicts;
(j) in any other emergency or situation in which he is in any doubt.
Despite the requirement to notify the Master immediately in the foregoing

circumstances, the OOW shall, in addition, not hesitate to take immediate
action for the safety of the ship, where circumstances so require."
Who is in charge on the bridge?

The Master's appearance on the bridge does not relieve the OOW of his
responsibilities. The OOW is still in charge of the watch until the Master
formally takes charge. It must be made clear immediately who is in charge of
the watch. The Nautical Briefing in Annex 1 deals with this subject in detail.
To avoid any confusion the OOW must assume he is in charge of the

watch unless formally relieved by the Master.
If the call is made during the hours of darkness, the Master will require
a little time to become accustomed to the conditions. The OOW must take this
into account and allow for this period when deciding to call the Master. It may
be necessary to obtain the services of the helmsman and additional lookouts.
These watchkeeping tasks should be completed by the OOW immediately
they are required. The OOW should not delay or await the arrival of the
Master on the bridge. Under no circumstances is the OOW allowed to leave
the bridge.
Rough weather
The ship, in rough weather, is exposed to considerable danger and the
OOW must keep a seamanlike eye on crew working on deck, enforcing
prohibition if it is too dangerous to go on deck, advising the Master accordingly.
It is important to check deck cargo and their lashings, the security of fixtures
and fittings, and the general safety of the vessel with respect to sea damage
and water ingress.
Large ships in heavy seas have, on occasions, had their bow plates badly
damaged without anybody being aware of it.
The Master should be informed of significant changes of sea state. On

small ships, of course, he will feel it. As a general rule, if the revolutions drop
by more than 15% call the Master and be prepared to slow down the engines
to reduce the possibility of damage, or alter course to reduce the possibility
of damage
When doing rounds after a watch, never go on an exposed deck alone

in rough weather. At night, take a torch to assess any possible damage. Use
the aldis and deck lights to check hatches and equipment forward from the
bridge.
Summary
The Master will expect the OOW to:-
D Comply with his orders
D Inform him about progress
O Call him when any unusual situation arises
D Call him in accordance with instructions
O Call him whenever critical situations arise
D Call him as early as possible
D Be prepared to brief him on his arrival by pointing out the most critical
situations first
IF IN DOUBT WHETHER OR NOT TO CALL THE MASTER —

CALL HIM

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 11 — RESPONDING TO EMERGENCIES
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will understand the difference between a
problem and an emergency, and what action each requires. You will learn about your
part, as OOW, in the ship's emergency organisation and the responses required to
various situations. The special case of Man Overboard is considered.
Introduction
The difference between a problem and an emergency is the level of
urgency required to take action. An emergency requires immediate action:-
To save life or prevent injury
To avoid damage to the ship and cargo ^
T
To avoid pollution
To assist another vessel in distress :
A problem on the other hand, is an incident or occur ence which requires

the attention of the OOW, but is not urgent and can be solved during the
normal working of the watch.
With unmanned machinery spaces, the bridge may be the only manned
centre on board at night and although work will be carried out in the engine
room during the day, the command and control centres are probably not
being used.
The OOW is likely to be the first person to know when something has
gone wrong. The OOW must therefore know what to do to anticipate and
respond to emergencies and know who is the duty engineer and how he can
be contacted.
No two emergencies are the same. For example, a scavenge fire in a

generator which leads to a blackout in the ocean is an emergency for the
engineers and the ship's fire fighting team.
If the blackout occurs in a narrow channel with other traffic in the

vicinity the first requirement is to raise the alarm internally, call the Master,
then to signal to other ships that you are "Not under command". If necessary,
call an anchor party to safeguard the ship from running aground. Not only
was there a fire in the engine room, but the whole ship was at risk.
The OOW as part of the ship's emergency organisation

Every ship should have an emergency organisation. Many do not, and
on others it may take some weeks to develop a team after a crew change.
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE —76-

Bridge Operations during Stand By
At a critical point the telegraph fails.

It is at this time that the bridge team need to know how to respond

If there is no well established emergency organisation the OOW, when faced
with an emergency, must:-
Initiate action to minimise danger
Call for assistance
A ship with an emergency organisation will have a tried and tested

response to emergencies which makes the best use of resources on board. The
emergency organisation will consist of :-
A chain of command
Selected crew members for specific response
Special duties for selected personnel
Equipment availability
Type of response
Flexibility through training and drills
Within this framework the OOW will have a key role to play:-
Being the first point of contact to raise the alarm
Keeping a vigilant lookout to ensure the ship does not get into difficulties
whilst the command function is preoccupied with the emergency
Communicating i.e. relaying telephone and walkie-talkie messages as
appropriate
Ensuring the ship carries the correct lights and signals to describe its
condition
When the ship's crew is fully engaged in responding to the emergency
the OOW must keep an undistracted lookout to ensure the ship itself does not
get into danger.
Officer of the Watch response

The OOW must be capable of initiating an appropriate response to an
emergency. Because the situation may be dangerous and critical it is likely
that the OOW will experience a sense of alarm and a sudden increase in their
heartbeat accompanied by rapid breathing and a tendency to over-react or
freeze.
An emergency calls for immediate response and the sense of alarm must
be directed into purposeful action. This can best be done if the OOW is
properly prepared.
Being prepared means training, experience and pre-planning.
The best way to prepare for emergencies is to practice them through
drills and exercises. Having experienced what to do there is considerably less
chance that the OOW will feel panic.
Having become aware of this fact, through studying this section of the
book, the OOW can use time on watch to imagine what to do in specific
emergency situations.

When considering what action to take an OOW should be guided by the
following:-
Take appropriate remedial action
Verify that it is having the desired effect
Call for assistance
Notify all those who need to know
Inform "the outside world" through lights, signals, flags and VHP as
appropriate
Ensure any changeover procedure is properly carried out and that any
alternative system is tested and verified
Make certain proper communications enable actions to be verified and
monitored
Support the emergency organisation when it is working
Keep a vigilant lookout to ensure the ship is not put at risk whilst the
emergency is being solved
Keep accurate records
• «#*•
Man overboard
"It must be emphasised that in the event of a man overboard, the actions
taken by the OOW are likely to make the difference between life and death."
Appropriate action must therefore include:-

Immediate release of the bridge wing smoke marker floats
Sound the general alarm — don't waste time telephoning or using the
whistle to call assistance.
Try to ensure the man stays in sight by posting lookouts
Turn the vessel to facilitate recovery
Log the time and note the position of the ship in case a search is needed
Mark the waypoint on the SatNav if fitted
Put the engines on stand by
Be ready to brief the Master when he comes on the bridge
Broadcast a MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY message
Sound three long blasts "O" to warn other ships if they are in the vicinity
Conclusions
The OOW has a duty to be prepared for emergencies. To initiate
appropriate action, call for assistance, monitor the safety of the ship and take
the decisions which will enable the most effective recovery of a man overboard.
The knowledge and ability to respond come from training, practice, and
preparedness. No two ships will be the same and every OOW must be fully
familiar with their own ship.
Summary
The OOW must know:-
D How to sound the general alarm
79 — BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
D The dimensions of the ship
D How to show appropriate lights and signals
D How to illuminate all parts of the bridge
O How to use the communication equipment
D How to control the engines
D How to close watertight doors
O How to transfer the steering gear into manual
O How to seek assistance
G How to log times
O How to record the ships position at a moments notice
O How to think through critical situations in advance and to ask "What
would I do if a particular emergency occurred?"

"BKYDGB^ATCHKEEPING
Chapter 12— ERROR MANAGEMENT
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will be aware of errors which can occur and,
which if they go undetected, could lead toaserious incident. You will also understand
more about human errors and how you should conduct your activities on watch to
minimise the effect of mistakes. Finally you will understand that good watchkeeping
requires good habits which should be practised at all times.
What can go wrong?

There are three main components of a ship which involve movement.
They are the engines; the steering system and the guidance or navigational
systems. A fault or failure in any of these, if not detected, could lead to an
uncontrolled situation.
«
Similarly it is possible that an operator may make a mistake. This might
be the helmsman who steers the wrong course, the pilot who gives a wrong
order or the OOW who mistakes the range on the radar or who sets up the
electronic navigation system wrongly.
There are thus many combinations and ways in which errors can occur,
both technical and human.
Typical types of equipment error

«•} In general terms these will occur as:-
Total or intermittent failure
Malfunction of safety systems and alarms
Misleading information from uncalibrated instruments
Undetected targets due to an untuned radar
Out of date information on charts and reference books
Typical types of human error

Human beings are not machines. Humans are good at assessing the
situation, applying knowledge and solving problems. Humans are bad at
sustaining long repetitive tasks, concentrating hard for long periods without
a break, are subject to tiredness and fatigue and the dulling effects of
boredom.
It is common for experienced officers to make 'slips and lapses'. They

often occur during routine automatic activities due to:-
Distraction and preoccupation
Changes to normal expected circumstances
Stress and fatigue
Similarly, it is possible to make 'rule-based mistakes' by:-
Making a quick decision without considering the rules
Not noticing when a rule does not work
Misapplying an established rule
Tending to shortcut rules
Making errors from ambiguous information
Suffering from stress and fatigue
'Knowledge-based mistakes' can be attributed to ignorance but an

OOW will never know if he is ignorant unless this is pointed out — hence
mistakes occur due tot-
Real weakness due to ignorance
Over confidence due to ignorance
A mistaken understanding of the principles involved
Cultural conditioning which is effective in ensuring stability of society

ashore can cause embarrassment in the command structure found on board
ships. Some cultures reinforce an acceptance of authority so that it is very
difficult to question senior officers without feeling uncomfortable. Other
cultural influences include possible misunderstandings of intentions and a
willingness to comply without question.
Seafarers do not intend to make mistakes, but 'violations' of good

practices frequently occur and these can be for a variety of reasons:-
Apathy leading to laziness rather than compliance
Experimentation
A desire to push limits rather than comply
Motivational and behavioural problems individually and in the bridge
team
Common forms of error

Combining the possibility of mechanical and systems errors with
human mistakes or omissions gives rise to a wide range of possible errors
which need to be managed on board.
It must be remembered that a ship is moving and needs to be controlled

with respect to navigation and collision avoidance. Typical errors and faults
can arise through the following omissions:-
Failure to complete a task when required
Ignorance of the ship's dimensions and behaviour
Failure to maintain the sequence of the passage plan, contingency plan
or subsequent updates
Undetected differences between intended track and track made good
Not monitoring manual or auto helm wander, rudder indicators,
compasses and course recorders
Not monitoring engine controls; or indicators
Unresolved difference between ground speed and RPM

Not matching speed to sea conditions
Measuring by single technique or measuring by inappropriate technique
Unresolved cross-track error
Not monitoring visibility
Not briefing the lookout
Not searching visually
Searching solely by radar
Not taking compass bearings
Not making a radar/ARP A/plot
Making decisions on inadequate knowledge of target behaviour
Not displaying lights or sounding signals
Not monitoring VHP/Medium Frequency (MF) radio
Wrongly applying the COLREGS and being unaware of any local
regulations and signals
Omitting to monitor the protection system's bridge-located displays
and controls
Omitting to inspect the ship *"*
Omitting to monitor the location of passengers and location and working
of the crew
Mistaking the correct identification of a light, landmark or navigational
aid either visually, on radar or on the chart.
How can errors be avoided?

It has to be stated that errors and mistakes cannot totally be prevented
from happening. However, the effects of mistakes can be corrected before
they affect the safe running of the ship and this can be achieved through four
golden rules:-
1. Plan ahead and know what to expect
2. Develop safe routines and habits to ensure most safe practices are
covered under normal operations, whilst leaving time and energy
to solve difficult problems
3. Apply self checking habits to all activities on the bridge
4. Check and monitor others and expect others to check and monitor
you
Planning ahead
If the OOW does not know where the ship expects to be then he cannot
know whether the position is right, reasonable or wrong. An OOW should
always plan the watch before taking over by establishing the estimated
position at the end of the watch. The OOW should then note any items to be
encountered during the watch, as well as noting the Master's orders.
In pilotage waters the OOW should have an idea of ETAs and the
approximate times when key navigational marks will be reached. Similarly,
the main provision of the passage plan should be studied to ensure an
understanding of sea room and situational awareness.
Routines to prevent undetected errors
Routines are useful to provide a means of verifying the status of
equipment and the safety of the vessel. No individual can maintain a state of
constant alertness for more than periods of about half an hour. The OOW,
therefore, should develop the technique of allowing routines to pick up
undetected errors so that full concentration can be given to resolving collision
risks, solving problems, navigating and maintaining the integrity of the
whole watch system.
Routines must be approriate for the conditions which exist. For example
— position fixing in coastal waters must be such that the ship cannot be put
into danger between each fix. Fixing in coastal waters will therefore be more
frequent than deep sea. Routines must not be followed to the exclusion of
common sense and awareness of a developing situation which must take
precedence. They are, however, useful in providing a means of picking up
undetected errors and an example is given below.
ROUTINES
Maintain a situational awareness at all times
at short intervals
— look out visually * — check radar display
— consider ship's position — reset alarms if fitted
1
at intervals not exceeding 1 hour
— check compass — check engine revolutions
— check heading — check general ship status
> during each watch
— calibrate instruments — verify compass input & alignment
— verify the compass error and record it in the deviation book
— check the radar performance — check auto/hand steering transfer
— observe the weather and read weather reports
• at watch handover
— check the track/heading — read any standing orders
— become familiar with the traffic situation
— consider the weather — on leaving, write up the log
— carry out a visual inspection of the ship
• at daily intervals
— obtain time checks and synchronise clocks
•— update draught and trim — update charts and publications
— test alarms — test navigational lights and whistle
— test radio equipment distress auto alarms
— alternate the steering system
NOTE: ALL ROUTINES MUST BE APPROPRIATE TO THE
PREVAILING CIRCUMSTANCES AND ARE SECONDARY TO THE
APPLICATION OF GOOD SEAMANSHIP.

Self checking
Humans are constantly checking and correcting themselves. However,
errors can be made which, if they go undetected, could lead to an accident
because the outcome can not be seen, smelt, heard or felt unless precautions
are taken.
Taking precautions or self checking must become the normal working

practice of all OOW's as follows:-
Check workings after first results have been obtained
Formulate approximate results before working out detailed calculations
Plan ahead—for example estimate, at the time of taking over the watch,
the position in which the ship will be at the end of the watch
Check the distances between fixes to verify that the speed of the vessel
is as expected
Adopt practices which are self-checking — for example taking more
than two position lines with each fix
Check a parallel index with a position fix to verify that the range chosen
was not in error
Do not rely on one method of fixing when additional methods are
available ~
Use the echo sounder to verify the expected depth of water when
approaching land, to augment other navigational information
Verify the compass bearing of an approaching vessel, either visually or
on radar, at least three times
Use check lists
Monitor that any action taken is having the desired effect
Error chains
Accidents seldom happen as a result of a single event. They are almost
always the result of a series of acts or omissions which lead to confusion and
loss of situational awareness. The aim of error management, therefore, is to
adopt practices which minimise the risk of a one man error having disastrous
consequences.
Checking with and by others

It will now be evident that if two people can check each other the risk of
making an error is reduced still further. The OOW can assist in the process
by monitoring the helmsman, pilot or Master. Similarly the pilot and Master
will be monitoring the OOW and the helmsman.
Mistakes of habit are best identified when there is discontinuity or a

change of watch. This is the time to verify the information given by the
outgoing OOW and check the course, speed, position, track and estimated
position with fresh eyes. Similarly a refreshed OOW coming on watch must
assess the traffic situation and identify any vessels which might cause a risk
of collision.
- 87 — BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Finally it is relevant to discuss the relationship between the OOW and
the Master. The Master will want to encourage the OOW to think ahead,
check workings, and verify information at the change of a watch.
These professional habits have to be learned and applied diligently.

This discipline also has to be taught because it does not come naturally to the
inexperienced watchkeeper.
Keeping alert
Every watchkeeper soon learns that time passes quickly during a busy,
active coastal watch where there is plenty to occupy the mind.
However, deep sea there is less stimulus and the body responds by
becoming less active. To counteract this effect every OOW must make a
positive effort to keep alert.
Movement is the most helpful stimulus. Pacing up and down the bridge
keeps the body exercised and alert whilst also enabling the OOW to keep an
all round look out and all the equipment monitored.
Increasingly, ships are being fitted with watch alarms which require a
positive setting by the OOW at regular intervals. The more sophisticated
alarms are movement sensitive and reset themselves whenever there is
movement on the bridge. This is a good design feature.
If this chapter has demonstrated the principles for good watchkeeping

behaviour then it will have served its purpose.
Summary
D Be aware of what can go wrong
O Be aware of human mistakes
D Understand how errors occur
O Discipline yourself each watch to:-
Plan ahead
Set up safe routines „
Check yourself
Check and monitor others
O Start each watch by adopting the above principles
D Avoid becoming too preoccupied with a particular instrument,
particularly radar
D Maintain an outward vision and 'situational awareness'
D Be prepared to admit a mistake, learn from the incident and work out
a way to avoid repeating it in future
D Keep alert during ocean passages by moving around the bridge
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 13 — COLLISION AVOIDANCE
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will be aware of the need to have a complete
knowledge of the rules. The four methods of operation will be explained and you will
have an understanding of the underlying principles involved. Note that this is an
advisory chapter only. The subject is given fuller treatment in the references. This
chapter does not replace the need for experience in the practical interpretation of the
rules.
General observations
A major and essential part of the OOW's duties is to manage collision
avoidance situations correctly and safely in accordance with internationally
agreed rules which form the only basis for common understanding amongst
mariners of all nationalities.
The rules are produced in tne languages of all maritime nations to

provide the framework in which to make decisions. They have to be known
in detail and their application practised so that when a difficult situation
arises the correct action can be taken.
WHEN A CRITICAL SITUATION DEVELOPS THERE IS NO TIME TO

CONSULT THE RULES AND THERE IS NO GUARANTEE THAT A VHP
CALL TO AN UNIDENTIFIED VESSEL WILL BE ANSWERED.
The first requirement of all trainee watchkeepers is to be able to

demonstrate:-
A detailed knowledge of all the rules
An understanding of how to apply the rules
A number of text books, computer based training material and videos

have been developed specifically for this purpose and references are provided
in Annex 7.
What follows are a number of notes relating to the steering and sailing
rules which continue to cause difficulties because OOWs, by their action or
inaction, lose their ability to CONTROL THE SITUATION.
Methods of control in compliance with the rules

The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea are
divided into five parts and four annexes, as listed in Annex 6. Within this the
OOW has to decide which strategy to adopt, depending upon the visibility,
the type of ships encountered, and the situation of the vessel in separation
schemes and narrow channels.
The rules referring to this are:
1. Those to be followed by vessels in sight of one another (Rules 11-
17). These divide each encounter into "the vessel which must give
way" and "the vessel which should maintain its course and speed"
2. Those for vessels in fog or reduced visibility (Rule 19) where a
vessel shall take avoiding action irrespective of the intentions of
the other vessel
3. The responsibilities between vessels such that a power driven
vessel will keep out of the way of others unable to do so (Rule 18)
4. Navigation in narrow channels and separation schemes (Rules 9
and 10). —
Additionally, the rules provide valuable guidance on safe speed (Rule

6), how to assess risk of collision (Rule 7) and practical advice on action to
avoid collision (Rule 8).
Some notes on collision avoidance

The rules are designed to establish a code of conduct for ships at sea so
that lights and signals are identifiable, manoeuvres to avoid collision conform
to a predictable pattern; and vessels are navigated in such a way that
reasonable safety precautions are taken.
The rules apply on the high seas and all waters connected to them used
by seagoing vessels. Port and river authorities frequently add special
requirements for safe navigation such as rules of conduct in a tidal river
where priority of access to a bridge arch is given to the vessel proceeding with
the current. Detailed instructions are provided in Pilot Books, Harbour By-
Laws and special notices. They should be studied in advance of arrival and
be available for reference in the chart area.
When assessing risk of collision it is essential to take a series of compass

bearings or bearings from the radar. As can be seen from the figures A and
B, the use of relative bearings (lining up a stanchion on the bridge wing for
example) must not be used to assess risk. The need to take compass bearings
or bearings from the radar is illustrated below. In Fig. A the relative and true
bearings are coinciden tally similar. In Fig. B it is the compass bearing which
is constant and indicates risk of collision.
B3 B2 B1
Fig.B
Fig. A
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 92 —

When using radar it is seldom practical for one person to plot more than
five targets at a time. Use should be made, therefore, of ARPA, or a reflection
plotter if fitted. If the work load gets too high the OOW must be encouraged
to seek assistance and consider reducing speed.
Practical watchkeeping skills

It requires good judgement to determine how far an object is away from
the ship. To acquire this skill trainees and junior officers should be encouraged
to assess visual distances. This can be done by calculating the distance to the
horizon using height of eye. This distance can be divided up mentally to give
an approximation of intermediate distances. The accuracy of the assessment
can be tested against the radar range until realistic results are regularly
obtained.
This is generally not possible at nigh t when the horizon is not visible and
due to the variation in the intensity of ships lights, the brighter ones will
appear closer.
•«
A useful way of assessing the CPA from changes in compass bearing is

given here:
Closest Point of Approach
Change in range
(estimated)
5 to 3 NM Twice the amount of the bearing change gives CPA in cables
3 to 2 NM The amount of bearing change gives CPA in cables
j 2 to 1 NM Half the amount of the bearing change gives CPA in cables
For example, if a vessel is observed bearing 045° at 3NM and then 047°
at 2 NM, the bearing has changed by 2° therefore the CPA is 2 cables.
From a major study carried out into casualties in European waters from
1978-1982 the average number of incidents per year were:-
119 vessels involved in end on collisions
66 vessels involved in crossing situations
26 vessels involved in overtaking situations
COLREG Rule 14
Head-on situation
(a) When two power-driven vessels are meeting on reciprocal or

nearly reciprocal courses so as to involve risk of collision each shall alter
her course to starboard so that each shall pass on the port side of the other.
(b) Such a situation shall be deemed to exist when a vessel sees the
other ahead or nearly ahead and by night she could see the masthead lights
of the other in a line or nearly in a line and/or both sidelights and by day she
observes the corresponding aspect of the other vessel.
(c) When a vessel is in any doubt as to whether such a situation exists
she shall assume that it does exist and act accordingly.
Meeting and End On situations

From the statistics on the previous page it can be seen that meeting
situations are the most dangerous, and the first Traffic Separation Schemes
(TSS) were introduced because the majority of accidents occurred where
vessels were meeting end on, or nearly end on, such as in the Straits of Dover.
These situations can be very critical. Take, for instance, a vessel at 3

degrees on the bow at a distance of 3 miles, and on a reciprocal course. If no
action is taken by either vessel the passing distance will only be between 0-1
and 0-2 miles abeam. In open waters this passing distance is positively
dangerous, and action should be taken as soon as possible to increase it.
In order to reduce the effects of random errors when plotting, several

observations must be taken at regular intervals. This is clearly illustrated in
the following example by A.N. Cockcrof t from the book listed in (Annex 7).
Consider a target ten degrees on the starboard bow on a steady bearing.

If bearings are taken at a distance of 12 miles and again at 10 miles, and an
error of -1° is made in the first bearing followed by an error of +1° in the
second bearing, the target would appear to be on a parallel and opposite
course, and might be expected to pass clear to starboard with a nearest
approach of over 2 miles. A reversal of these errors would make the target
appear to be crossing, and passing clear to port at a distance of over 2 miles.
Diagram to illustrate the need for regular plotting in end-on situations

Many collisions have occurred where one vessel has acted under
COLREG 14 (end on), whilst the other vessel has treated it as a crossing
situation. Much anxiety could be taken out of these situations if more vessels
took notice of para (c) of COLREG 14, which states that if there is ANY
DOUBT about the situation, assume it to be head on and act accordingly. In
other words, both vessels should make an identifiable alteration to pass at a
safe distance, and continue to monitor the situation until safely clear. In close
proximity where there could be the slightest doubt, communication with the
other vessel by way of whistle signals should be made.
COLREG Rule 15
Crossing situation
When two power-driven vessels are crossing so as to involve risk of

collision, the vessel which has the other on her own starboard side shall keep
out of the way and shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, avoid
crossing ahead of the other vessel.
A
Crossing situations
Crossing situations are relatively straightforward, and yet still contribute
to a large percentage of collisions. Giving way in good tirfie to vessels on the
starboard side, by making a substantial al teration of course, will avoid a close
quarters situation. The stand-on vessel has more difficulty. Vessels crossing
from port to starboard need careful watching to make sure they give way in
time. If they do not do so, the stand-on vessel must take action before getting
too close.
In the event that a 'give way' vessel fails to do so, the 'stand on' vessel
has to consider the time available to undertake an evasive manoeuvre. It will
depend upon the time and distance it takes to turn own ship with the time
available to CPA. A long, deep, heavy vessel will require more time to turn
than a short, shallow-draught, twin screw, variable pitch propeller vessel. For
this reason officers operating highly manoeuvrable vessels should never
'embarrass' less manoeuvrable vessels by standing on until the last moment.
Good seamanship demands that the give way vessel should do so before the
stand on vessel needs to consider taking evasive action.
Problems can arise when rounding a headland. Courses should be

plotted sufficiently far off to allow room for giving way to other traffic.
Crossing Traffic Separation Schemes (TSS) can present a dilemma. When
giving way to several ships on the starboard side, it may be necessary to
consider other forms of action to prevent going against the general flow of
traffic.
COLREGRulelS
Overtaking
(a) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Rules of Part B,

Sections I and II, any vessel overtaking any other vessel shall keep out of the
way of the vessel being overtaken.
(b) A vessel shall be deemed to be overtaking when coming up with

another vessel from a direction more than 22-5 degrees abaft her beam, that
is, in such a position with reference to the vessel she is overtaking, that at
night she would be able to see only the sternlight of that vessel but neither of
her sidelights.
(c) When a vessel is in any doubt as to whether she is overtaking

another, she shall assume that this is the case and act accordingly.
(d) Any subsequent alteration of the bearing between the two vessels
shall not make the overtaking vessel a crossing vessel within the meaning of
these Rules or relieve her of the duty of keeping clear of the overtaken vessel
until she is finally past and clear.
Overtaking situations
The overtaking vessel is obliged by the COLREGS to keep out of the way
of the overtaken vessel until finally clear. The overtaken vessel, however,
should continuously monitor the situation and be ready to act if something
goes wrong. It may also be necessary for the overtaken vessel to keep out of
the way of other traffic. When she is being overtaken on the starboard side
this will mean either a reduction of speed or a course alteration to port. If the
vessels are on converging courses, little confusion arises when the overtaking
vessel is on the overtaken vessel's port side, as irrespective of how the
overtaking vessel views the situation, she is obliged to keep out of the way.
It is when she is 'coming up' on the starboard side that some doubt could arise
as to whether she was crossing or overtaking. COLREG 13 states that if the
overtaking vessel is more than 2 points abaft the beam she shall keep out of
the way. Here again, para (c) forms the basis of decision making in uncertain
circumstances, that is if there is ANY DOUBT the overtaking ship should
keep out of the way.
Overtaking in a narrow channel requires a good deal of care. Firstly, the

intention to overtake must be communicated to the other vessel. When this
has been agreed, sufficient distance must be allowed between the two vessels
to prevent interaction.
Actions to be taken in reduced visibility

This brings into focus the issue of safe speed. The rules provide sensible
factors upon which to base a decision. Before radar was widely used, a speed

comparable to a stopping distance of half the visibility was considered a
guide. Now the situation is more complex. Speed enables effective evasive
manoeuvres to be made. On the other hand, potentially dangerous situations
can develop more quickly if ships continue to press on in reduced visibility
or in conditions of high traffic density. To resolve these issues increases the
work load on the OOW and the first priority may well be to ask for extra
bridge assistance by posting a lookout and calling the Master.
Rule 6 states:-
Every vessel shall at all times proceed at a safe speed so that she can
take proper and effective action to avoid collision and be stopped within a
distance appropriate to the prevailing circumstances and conditions.
In determining a safe speed the following factors shall be among those
taken into account:
(a) By all vessels:- .
(i) the state of visibility;
(ii) the traffic density, including concentrations offishingvessels
or any other vessels;
(Hi) the manoeuvrability of the vessel with special reference to
stopping distance and turning ability in the prevailing
conditions;
(iv) at night the presence of background light such as from shore
lights or from back scatter of her own lights;
(v) the state of wind, sea and current, and the proximity of
navigational hazards;
(vi) the draught in relation to the available depth of water.
(b) Additionally, by vessels with operational radar:-

(i) the characteristics, efficiency and limitations of the radar
equipment;
(ii) any constraints imposed by the radar range scale in use;
(Hi) the effect on radar detection of the sea state, weather and
other sources of interference;
(iv) the possibility that small vessels, ice and other floating
objects may not be detected by radar at an adequate range;
(v) the number, location and movement of vessels detected by
radar;
(vi) the more exact assessment of the visibility that may be
possible when radar is used to determine the range of vessels
or other objects in the vicinity.
As was mentioned in the introduction the action to be taken by vessels

to avoid collision is not necessarily the same as that taken in clear visibility.
Rule 19 states:-
(a) This Rule applies to vessels not in sight of one another when
navigating in or near an area of restricted visibility.
,
(b) Every vessel shall proceed at a safe speed adapted to the prevailing
circumstances and conditions of restricted visibility. A power-
driven vessel shall have her engines ready for immediate
manoeuvre.
(c) Every vessel shall have due regard to the prevailing circumstances
and conditions of restricted visibility when complying with the
Rules of Section I of this Part.
(d) A vessel which detects by radar alone the presence of another vessel
shall determine if a close-quarters situation is developing and/or
risk of collision exists. If so, she shall take avoiding action in ample
time, provided that when such action consists of an alteration of
course, so far as possible the following shall be avoided:
(i) an alteration of course to port for a vessel forward of the
beam, other than for a vessel being overtaken;
(ii) an alteration of course towards a vessel abeam or abaft the
beam.
(e) Except where it has been determined that a risk of collision does not
exist, every vessel which hears apparently forward of her beam the
fog signal of another vessel, or which cannot avoid a close-quarters
situation with another vessel forward of her beam, shall reduce her
speed to the minimum at which she can be kept on her course. She
shall, if necessary, take all her way off and in any event navigate
with extreme caution until danger of collision is over.
(f) (i) A WIG craft, when taking off, landing and in flight near the
surface, shall keep well clear of all other vessels and avoid
impeding their navigation;
(ii) A WIG craft operating on the water surface shall comply with
the Rules of this Part as a power-driven vessel.
Rule 19 was added to the COLREGS at the last major revision and
recognises that, in restricted visibility, radar will be used for collision
avoidance. As discussed earlier in this chapter, when vessels are in sight of one
another in clear visibility there are duties placed on both vessels. The stand on
vessel should maintain its course and speed whilst the give way vessel must
avoid a close quarters situation.
In restricted visibility, when carrying out collision avoidance from radar

information, the rules state that every vessel shall take avoiding action in
ample time. This means that there is no stand on vessel and an OOW must take
an initiative in every situation where there is risk of collision. Because the OOW
cannot predict what the other vessel is going to do in restricted visibility there
is more uncertainty and therefore a greater need to take avoiding action early.
It must also be remembered that the only information the other vessel
receives following a change of course or speed is the change in the echo on the
other vessel's radar. It is therefore necessary to convey an intention by making
a bold alteration of course or a significant reduction in speed.

Rule 19 states that when action is taken to avoid a close quarters
situation the following shall be avoided:-
(a) an alteration of course to port for a vessel forward of the beam,
other than a vessel being overtaken
(b) an alteration of course towards a vessel abeam or abaft the beam.
Having taken evasive action it is essential to ensure it is having the

desired effect and this can only be done by monitoring the relative position
of the other vessel on the radar. This should be done positively either with a
target marker or manually with a chinagraph plotting pencil.
On a busy bridge where the OOW may be concerned with navigation,

communications and other traffic, a plotting record becomes essential. It
ensures that threatening targets are positively identified so that attention can
be given to other problems.
Limitations " , > * • . .

The presence of other vessels and/or lack of sea room may impose
limitations on the manoeuvres which can be made, but it must be emphasised
that small changes of course and/or speed are unlikely to be detected.
WHEN ACTION HAS BEEN TAKEN TO AVOID A CLOSE QUARTERS

SITUATION IT IS ESSENTIAL TO ENSURE THAT ANY ACTION TAKEN
IS HAVING THE DESIRED EFFECT.
The value of experience

No trainee should expect to leave college with only a theoretical
knowledge of the rules and be responsible for a watch at sea.
Understanding and implementing the provisions of the collision

regulations requires experience and judgement. All vessels in visual range
should be positively identified as to (i) their type; (ii) course, speed and
heading; and (iii) time and distance to the nearest point of approach.
As a general rule, unless specified in the Master's standing orders, never

plan to pass closer than one mile to other vessels and fixtures in open sea
conditions.
To obtain this experience and judgement the trainee should expect to

inform the Master or OOW of every vessel approaching with a CPA of 2 miles.
In so reporting the trainee will be able to advise the senior officer on the
action believed to be appropriate. This is a safe and practical way to build up
experience.
• 99 — BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
The use of VHP for collision avoidance
The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea make no
mention of the use of VHP for collision avoidance. The rules have been
designed to enable decisions to be made without communication. The first
requirement therefore is to know the rules and understand how to apply
them.
The use of VHP can cause confusion and uncertainty. The unwanted
effects can increase the risk of collision for three reasons. Firstly, there is no
way positively to identify the receiving ship. Secondly, even if communication
is established there is no guarantee the message will be understood and
thirdly, time spent making contact and communicating could be better used
avoiding a close-quarters situation earlier. The advice of The Nautical
Institute Council is NOT to use VHP for collision avoidance unless required
by local regulations.
There are, of course, occasions when the use of VHP is helpful. For
example, where ships are operating in pilotage waters and there is direct
identification with other ships; then, messages can be passed from pilot to
pilot in a common language with certainty. However, as a general rule, if
there is no positive identification of the other ship do not use VHP for collision
avoidance.
Summary
D Know your obligations in clear weather
O Know your obligations in reduced visibility
O Know your obligations when meeting hampered vessels
O Know your obligations in narrow channels
D Know your obligations in a traffic separation scheme
D Apply the principles of good seamanship
O Call the Master as early as possible if you believe a critical situation is
developing
O Ensure an effective lookout. If necessary post an additional lookout
D Avoid the use of VHP for establishing risk of collision unless prescribed
for use by the coastal authorities.

Chapter 13 — SAQs
SAQ 28. How does the OOW assess risk of collision?
SAQ 1. You are the OOW of a vessel constrained by her draught in a

traffic separation scheme in fog, and the Master has left the bridge
temporarily. An unidentified vessel is approaching so as to incur risk of
collision and a potentially dangerous situation is developing. What
would you do?
SAQ 42. You are the OOW of a power driven vessel, Of which vessels
must you keep out of the way?
SAQ 80. You are OOW of a vessel in fog and you notice a vessel
approaching on a collision course 40° on the port bow. What would you
do?
— 101 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

m&sszs
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 14 — RECORD KEEPING
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will have an understanding of why it is
necessary to maintain accurate records. The log book in particular will be discussed
and practical advice on filling in record books is given.
Why keep records?

There are three related reasons for keeping records which all revolve
around human memory and the availability of information. Everybody has
a long-term memory for remembering things which have been learned and
a short-term memory which enables limited items of information to be
remembered for short periods, like a bearing: then it is forgotten.
The sort of detail to be entered into log books — the state of the sea, the
course and compass error — are items which are quickly forgotten. Indeed it
is desirable that they are forgotten once recorded because it would be
impossible to retain all the information for accurate recalf several years later.
The purpose of log books and records

They are provided to keep an accurate record of key events from which,
with a seaman's knowledge, a situation can be reconstructed.
Records of items like compass variation and deviation are necessary to

establish trends from which the Master can decide if the magnetic compass
needs correcting or the gyro compass needs servicing.
Internally, many calculations depend upon information contained in

the log. Specifically, speed and distance steamed from noon to noon will be
used to verify fuel consumption and engine efficiency and to monitor the
resistance of the hull.
Sometimes mistakes are made and frequently it is useful to refer back to

an original source of material.
Ship records are the first items to be studied after an incident. If there is
a stranding and an insurance claim, or an investigation by the flag State,
inspectors will take the chart and log books, examine the standard of
navigation and attempt to reconstruct the incident before deciding who is to
blame or how much compensation to pay.
Good record keeping in a well run ship is a defence against unfounded

claims. In a recent case a ship docked in a Korean port and the first people
onboard were officials who took the Master ashore and put him in prison

claiming that the ship had just run down a fishing vessel. Fortunately, the up
to date log and explicit chartwork proved beyond doubt that the ship was at
least eleven miles away from the fishing vessel at the time of the collision. The
Master and the ship were then released.
Falsifying information (apart from being unlawful) is most unwise, as

modern techniques for detecting erasures are reliable and a falsified document
will put OOW or Master at a severe disadvantage in court.
If there is collision or cargo damage at sea, the ship's log will be

scrutinised in detail, as it describes the ship's activities and is a window into
the efficiency of the bridge team.
The ship's log is always consulted when there are claims by the
charterers that the ship did not meet the speed standards originally contracted.
Alternatively, the charterers may be paying for fuel and will make a claim
against the shipowner if the fuel consumption is more than was stated in the
charter party.
Maritime arbitrators deciding these cases can cite numerous incidents

where the ship's log has recorded adverse weather force 4 and above for
distances as long as Suez to Rotterdam!
This falsifying of the records can easily be challenged by meteorological

records or shore stations and, of course, satellite weather maps.
Records are necessary:-

To unclutter the mind of the OOW, allowing concentration on
watchkeeping priorities
To keep an accurate record of events
To establish trends
To provide evidence in the event of an incident
Some practical tips on record keeping

Most log book entries are time dependent. When there is time it is
sensible to write up the log book during the watch as events take place. It is
always easier to do these tasks "little and often". When the OOW is very busy,
writing up the log could be a distraction . In this case, keep a note book and
write up the log after being relieved. 1
All log entries should be neat and tidy. Entries are made for others to
read. If you make a mistake, cross out the entry with a single line, enter the
corrected data above it and initial the correction.
What should be entered in the log?

Most log books are laid out in columns and time, weather, sea state,
track, course steered, compass error, speed and positions are likely to have

Double checking is essential
Good record keeping prevents longer term problems

columns of their own. The narrative section should be thought about from the
point of view of a legal advisor who wants to reconstruct what happened
following an incident.
In narrow waters time of departure will be followed with entries like:-

1015 Cleared breakwater; 1100 No4 Lt Buoy abeam to starboard; 1125 No 1
Lt Buoy 032°T x 2 miles Pilot away; 1140 Ram head 071 °T x 6 miles set course
023°T Full away.
Thereafter, accurate alter course times, positions and new courses will
need to be recorded. For further advice consult the Master and company
guidelines. See Annex 9.
The log should then record any unusual event, for example 1115 entered
fog, called Master, radars on, engines on standby, COLREGS observed.
Similarly, entries for rain, heavy seas, and ice should be made.
The bell book or movement book should include when the ship is
underway and ceases to be underway, the name of the pilot, the name of the
tugs, when they made fast and let go, all engine movements, mooring status,
use of anchors and any other unusual occurrences like a sudden squall,
shipping water, navigating in reduced visibility, reduced speed in heavy
weather and ship movement.
Many ships now have data loggers which will only keep a record of
engine movements. Invariably the paper record runs out at a critical period
so the OOW should always have a note book to jot down the movements until
after manoeuvring is complete and the recorder paper can be changed.
Lawyers have observed how many collisions occur when there was no
paper in the course recorder! Whilst this may have been "a deliberate
accident", each watch the paper should be inspected and particularly when
the bridge gear is checked prior to sailing. The same advice applies to the
depth recorder.
A record of the times the radar is operational should be kept. This will
provide added evidence in the case of an incident and will also be useful for
meeting the requirements for planned maintenance.
Some ships are now being fitted with Islack boxes' which record times,
speed, rudder, the radar picture and voice communications. This considerably
simplifies the OOW task of recording.
When entering data the OOW should be guided by the following:-

The aim of collecting this data is to recreate an accurate "picture" of
what happened.

Other record books
There is a legal requirement to keep a compass record book in which
compass courses and errors are recorded. ,
The compass error should be checked each watch and on every new
course. The purpose of the record is to establish trends in deviation on
various courses in different positions.
Should the gyro(s) fail, this information will be used to set courses by the
magnetic compass. It is noteworthy that many modern coasters only have
magnetic compasses.
The ship may be a designated meteorological observing ship. Filling in

the weather log requires time because instruments have to be read and
observations made. This is of secondary importance to any threatening
situation and must be left to the end of the watch if necessary.
Some ships have a variety of-status reports to be recorded each watch,

such as hold temperatures and humidity. Others have heated tanks and
temperature dependent cargoes which need to be recorded each watch.
Often this has to be done on deck, after the watch, or by*phoning the control
room.
It is evident that more and more record keeping requirements are being
put on ships, whilst their watchkeeping manning is diminishing. Record
keeping can occupy a considerable time. The OOW must plan for this, aiming
to do it little and often whilst never allowing it to become a distraction from
the main task — which is to ensure the safe conduct of the vessel.
Summary
D Have the log book open in a convenient position and fill it in little and
often
O In critical situations note times and priorities in a note book, to be
entered into the log at the end of the watch
O Write neatly and correct properly. Do not rub out or erase
D Ensure all logs and data loggers have paper and ink
D Keep the compass error book up to date
D Postpone the general record keeping until after critical situations or
until relieved
. 107 — BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Chapter 15 — AUTOMATED BRIDGES
Purpose
On completion of this chapter you will appreciate that whilst an automated
bridge will assist in carrying out routine functions, you need to understand the
design capabilities and limitations of the system, to monitor it effectively, and to plan
ahead to verify that the ship is not subject to systems induced errors.
Levels of automation
Until recently, developments have taken place to improve the
performance of specialised items of bridge equipment. For example, target
plotting on radar has been done by computers and the new radars provide
daylight viewing.
Similarly, improvements have been made in the design of autopilots,

some with predictive systems incorporated. Navigational systems based
upon GPS include route planning with way points and a computational
capability to show distance off track, new course to steer and distances to go
to alter course positions.
Engine room control and monitoring equipment has been put on the
bridge of many ships and the OOW can monitor speed, consumption,
temperatures and many other parameters.
Some ships on dedicated short runs have the chart interfaced on the
radar. There are other systems where the radar is superimposed on the chart.
The next major development is likely to be the Electronic Chart Display

and Information System (ECDIS) which will be stored in the bridge computer.
After that it is likely that navigational systems will be developed in three

dimensions with the information from the depth recorder or sonar making
sure that the ship's under keel clearance is monitored at all times whilst GPS
maintains position accuracy at sea.
With reduced manning, there has been a tendency to put communication

equipment on the bridge including VHP, SatComs and GMDSS equipment,
together with fax and telex.
As with all highly automated equipment there are two distinct phases.
First, when the equipment is fully functional and secondly when there is a
fault.
•109 BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

uncontrollable risk arising.

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
CONCLUSION
Aim
The primary aim of the OOW must be to ensure the ship reaches its
destination in a safe and timely manner. In do so doing, the ship should never
be put into a situation of uncontrollable risk.
Means
This study guide is based on the understanding that the OOW has a
proper knowledge of navigation, of the International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea and has some bridge experience. Where this is
not so, additional references are supplied in Annex 7.
From this background the guide demonstrates HOW to become more

proficient through the application of four principles and WHY they are
necessary. They can be summarised as follows:-
1. Checking
— equipment
— errors
— yourself
— others
2. Monitoring
— the movement of instruments in response to commands
— the navigation of the pilot
— the activities of the Master when he is in control of the ship
— the weather and the sea state
— the activities of the crew
3. Controlling
— safe navigation
— collision avoidance
-— the threat, by deciding priorities
— the response, by calling for assistance when needed
4. Recording
— log books
— record books
— error books
"Bridge watchkeeping is the single most important activity conducted

at sea. Upon the watchkeeper's diligence rests the security of the ship and all
who sail on board.
—Ill— BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

"It is a demanding activity,, frequently underoaluedf which needs
support, encouragement, motivation,, self discipline and high standards of
professionalism,"
The Nautical Institute on Bridge Watchkeeping, 1993
The Nautical Institute Bridge Watchkeeping Group hope that this guide
has helped you to become a better watchkeeper and in time we hope you will
pass on your knowledge and experience for the benefit of others.
Captain D.G.T.Greenhalgh MNI

Project Co-ordinator

Annex 1
Briefing
Supplement to
SEAWAYS
The Journal of The Nautical Institute
BRIDGE WA TCHKEEPING
The Nautical Institute Council
FOREWORD
THE AIM of bridge watchkeeping is to ensure the safe, timely departure, transit and arrival of ships. It is the
underlying discipline of the nautical profession. Nobody else but ourselves has this responsibility and it is
up to us to make sure that a ship is never put into a situation of uncontrollable risk. Bridge watchkeeping
when it is well organised and properly conducted can give the impression that it is simply a matter of
routine. This, however, belies the depth of knowledge, training, management, and command skills which
go towards effective practices.
Like all human endeavour, the intention to set good bridge watchkeeping standards has to start at the
top—that is the chairman of the company or the commander-in-chief. If they are in the shipping business
they must give support to the process which most protects their assets. It is foolhardy and irresponsible
not to.
Secondly, the marine managers have an obligation to formulate viable policies to provide competent
personnel and adequate navigational support to their ships. Thirdly, the masters and commanding officers
have to take the initiative to ensure that bridge watchkeeping practices and procedures are maintained in
accordance with their requirements.
There is no alternative to this chain of command, for it must be remembered that a ship is more than
private property. The actions or inactions of those on board affect other people. In this sense the ship is
most definitely acting in the public interest. The stranding which leads to pollution or the collision which
causes loss of life and damage to cargo, are matters of public concern. Every maritime casualty shames
our profession and we must find a positive response to reverse the decline in standards which members
have identified to be taking place at sea today.
It is for this reason that the Council of The Nautical Institute has provided their nautical briefing, to
reaffirm the essential nature of good watchkeeping practices. In so doing, it has produced a document
directed to senior ships' staff but for discussion in the board room and the officers' mess.
There can be no doubt that the predominant response from flag States, port States and management
to the impact of marine accidents has been towards more legislation, inspection and penalties. However,
I must emphasise that bad practices cannot be improved by regulations alone.
The process starts at the other end with a commitment to improving professionalism both ashore and
afloat by providing support and motivation, which we all know demands considerable energy. It is then
necessary to correct bad practices and give recognition to good performance. The expanded aim must
now be 'to encourage pride in the safe and timely departure, transit and arrival of ships' and this is
something to which we can all contribute.
Captain P. Boyle, FA//, President, The Nautical Institute; April 1993.
— US- BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

Introduction Aim
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING is the single most important The aim of this briefing is to provide advice and
activity conducted at sea. Upon the watchkeeper's guidance to those responsible for bridge operations,
diligence rests the security of the ship and all those on primarily masters. It is set in the context of The Basic
board. It is a demanding activity, frequently under- Principles to be Observed in Keeping a Navigational
valued, which needs support, encouragement, Watch as specified in the International Convention on
motivation, self-discipline and high standards of Training and Certification of Seafarers (STCW) 1978.1
professionalism. It is intended to provide guidance on the supervision of
watchkeeping activities in order to achieve higher
The purpose of this briefing is to discuss factors
common standards.
which affect standards of bridge watchkeeping and to
address practical problems that need to be overcome in
Scope
order to achieve reliable performance. Whilst individual
points covered in this briefing may appear evident to This briefing assumes a knowledge of the Inter-
national Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
many, problems can arise when key personnel change
(ColRegs), coastal navigation and the use of radar. It is
so that, without an established routine, omissions and
designed to improve operational skills, and is
misunderstandings leading to errors can occur.
supplemented by a training manual and supporting
This nautical briefing therefore addresses the subject training videos aimed at junior watchkeeping officers.
of bridge watchkeeping by considering the principles The Basic Principles to be Observed in Keeping a
required by law and offering advice to improve Navigational Watch are centred on the page in bold
individual performance. followed by practical comments and observations.
General requirements
1. Parties shall direct the attention of shipowners, ship operators, masters and watchkeeping
personnel to the following principles which shall be observed to ensure that a safe navigational
watch is maintained at all times.
The effective implementation of safe navigational be conducted, the way charts and nautical publications
practices requires a co-ordinated approach between the are to be kept up to date, the procedures to be followed
company and those on board. This is established for ensuring that essential navigational equipment is
through formal communication, company instructions available, calibrated and supported with manuals in the
and master's standing orders, and informal support language of the officers who have to use them.
through superintendence and briefings. Additionally the company will require the proper
This section is further reinforced by the IMO keeping of records and this must be specified to include
Guidelines for the Management of Safe Ship Operation log books, masters standing orders, supplementary
and Pollution Prevention which requires companies to orders, and the provision of essential navigational
provide a safety and environmental policy. warnings and information.
Specifically as part of this, the navigational policy It is the company's responsibility to ensure that all
must specify: personnel are properly trained for the tasks they are
(i) Responsibilities for navigation and the allocation of expected to perform and a reporting system should be
watchkeeping duties, used to identify training needs.
(ii) The bridge procedures to be followed (which may It is usual for a company's instructions to lay down
embrace the provisions of The Bridge Procedure the practices and procedures which are to be followed
Gu/de(2' issued by the International Chamber of throughout the fleet and it should be common practice
Shipping), to supply general standing orders so that masters need
(iii) Bridge administration. only amend them in writing to suit the particular
The company has the responsibility to provide circumstances of the ship and the voyage.
competent personnel who can communicate with each When considering bridge manning, companies must
other and speak maritime English for bridge ensure that bridge design, equipment, systems,
watchkeeping duties. There will remain doubts unless personnel, procedures and ergonomics are properly
the company specifies the way passage planning is to evaluated'31.
Masters' responsibilities
2. The master of every ship is bound to ensure that watchkeeping arrangements are adequate for
maintaining a safe navigational watch. Under the master's general direction, the officers of the
watch are responsible for navigating the ship safely during their periods of duty when they will be
particularly concerned with avoiding collision and stranding.
3. The basic principles, including but not limited to the following, shall be taken into account on
all ships.
To implement the provisions of this section the each navigating officer prior to the commencement of
master of every ship is required to issue standing orders the voyage.
in writing to be formally acknowledged and signed by Time has to be made available to see each navigating
THE N AUTICAL INSTITUTE — 114
officer and discuss the provisions of the standing orders used as they can lead to confusion and differences of
in detail to ensure that they are properly understood and opinion.
will be acted upon. There is a clear requirement for all Instead clear statements amplifying relevant parts of
newly-joined officers to be made familiar with the the standing orders should be used and special
bridge equipment, company instructions and master's requirements spelt out precisely — e.g. 'Call me when
standing orders before being permitted to take a watch. the vessel crosses the 150 metre line', 'Call me if any
A frequent difficulty is convincing the officer about the ship is to pass with a CPA of less than 2 miles'.
need to call the master when required. This may require This approach will remove any inherent difference of
firm follow-up action. opinion in the written orders. Masters should at all times
Standing orders should cover: encourage watchkeepers to call them if assistance is
(i) A general statement that the safety of the ship needed or when they have doubts about intentions or
must take precedence. No consideration of developing situations.
programme convenience or previous instructions Once the written orders have been discussed,
justify taking any risk which may place the ship in masters can then introduce a number of measures to
danger. monitor compliance. These should include positive
(ii) Measures to be taken before sailing and arrival: reporting concerning the availability and listing of
• Testing the gear, advising the engineroom. equipment; accurate and up-to-date record keeping
(iii) Activities and routines to be followed at sea: which can be verified; briefings concerning the passage
• General navigational standards expected. plan and expected navigational problems and concerns.
• Taking over the watch. At sea, the marking of estimated positions on the
• Checking instruments. chart provide an opportunity for the master to enter into
• Keeping logs and records. a dialogue with the watchkeeping officer concerning
• Use of check lists. allowances and errors. The exercise also encourages
• Use of navigational equipment. watchkeeping officers to think ahead, and provides an
• Keeping an effective lookout. * opportunity to give encouragement for accurate
• When to call the master. navigation.
• Changing from hand to automatic steering. Similarly with collision avoidance, the master can
• Use of engines. discuss particular situations or provide scenarios to
• Emergencies. evaluate 'whatever would happen if . . . ?' This
• Compliance with the ColRegs. technique can be used to prepare for emergencies and
• What to do in reduced visibility. encourage defensive navigational and collision
• Standards of navigation to be followed. avoidance practices to minimise risk.
• Clear instructions on use of VHP and that it should Checklists should be used where appropriate and the
not normally be used for collision avoidance. procedures for their use be included in masters standing
• Use of up-to-date charts and publications and orders. They can be useful when, for example, carrying
withdrawal of obsolete publications. out pre-sailing tests or setting up instrumentation. The
• Special communication requirements. aviation industry uses the double-check method
(iv) Activities and routines to be followed at anchor: whereby one officer reads out the item to be checked
• Checking the position. and the second officer gives the status. Which
• Ensuring appropriate navigation lights, shapes ever system is used, the appropriate officer should
and sound signals. sign the check-list and be accountable to the master
• Being prepared to warn other ships passing too when complete, and when deficiences are found.
closely. Examples of check lists are given in the ICS Bridge
• Establish the position of the anchor at the time it Procedure Guide.
was let go and the swing circle.
• Tell the master if a ship anchors too closely and The master's management responsibilities
be prepared to move. Less easy to define but implied in this section is the
(v) Activities and routines to be followed in port: requirement for masters to plan ahead, delegate,
• Provide safe access. control the navigation of the vessel, lead and motivate
• Keep ship alongside and mooring ropes firm. all bridge personnel, optimise the use of resources,
• Call assistance if needed. encourage team work, and support training.
• Maintain security. Management can be broken down into four
(vi) Activities and routines to be followed when taking concepts:151
or disembarking a pilot: 1 Clarity of purpose.
• Provision of pilot gear. 2 Delegation of authority.
• Those who must be in attendance. 3 Motivation.
• Information to be given to the pilot. 4 Economy of effort.
• Navigation with the pilot on board. Economics demand a cost effective passage time but
In addition to these general items, specific sections safety demands that corners should not be cut. Clarity
will need to be added for special circumstances.141 At of purpose implies preparing for the future and
night the master must write in the night order book obtaining the best information available to enable
specifically what he expects of the watchkeeping decisions to be made so that a proper appraisal can be
officer(s). These orders must be signed by each officer made without compromising safety standards.
when going on watch. Delegation is by no means straightforward. Some
Statements like 'when in doubt call me' or 'call me if confusion exists in traditional roles and relationships on
any vessel approaches too closely' should never be board and they can vary from ship to ship. The master
i5 — BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
is responsible for the safe navigation of the vessel and back-up bridge personnel in fog, or where there is high
he delegates authority to the officer of the watch who traffic density. Although planning is exacting, being
may delegate part of that authority to a lookout. In prepared saves time and effort in the long term.
delegating authority to an officer the master must Putting management into practical questions can
satisfy himself that the tasks and resources have been also help create clarity of purpose.
assigned to that person and that a means of monitoring
• The present: Have I got the right information coming
performance are also put in place.
forward so that I can plan ahead and harmonise
Motivation is not only difficult to define but depends
activities on board?
upon personality, conditions, communications and
• The future: Have I anticipated and planned for the
rewards. It is necessary to be realistic in what can be
future so that I can optimise the resources at my
achieved in a given situation. However, some general
disposal?
guidance can be given. In the first instance it is the
• Relationship with the company: Are my actions
company's management which is responsible for
supporting the company's objectives? Do I need
creating the conditions which will encourage
clarification on specific issues?
motivation in seagoing personnel. The master is then
• Relationships with the crew: Does everybody know
able to apply his energy to this all important aspect of
the ships' itinerary? Are all crew members informed
ship management without having to resort to
of progress? Do all on board know what is expected
apologetic compromise.
of them?
Secondly, it is always easier to motivate people by
involving them when planning ahead rather than only To improve management performance The Nautical
complaining if jobs have not been done properly. Institute administers a series of management modules
Economy of effort implies that the master uses the to be followed through distance learning. Each module
resources available to the best advantage. Typically 80 is laid out in such a way that the purpose is explained
per cent of a voyage will be in areas of low activity and and individuals are asked to relate the new skills
20 per cent in areas of high activity. These ratios are acquired to their own work situation. Relevant modules
reversed for vessels in the coastal trades. Voyage are 'Setting Objectives and Planning; Controlling;
planning must therefore take into account the need for Delegating; and Leading and Motivating Staff'16'.
Watch arrangements
4. (a) The composition of the watch shall at all times be adequate and appropria'te to the prevailing
circumstances and conditions and shall take into account the need for maintaining a proper
lookout,
(b) When deciding the composition of the watch on the bridge which may include appropriate
deck ratings, the following factors, inter alia, shall be taken into account:
(i) At no time shall the bridge be left unattended; ,
(ii) Weather conditions, visibility and whether there is daylight or darkness;
(iii) Proximity of navigational hazards which may make it necessary for the officer in charge
of the watch to carry out additional navigational duties;
(iv) Use and operational condition of navigational aids such as radar or electronic position-
indicating devices and any other equipment affecting the safe navigation of the ship;
(v) Whether the ship is fitted with automatic steering;
(vi) Any unusual demands on the navigational watch that may arise as a result of special
operational circumstances.
This clear unambiguous section needs little further put upon crew for maintenance, hatch cleaning, tank
comment and provides practical guidelines for the washing and so on. However, the overriding principle
master to decide on appropriate bridge manning. must apply that the safe navigation of the vessel must
It is appreciated that there are many other demands have precedence over other routine operations.
Fitness for duty
5 The watch system shall be such that the efficiency of watchkeeping officers and watchkeeping
ratings is not impaired by fatigue. Duties shall be so organised that the first watch at the
commencement of a voyage and the subsequent relieving watches are sufficiently rested and
otherwise fit for duty.
The joint IMO/ILO working group examining the Although not specifically mentioned above it is often
subject concluded: 'Fatigue can be induced by the master who becomes the most fatigued person on
prolonged periods of mental and physical activity, board. In this context proper guidance from the
inadequate rest, adverse environmental factors and company should be provided.
physiological stress or other psychological factors.' These principles demonstrate however that the
The obvious effect of fatigue is that the individual master does have the authority to take such measures
becomes so tired he cannot properly carry out his duties; as are necessary to avoid fatigue.
the danger of mental fatigue is that it can creep up on Typical guidance might be given as follows:
individuals without them being aware of it. Research The officer required to take the first navigational
has shown that fatigue causes an individual to focus watch after sailing must have adequate rest prior to
attention more and more on what are perceived to be the sailing. When it is possible to vary watch times during
most important tasks. In doing so peripheral warnings passage, a change of programme may be used, in
are likely to go unnoticed. This applies particularly to suitable circumstances, to ensure key officers have
vigilance which may be considerably reduced. sufficient rest.
Navigation ,,..„,
6 (a) The intended voyage shall be planned in advance taking into consideration all pertinent
information and any course laid down shall be checked before the voyage commences.
(b) During the watch the course steered, position and speed shall be checked at sufficiently
frequent intervals, using any available navigational aids necessary, to ensure that the ship
follows the planned course.
(c) The officer of the watch shall have a full knowledge of the location and operation of all safety
and navigational equipment on board the ship and shall be aware and take account of the
operating limitations of such equipment.
(d) The officer in charge of a navigational watch shall not be assigned or undertake any duties
which would interfere with the safe navigation of the ship.
Navigational equipment
7 (a) The officer of the watch shall make the most effective use of all navigational equipment at his
disposal.
(b) When using radar, the officer of the watch shall bear in mind the necessity to comply at all
times with the provisions on the use of radar contained in the applicable regulations for
preventing collision at sea.
(c) In cases of need the officer of the watch shall not hesitate to use the helm, engines and sound
signalling apparatus.
Passage planning is to be the subject of a further The fix interval should be such that the vessel can not
Nautical Briefing and so a few notes only are included. be set appreciably off track or into danger by the
The plan needs to be drawn up from berth to berth, anticipated effects of tidal stream, wind or currents in
including pilotage waters, and prior to sailing will need the period between successive fixes. As the ship
to be updated from the latest navigational warnings. approaches confined waters the fix interval becomes
A well prepared plan can help to remove doubts shorter. When appropriate navigational marks have
about the most appropriate action to take. For example, been identified pilotage techniques should be used.
how far is it possible to deviate from the track without A routine which requires considerable attention is the
exceeding the safety margins? What is the initial course changing of charts, the transfer of position and the
to steer allowing for set and drift? In the event of an relationship between scale and navigational
emergency or a black out, how far can the ship drift instruments in use.
safely before dropping the anchor? What is the best
time to arrive at the next port? On what VHF channel is Checking
the next pilot station? Although not specifically stated in the Principles,
Whatever the situation it must be made explicitly checking is an essential part of navigational practice.
clear to all watchkeepers that the keeping of the The ICS Guide states that 'in order to achieve a sound
planned schedule is of secondary importance to the and efficient bridge organisation procedures should be
safe navigation of the ship. established to minimise the risk that an error made by
one person will have disastrous and inevitable
Monitoring consequences.' It must become normal practice to
The bridge watchkeeper has the responsibility to check one's own workings and the workings of others.
ensure the safe conduct of the ship along the planned Checking starts with training and when trainees do
track. This is achieved through monitoring and directing something wrong, they should be asked to resubmit the
the navigation of the ship in relation to the availability of correct working. This enables the exercise to end on a
safe water and the movement of other vessels. positive note and also provides an occasion to
Track control in confined waters can be achieved demonstrate the value of checking.
through pilotage techniques which include the use of The officer laying off tracks on the chart should
headmarks, transits and radar parallel index methods. expect to have them checked; the master who makes
The use of parallel index techniques enable cross- an unscheduled alteration of course should expect to be
track error to be monitored from the radar work station. checked and queried; the pilot's helm orders need to be
This technique has particular value in times of reduced verified and checked; engine movements need to be
visibility, but needs to be practised and applied where checked against revolutions; and instrument errors
appropriate radar conspicuous targets are available. need to be checked regularly and the results recorded to
Whenever a master or officer of the watch detects ascertain trends.
that the vessel is deviating from the track it is essential Radar can become detuned and the heading marker
to question the possible cause. This is most likely to be can become misaligned. Instruments like radar which
due to set, wind and current, but it may be due to an rely on a variety of sensors for input will also be
instrument error, degradation of the radar, affected by gyro errors, log errors and calibration errors.
misalignment of the heading marker or other related Radio navigation aids will be affected by propagation
cause. errors and may be affected by a disruption in power
The need to confirm the ship's position frequently is supplies.
a statement which needs further examination. A fix When fixing the ship, additional errors can occur
should be taken whenever the vessel completes a turn through the wrong identification of a landmark and
on to a new track and at regular intervals thereafter. through making a mistake when transposing radar or
-117— BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
bearing information onto the chart. Whenever possible be available to back up all electronic equipment.
three bearings should be used and a range and bearing Implicit in the use of GPS is the mapping arrangement
taken from the radar should be confirmed by at least an used by the satellite and the position of the land as
extra bearing or an extra range. provided on the chart. It is essential to verify the ship's
position against a known land datum before using
Whenever there is any doubt, additional information Satnav in conjunction with supporting methods for
should be sought from the depth recorder and other
coastal navigation.
aids. Many strandings could have been averted if
Navigational systems are sometimes linked to a
information from the depth recorder had been available.
system of way points through the automatic pilot. It is
Increasingly the Global Positioning System (GPS) is essential that the co-ordinates of way points are double
being adopted as the primary navigational source on checked and that the track between way points is
board. This system has global coverage 24 hours a checked from the chart. Alteration of course must in all
day with a position update approximately every circumstances be positively accepted by the
second and a claimed accuracy of 100 metres. watchkeeping officer, who must verify that the
By using differential GPS involving a land-based alteration is safe and that there are no other ships likely
receiver/transmitter it is possible to obtain accuracies of to be affected in the vicinity.
6-7 metres. However, errors can occur both in Frequent checks should be made between bridge
transmission propogation and reception and the compasses and an external verification of compass
simplicity of the readout should not be taken as errors through an azimuth or transit should be made
infallible. Also, satellite transmissions are sometimes once a watch. The results should be properly recorded
interfered with. Alternative navigational practices must to detect any error tendencies.
Navigational duties and responsibilities
8 (a) The officer in charge of the watch shall:
(i) Keep his watch on the bridge which he shall in no circumstances leave until properly
relieved;
(ii) Continue to be responsible for the safe navigation of the ship, despite the presence of the
master on the bridge, until the master informs him specifically that he-has assumed that
responsibility and this is mutually understood;
(iii) Notify the master when in any doubt as to what action to take in the interest of safety;
(iv) Not hand over the watch to the relieving officer if he has reason to believe that the latter
is obviously not capable of carrying out his duties effectively, in which case he shall
notify the master accordingly.
(b) On taking over the watch the relieving officer shall satisfy himself as to the ship's estimated
or true position and confirm its intended track, course and speed and shall note any dangers
to navigation expected to be encountered during his watch.
(c) A proper record shall be kept of the movements and activities during the watch relating to the
navigation of the ship.
Traditionally the master has 'taken over' the watch a status report concerning the ship and engines, work
when approaching 'difficult' situations. However, being carried out and so on. To avoid misunderstanding
provided the vessel is not in immediate danger, a good any course alterations should be completed before
case can be argued for the master to oversee the handing over.
situation whilst leaving the watchkeeping officer to At night the relieving officer should have time to
deal with it. This allows the master to take a broader adapt to night time vision and at all times he should
view and it is easier for him to question the activities of make a point of checking the information and status
the watchkeeping officer than it is for the supplied by the officer being relieved. In this way the
watchkeeping officer to question the master. change of watch can be considered as an act of
A junior officer will tend to be reluctant to question verification rather than as an act of discontinuity.
the master's actions. So the master acting in a Matters relating to the keeping of records are
supporting role can strengthen the bridge team, add to mentioned elsewhere but it can be noted in 8(b) 'the
safety and give the watchkeeping officer more relieving officer shall satisfy himself as to the ship's
confidence. estimated or true position and confirm its intended
The master must make it clear in unambiguous track, course and speed'. But in 6(b) it states that 'the
language when he is taking over the control of the ship course steered, position and speed shall be checked at
and when he is handing it back. sufficiently frequent intervals, . . . to ensure the ship
A master should encourage the watchkeeping officer follows the planned course'.
to give him a brief description of his intended actions. Here is just one example of how traditional words
Under these circumstances the master can consider the assume a variety of meanings which can become
intentions, can amend them and still allow the confusing because of their multiple interpretations. To
watchkeeping officer to keep the initiative and avoid confusion the Council of The Nautical Institute
implement the appropriate manoeuvres. defined navigational terms'7'.
The importance of handing over the watch to ensure
Track is the path followed or to be followed between
continuity requires commitment by both the relieved
one position and another.
and relieving officer. The officer being relieved should
have a handover position on the chart, a clear picture of Course is the intended heading as related to the
traffic and hazards in the area, verified equipment, and compass.
THE N AUTIC AL INSTITUTE — 118 —
Lookout
9. In addition to maintaining a proper lookout for the purpose of fully appraising the situation and the
risk of collision, stranding and other dangers to navigation, the duties of lookout shall include the
detection of ships or aircraft in distress, shipwrecked persons, wrecks and debris. In maintaining
a lookout the following shall be observed:
(a) The lookout must be able to give full attention to the keeping of a proper lookout and no other
duties shall be undertaken or assigned which could interfere with that task.
(b) The duties of lookout and helmsman are separate and the helmsman shall not be considered
to be the lookout while steering, except in small ships where an unobstructed all-round view
is provided at the steering position and there is no impairment of night vision or other
impediment to the keeping of a proper lookout. The officer in charge of the watch may be the
sole lookout in daylight provided that on each such occasion:
(i) The situation has been carefully assessed and it has been established without doubt that
it is safe to do so;
(ii) Full account has been taken of all relevant factors including, but not limited to:
• State of weather.
• Visibility.
• Traffic density.
• Proximity of danger to navigation.
• The attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic/separation schemes;
(iii) Assistance is immediately available to be summoned to the bridge when any change in
the situation so requires.
An analysis of the reports received by the Institute demands a balanced assessment between outside
over the past 20 years indicates that in open waters the view, radar and chart.
predominant cause of collision was failure to maintain a Experienced watchkeepers are constantly seeking to
proper lookout. In some cases the ships, fishing vessels verify the situation, and part of the reason for this is that
or yachts were not seen or even detected at all and in it is not possible to predict with certainty what other
other cases they were detected too late to avoid a vessels are going to do based upon past observations.
close-quarters situation.
Masters must ensure that watchkeeping officers When conducting a visual lookout, the eye is most
understand that the keeping of a vigilant lookout is likely to detect new targets when they break the line of
essential. the horizon. Targets can also be obscured in blind arcs
The use of radar and ARPA as aids to collision and unless the bridge is particularly well designed the
avoidance particularly in poor visibility must not detract watchkeeping officer will need to move to obtain a clear
from the requirement that a visual lookout is kept. view of the surrounding sea.
To ascertain risk of collision it is necessary to The following table provides a comparison between
establish whether or not the compass bearing is chang- the merits of visual and radar observation which can be
ing. At sea ships move relative to each other but when used when deciding look-out priorities. It must not be
navigating, the watchkeeping officer also has to be forgotten that the watchkeeping officer also has to be
aware of how the ship is moving relative to the ground. vigilant concerning activities onboard and the effect of
Watchkeeping and maintaining a proper lookout weather on the ship, crew and equipment.
TABLE I
ADVANTAGES OF THE EYE ADVANTAGES OF HAD A Ft
Reliable Generally reliable
Sensitive to colour Does not get tired
Can assess aspect Accurate range information
Can identity small targets Stable bearing platform
Can see light configurations Simplifies the overview
Can assess ship types Can penetrate fog
Can identify conspicuous marks Better penetration in rain and snow
Can identify flashing lights Useful for predictive collision avoidance
Has better discrimination Predictive navigation (parallel index)
Can see changing weather patterns Can have longer range (height of aerial)
Can see effect of sea on vessel Can have low down port approach aerial to minimise clutter
Not affected by blind arcs (if observer movesl
LIMITATIONS OF RADAR
LIMITATIONS OF THE EYE Misses small targets
Poor at assessing distance (worse at night) Can miss substantial targets in clutter
Subject to night adaptation Can de-tune
Degradation through glare (worse with age) Prone to inherent and input errors
Gets tired searching Targets need transponders for positive identification
Binoculars needed for early identification Is prone to interference
(particularly on high speed vessels) Cannot discriminate as well as the eye
Cannot identify ship types or operations
Cannot assess aspect immediately
Bearings less accurate than compass

When a lookout is posted the watchkeeping officer encouraged to take an interest in the situation and
should brief him so that he will be involved and develop more effective lookout practices.
Navigation with pilot embarked

10 Despite the duties and obligations of a pilot, his presence on board does not relieve the master
or officer in charge of the watch from their duties and obligations for the safety of the ship. The
master and pilot shall exchange information regarding navigation procedures, local conditions
and the ship's characteristics. The master and officer of the watch shall co-operate closely with
the pilot and maintain an accurate check of the ship's position and movement.
Pilots are engaged for a variety of reasons depending watch to form a bridge team together with the pilot.
upon circumstances which include pilotage based upon The pilot also has a role to play in informing 'the bridge'
local knowledge, liaison, ship handling and bridge about relevant information from the shore VTS.
support. The officer of the watch should ask the pilot about his
The duty of a pilot is to direct the navigation of the intentions and support him by checking his actions.
ship, and to conduct it so far as the course and speed of Increasingly sea pilots are confronted with language
the ship is concerned. He liaises with the VTS, difficulties and find themselves alone on the bridges of
organises the use of tugs and advises on the use of ships for considerable periods. Their ability to call the
moorings and towing lines. crew or cope with an emergency under these
The position of the pilot on board a vessel is aptly circumstances is dangerously limited, and they must
summarised by the Canadian Royal Commission on never be left unattended.
Pilotage, Ottawa 1968, as follows: In spite of a clear statement of roles and
responsibilities, there is considerable uncertainty in the
. . . 'to conduct a ship' must not be confused
master/pilot relationship. It concerns the questions
with 'being in command of a ship'. The first
'Who is in charge of the navigation of the ship' and
expression refers to action, to a personal
'What levels of interference will be tolerated by those
service being performed; the second to a
on the bridge at the time?'-
power. The question whether a pilot has
The principal causes are:'81
control of navigation is a question of fact and
Unclear regulations.
not of law. The fact that a pilot has been given
Lack of communication between master and pilot.
control of the ship for navigational purposes
Navigation of the vessel is completely handed over
does not mean that the pilot has superseded
to the pilot.
the master. The master is, and remains, in
Master monitoring the pilot subjectively.
command; he is the authority aboard. He may,
Watch officer reluctant to question the pilot.
and does, delegate part of his authority to
Insufficient appraisal and planning of the pilotage
subordinates and to outside assistants whom
passage.
he employs to navigate his ship—i.e., pilots. A
• Errors and omissions by the pilot detected too late to
delegation of power is not an abandonment of
avoid an accident.
authority, but one way of exercising authority.
Being aware that these omissions may lead to an
Preparations to embark and disembark a pilot and the undetected error is the basis for working out company
rigging of the pilot ladder are important considerations policies and operational procedures to remedy the
which require careful attention to avoid accidents and situation.
danger to life. The problem is a serious one and has been quantified
When a pilot boards he joins the bridge team. Ideally in the Analysis of Claims 1992 conducted by the UK
a card will be made up which will include all the P&l Club191. During the year the Club had 156 property
information that a pilot is likely to need, such as call damage claims totalling $ 160 million comprising 11 per
sign, draught, tonnages, dimensions, engine and cent of claims by number and 20 per cent by value.
propeller details, manoeuvring speeds, steering and The report goes on to say: 'There is a need to improve
thruster details, anchors and cable lengths, air draught communication between the master and pilot and for
and details of bridge equipment. Also to be reported there to be a clear understanding between them as to
should be compass errors and any radar heading errors. who is responsible for what task at each stage in the
The Nautical Institute is encouraging pilots to provide manoeuvring of the ship.' The report stresses the need
a pilotage plan to enable the master and/or officer of the for appropriate training in this area.
Protection of the marine environment

11. The master and officer in charge of the watch shall be aware of the serious effects of
operational or accidental pollution of the marine environment and shall take all possible
precautions to prevent such pollution, particularly with the framework of relevant international
and port regulations.
Whilst Section 11 provides a statement of intent Environmental protection is an important considera-

which all mariners will wish to support, Marpol has tion in voyage planning and masters approaching areas
made it a requirement for all ships to have their own oil of special environmental sensitivity, where an accident
spill response plan, the provisions of which are not might cause irreparable damage, should take appro-
included in this briefing. priate measures to ensure that there is a safe fall back
position from which to anchor or seek assistance. target vessel and problems of understanding. Trying to
establish communication can waste valuable time
Emergencies which should be used to avoid a close-quarters
It is noteworthy that the Convention Principles do not situation. Also there can always remain some
include a requirement to prepare for emergencies and uncertainty about the other vessel's actions following
practise emergency drills. This may explain why so few VHP communication.
ships practise for manoverboard and why so many When approaching port or proceeding with a pilot on
watchkeeping officers are unprepared when an board the communications workload can be
emergency does occur. considerable and can distract either the pilot or officer
The cause of a navigational emergency is most likely of the watch from essential navigational duties. Under
to be equipment or machinery failure or failure of the these circumstances additional personnel may need to
main engines or failure of the steering gear. be made available.
The consequences of each type of failure can be
analysed and the appropriate action established. In this Engine and cargo awareness
respect the ICS Bridge Procedure Guide contains useful Most ships operate with unmanned machinery spaces
checklists. However, the sequence of response is not particularly at night. Watchkeeping officers therefore
prioritised. need to have a working knowledge of the ship's
It must be conveyed to watchkeeping officers that in engines and the procedures necessary for responding
the event of an emergency they must initiate any to alarms of different priorities.
required action to minimise the consequences and then Similarly the operations necessary to change from
seek assistance. To do this they must be prepared and normal full away deep-sea to stand-by conditions of
practised. readiness needs to be appreciated. This will often entail
Key considerations must be: knowing which engineer to call and how much time it
• Appropriate remedial action taken and verified as takes to prepare the engines for manoeuvring.
soon as possible. A full appreciation of the steering system on board
• Notification of all those who need to know of the : will assist in making the correct response when
failure. changing from manual to automatic steering and
• The external signs and signals and action required. this should be practised daily and the autopilot tested
• Essential checks to be carried out prior to each watch.
changeover. Fire detection and cargo care and control equipment
• Sequencies to be followed if a remote control station is also so arranged that key information is displayed on
has to be used. the bridge. Masters need to ensure that watchkeeping
• Checks to be carried out on completion. officers have the opportunity to learn about the ship
systems. It is the duty of the watchkeeping officers to
Manoverboard understand the principles by which the systems
It must be emphasised that in the event of a operate and monitor them accordingly.
manoverboard the actions taken by the officer of the
watch are likely to make the difference between life and Training on board
death. Appropriate action must include the following: To encourage and promote good watchkeeping
• Release a bridge wing smoke marker float practices amongst trainees, and to enhance
immediately. watchkeeping skills amongst junior officers the
• If possible make sure the man remains in sight by Institute is jointly preparing with Videotel Marine
posting a lookout. International training videos on
• Log time/Note the position of the ship in case a (i) Bridge procedures,
search is needed. (ii) Passage planning,
• Put engines on 'Stand By'. (iii) Master/Pilot relationships.
• Sound three long blasts—hoist '0' flag if it is likely to Attached to the videos and available separately will
be effective. be an on-board training manual to familiarise the trainee
• Turn the vessel to facilitate recovery by the most with watchkeeping duties during a typical voyage.
appropriate method. The scheme will emphasise the correct observance
of the Collision Regulations, the principles of passage
Communications planning and the role of the watchkeeping officer in
This subject is also omitted from the Convention monitoring and directing the navigation of the ship.
Principles but the VHP radio-telephone is now installed
on all ships and has become an essential piece of bridge Conclusion
equipment. Watchkeeping is the single most important activity
The contact and emergency Channel 16 is so conducted at sea. Upon the watchkeeper's diligence
overworked that strict discipline must be applied in rests the security of the ship and all those on board. It
limiting transmissions to a minimum prior to changing is a demanding activity, frequently under-valued, which
channels. needs support, encouragement, self-discipline and
The use of VHP as an instrument to assist in collision competence.
avoidance between two or more unknown vessels Bridge watchkeeping is by no means an easy
must be avoided. There is no substitute for the correct discipline to acquire. The watchkeeper needs to be
application of the ColRegs. The dangers implicit in the proficient in navigation, have a fluent understanding of
use of VHP for this purpose are mis-identification of the the ColRegs, know how to use the radar and ARPA, be
121 — - BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
familiar with bridge instruments, know the ship and its 5 Lyne L. G. 'Planning the Safe and Efficient
routines, be able to respond in an emergency, handle Navigation of a Fleet' The Nautical Institute on
communications, be able to work as a member of a Command, 1986.
team, and maintain records correctly. 6 Management - personal effectiveness by distance
This Nautical Briefing has focused on a number of learning - a study programme covering eight
areas where standards of bridge watchkeeping can be modules.The Nautical Institute.
improved through better planning, enhanced 7 'Navigational Terms'The Nautical Institute Seaways
awareness and effective practices. 1981.
Efficient ship operations demands team work and 8 Beadon R. G. 'Bridge Management andTeam Work'
that has to start with the company providing BP America Marine Technical Conference
comprehensive instructions and expected standards September 1992 Seaman's Church Institute of New
of operation for all tasks carried out on board. York.
9 1997 Analysis of Claims Report UK P&l Club.
The master has the responsibility of interpreting the
company's instructions with respect to his own ship Background reading
and establishing working practices which are effective Bridge Team Management Captain A. J. Swift, The
and mutually supporting through standing orders and Nautical Institute, 1993.
management. Watchkeeping Safety and Cargo Management in Port
When it is felt that additional training is needed, a Captain R Roberts,The Nautical Institute, 1995.
training scheme, developed by The Nautical Institute The Management of Safety in Shipping The Nautical
and supported by videos, is being provided to enhance Institute, 1991,
the knowledge and skills of inexperienced The Nautical Institute on Command, 2000.
watchkeepers and trainees. By using these training Collisions and their Causes R. A. Cahill, Nautical
materials and by encouraging an interest in good Institute 2002.
watchkeeping practices based upon this Nautical Strandings and their Causes R. A. Cahill, Nautical
Briefing, masters will be able to instil a sense of pride Institute 2002.
in doing the job well. Once this aim is achieved, high A Guide to the Collision Avoidance Rules A. N.
standards can be maintained.D Cockcroft and J. N. E Lameijer, Fourth Edition 1990,
Heinemann Newnes.
References Merchant Shipping Notices from the UK Department
1 International Convention on Standards of Training ofTransport:
Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers 1995. M 845 Dangers in the use of VHF radio in collision
avoidance.
2 The Bridge Procedure Guide - International M 854 Navigation safety and passage planning.
Chamber of Shipping 1998 third edition. M 1102 Keeping a safe navigational watch.
3. Nautical Safety - Safety Equipment and systems M 1263 Keeping a lookout.
additional Class Det NorskeVeritas 1991. M 1348 Navigation in fog.
4 Beetham E. H. 'Notes on Writing Standing Orders' M 1158 Radar collision avoidance and parallel
The Nautical Institute on Command, 2000. index techniques.

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Annex 2 — IMO BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
REQUIREMENTS
STANDARDS REGARDING WATCHKEEPING
The IMO Convention on Standards of Training Certification and Watchkeeping 1995 Chapter VTJI/2
Watchkeeping arrangements and principles to be observed

Part 1 - Certification
1. The officer in charge of the navigational or deck watch shall be duly qualified in accordance with the provisions of chapter 11,
or chapter VII appropriate to the duties related to navigational or deck Watchkeeping.
2. The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall be duly qualified in accordance with the provisions of chapter HI, or chapter
VII appropriate tot he duties related to engineering Watchkeeping.
Part 2 - Voyage Planning
General requirements
3 The intended voyage shall be planned in advance, taking into consideration all pertinent information, and any course laid down
shall be checked before the voyage commences.
4. The chief engineer officer shall, in consultation with the master, determine in advance the needs of the intended voyage, taking
into consideration the requirements for fuel, water, lubricants, chemicals, expendable and other spare parts, tools, supplies and any
other requirements.
Planning prior to each voyage
5. Prior to each voyage the master of every ship shall ensure that the intended route from the port of departure to the first port of
call is planned using adequate and appropriate charts and other nautical publications necessary for the intended voyage, containing
accurate, complete and up-to-date information regarding those navigational limitations and hazards which are of a permanent or
predictable nature and which are relevant to the safe navigation of the ship.
Verification and display of planned route
6. When the route planning is verified taking into consideration all pertinent information, the planned route shall be clearly
displayed on appropriate charts and shall be continuously available to the officer in charge of the watch, who shall verify each course
to be followed prior to using it during the voyage.
Deviation from planned route
7. If a decision is made, during a voyage, to change the next port of call of the planned route, or if it is necessary for the ship to
deviate substantially from the planned route for other reasons, then an amended route shall be planned prior to deviating substantially
from the route originally planned.
Part 3 - Watchkeeping at Sea
Principles applying to Watchkeeping generally
8. Parties shall direct the attention of companies, masters, chief engineer officers and Watchkeeping personnel to the following
principles, which shall be observed to ensure that safe watches are maintained at all times.
9. The master of every ship is bound to ensure that Watchkeeping arrangements are adequate for maintaining a safe navigational
watch. Under the master's general direction, the officers of the navigational watch are responsible for navigating the ship safely during
their periods of duty, when they will be particularly concerned with avoiding collision and stranding.
10. The chief engineer officer of every ship is bound, in consultation with the master, to ensure that Watchkeeping arrangements
are adequate to maintain a safe engineering watch.
- Protection of marine environment
11. The master, officers and ratings shall be aware of the serious effects of operational or accidental pollution of the marine
environment and shall take all possible precautions to prevent such pollution, particularly within the framework of relevant
international and port regulations.
Part 3-1 - Principles to be observed in keeping a navigational watch
12. The officer in charge of the navigational watch is the master's representative and is primarily responsible at all times for the safe
navigation of the ship and for complying with the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972.
Look-out
13. A proper look-out shall be maintained at all time sin compliance with rule 5 of the International Regulations for Preventing
Collisions at Sea, 1972 and shall serve the purpose of:
•—123 — BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

.1 maintaining a continuous state of vigilance by sight and hearing as well as by all other available means, with regard to
any significant change in the operating environment;
.2 fully appraising the situation and the risk of collision, stranding and other dangers to navigation; and
.3 detecting ships or aircraft in distress, shipwrecked persons; wrecks, debris and other hazards to safe navigation.
14. The look-out must be able to give full attention to the keeping of a proper look-out and no other duties shall be undertaken or
assigned which could interfere with that task.
15. The duties of the look-out and helmsperson are separate and the helmsperson shall not be considered to be the look-out while
steering, except in small ships where an unobstructed all-round view is provided at the steering position and there is no impairment
of night vision or other impediment to the keeping of a proper look-out. The officer in charge of the navigational watch may be the sole
look-out in daylight provided that on each such occasion:
.1 the situation has been carefully assessed and it has been established without doubt that it is safe to do so;
.2 full account has been taken of all relevant factors, including, but not limited to:
— state of weather,
— visibility, .„ „ ..., , .,. ,, , .
— traffic density,
— proximity of dangers to navigation, and
— the attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic separation schemes; and
.3 assistance is immediately available to be summoned to the bridge when any change in the situation so requires.
16. In determining that the composition of the navigational watch is adequate to ensure that a proper look-out can continuously be
maintained, the master shall take into account all relevant factors, including those described in this section of the Code, as well as the
following factors:
.1 visibility, state of weather and sea;
.2 traffic density, and other activities occurring in the area in which the vessel is navigating;
.3 the attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic, separation schemes or other routeing measures;
.4 the additional workload caused by the nature of the ship's functions, immediate operating requirements and anticipated
manoeuvres;
.5 the fitness for duty of any crew members on call who are assigned as members of the watch;
.6 knowledge of and confidence in the professional competence of the ship's officers and crew;
.7 the experience of each officer of the navigational watch, and the familiarity of that officer with the ship's equipment,
procedures, and manoeuvring capability;
.8 activities taking place on board the ship at any particular time, inducting radiotommunication activities,and the
availability of assistance to be summoned immediately to the bridge when necessary;
.9 the operational status of bridge instrumentation and controls, including alarm systems;
.10 rudder and propeller control and ship manoeuvring characteristics;
.11 the size of the ship and the field of vision available from the conning position;
.12 the configuration of the bridge, to the extent such configuration might inhibit a member of the watch from detecting by
sight or hearing any external development; and
.13 any other relevant standard, procedure or guidance relating to watchkeeping arrangements and fitness for duty which
has been adopted by the Organisation.
Watch arrangements
17. When deciding the composition of the watch on the bridge, which may include appropriately qualified ratings, the following
factors, inter alia, shall be taken into account:
.1 at no time shall the bridge be left unattended;
.2 weather conditions, visibility and whether there is daylight or darkness;
.3 proximity of navigational hazards which may make it necessary for the officer in charge of the watch to carry out
additional navigational duties;
.4 use and operational condition of navigational aids such as radar or electronic position-indicating devices and any other
equipment affecting the safe navigation of the ship;
.5 whether the ship is fitted with automatic steering;
.6 whether there are radio duties to be performed;
.7 unmanned machinery space (UMS) controls, alarms and indicators provided on the bridge, procedures for their use and
limitations; and
.8 any unusual demands on the navigational watch that may arise as a result of special operational circumstances.
Taking over the watch
18. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not hand over the watch to the relieving officer if there is reason to believe
that the latter is not capable of carrying out the watchkeeping duties effectively, in which case the master shall be notified.
19. The relieving officer shall ensure that the members of the relieving watch are fully capable of performing their duties,
particularly as regards their adjustment to night vision. Relieving officers shall not take over the watch until their vision is fully adjusted
to the light conditions.
20. Prior to taking over the watch, relieving officers shall satisfy themselves as to the ship's estimated or true position and confirm
its intended track, course and speed, and UMS controls as appropriate and shall note any dangers to navigation expected to be
encountered during their watch.
21. Relieving officers shall personally satisfy themselves regarding the:
.1 standing orders and other special instructions of the master relating to navigation of the ship;
.2 position, course, speed and draught of the ship;
.3 prevailing and predicted tides, currents, weather, visibility and the effect of these factors upon course and speed;
,
.4 procedures for the use of main engines to manoeuvre when the main engines are on bridge control; and
.5 navigational situation, including but not limited to:
.5.1 the operational condition of all navigational and safety equipment being used or likely to be used during the watch,
.5.2 the errors of gyro- and magnetic compasses,
.5.3 the presence and movement of ships in sight or known to be in the vicinity.
.5.4 the conditions and hazards likely to be encountered during the watch, and
.5.5 the possible effects of heel, trim, water density and squat on under-keel clearance.
22. If at any time the officer in charge of the navigational watch is to be relieved when a manoeuvre or other action to avoid any
hazard is taking place, the relief of that officer shall be deferred until such action has been completed.
Performing the navigational watch
23. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall:
.1 keep the watch on the bridge;
.2 in no circumstances leave the bridge until properly relieved;
.3 continue to be responsible for the safe navigation of the ship, despite the presence of the master on the bridge, until
informed specifically that the master has assumed that responsibility and this is mutually understood; and
.4 notify the master when in any doubt as to what action to take in the interest of safety.
24. During the watch the course steered, position and speed shall be checked at sufficiently frequent intervals, using any available
navigational aids necessary, to ensure that the ship follows the planned course.
25. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall have full knowledge of the location and operation of all safety and
navigational equipment on board the ship and shall be aware and take account of the operating limitations of such equipment.
26. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not be assigned or undertake any duties which would interfere with the
safe navigation of the ship.
27. Officers of the navigational watch shall make the most effective use of all navigational equipment at their disposal.
28. When using radar, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall bear in mind the necessity to comply at all times with
the provisions on the use of radar contained in the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, in force.
29. In cases of need, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not hesitate to use the helm, engines and sound signalling
apparatus. However, timely notice of intended variations of engine speed shall be given where possible or effective use made of UMS
engine controls provided on the bridge in accordance with the applicable procedures.
30. Officers of the navigational watch shall know the handling characteristics of their ship, including its stopping distances, and
should appreciate that other ships may have different handling characteristics.
31. A proper record shall be kept during the watch of the movements and activities relating to the navigation of the ship.
32. It is of special importance that at all times the officer in charge of the navigational watch ensures that a proper look-out is
maintained. In a ship with a separate chartroom the officer in charge of the navigational watch may visit the chartroom, when essential,
for a short period for the necessary performance of navigational duties, but shall first ensure that it is safe to do so and that proper look-
out is maintained.
33. Operational tests of shipboard navigational equipment shall be carried out at sea as frequently as practicable and as
circumstances permit, in particular before hazardous conditions affecting navigation are expected. Whenever appropriate, these tests
shall be recorded. Such tests shall also be carried out prior to port arrival and departure.
34. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall make regular checks to ensure that:
.1 the person steering the ship or the automatic pilot is steering the correct course;
.2 the standard compass error is determined at least once a watch and, when possible, after any major alteration of course;
the standard and gyro-compasses are frequently compared and repeaters are synchronized with their master compass;
.3 the automatic pilot is tested manually at least once a watch;
.4 the navigation and signal lights and other navigational equipment are functioning properly;
.5 the radio equipment is functioning properly in accordance with paragraph 86 (reference the radio watch) of this section;
and
.6 the UMS controls, alarms and indicators are functioning properly.
35. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall bear in mind the necessity to comply at all times with the requirements in
force of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974. (See regulations V/19, V/19-1 and V/19-2.) The officer
of the navigational watch shall take into account:
.1 the need to station a person to steer the ship and to put the steering into manual control in good time to allow any
potentially hazardous situation to be dealt with in a safe manner; and
.2 that with a ship under automatic steering it is highly dangerous to allow a situation to develop to the point where the
officer in charge of the navigational watch is without assistance and has to break the continuity of the look-out in order
to take emergency action.
• 36. Officers of the navigational watch shall be thoroughly familiar with the use of all electronic navigational aids carried, including
their capabilities and limitations, and shall use each of these aids when appropriate and shall bear in mind that the echo-sounder is a
valuable navigational aid.
37. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall use the radar whenever restricted visibility is encountered or expected, and
at all times in congested waters, having due regard to its limitations.
38. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall ensure that range scales employed are changed at sufficiently frequent
intervals so that echoes are detected as early as possible. It shall be borne in mind that small or poor echoes may escape detection.
39. Whenever radar is in use, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall select an appropriate range scale and observe the
display carefully, and shall ensure that plotting or systematic analysis is commenced in ample time.
40. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall notify the master immediately:
.1 if restricted visibility is encountered or expected;
.2 if the traffic conditions or the movements of other ships are causing concern;

.3 if difficulty is experienced in maintaining course;
.4 on failure to sight land, a navigation mari or to obtain soundings by the expected time;
.5 if, unexpectedly, land or a navigation mark is sighted or a change in soundings occurs;
.6 on breakdown of the engines, propulsion machinery remote control, steering gear or any essential navigational
equipment, alarm or indicator.
.7 if the radio equipment malfunctions;
.8 in heavy weather, if in any doubt about the possibility of weather damage;
.9 if the ship meets any hazard to navigation, such as ice or a derelict; and
.10 in any other emergency or if in any doubt.
41. Despite the requirement to notify the master immediately in the foregoing circumstances, the officer in charge of the
navigational watch shall in addition not hesitate to take immediate action for the safety of the ship, where circumstances so require.
42. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall give watchkeeping personnel all appropriate instructions and information
which will ensure the keeping of a safe watch, including a proper look-out.
Watchkeeping under different conditions and in different areas • .:>
Clear weather
43. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall take frequent and accurate compass bearings of approaching ships as a
means of early detection of risk of collision and bear in mind that such risk may sometimes exist even when an appreciable bearing
change is evident, particularly when approaching a very large ship or a tow or when approaching a ship at close range. The officer in
charge of the navigational watch shall also take early and positive action in compliance with the applicable International Regulations
for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 and subsequently check that such action is having the desired effect.
44. In clear weather, whenever possible, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall carry out radar practice.
Restricted visibility
45. When restricted visibility is encountered or expected, the first responsibility of the officer in charge of the navigational watch is
to comply with the relevant rules of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 with particular regard to the
sounding of fog signals, proceeding at a safe speed and having theengines ready for immediate manoeuvre. In addition, the officer in
charge of the navigational watch shall:
.1 inform the master;
.2 post a proper look-out; "-•"•" ••'
.3 exhibit navigation lights; and ,
.4 operate and use the radar.
In hours of darkness
46. The master and the officer in charge of the navigational watch, when arranging look-out duty, shall have due regard to the
bridge equipment and navigational aids available for use, their limitations; procedures and safeguards implemented.
Coastal and congested waters
47. The largest scale chart on board, suitable for the area and corrected with the latest available information, shall be used. Fixes
shall be taken at frequent intervals, and shall be carried out by more than one method whenever circumstances allow.
48. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall positively identify all relevant navigation marks.
Navigation with pilot an board
49. Despite the duties and obligations of pilots, their presence on board does not relieve the master or officer in charge of the
navigational watch from their duties and obligations for the safety of the ship. The master and the pilot shall exchange information
regarding navigation procedures, local conditions and the ship's characteristics. The master and/or the officer in charge of the
navigational watch shall co-operate closely with the pilot and maintain an accurate check on the ship's position and movement.
50. If in any doubt as to the pilot's actions or intentions, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall seek clarification from
the pilot and, if doubt still exists, shall notify the master immediately and take whatever action is necessary before the master arrives.
Ship at anchor
51. If the master considers it necessary, a continuous navigational watch shall be maintained at anchor. While at anchor, the officer
in charge of the navigational watch shall:
.1 determine and plot the ship's position on the appropriate chart as soon as practicable;
.2 when circumstances permit, check at sufficiently frequent intervals whether the ship is remaining securely at anchor by
taking bearings of fixed navigation marks or readily identifiable shore objects;
.3 ensure that proper look-out is maintained;
.4 ensure that inspection rounds of the ship are made periodically;
.5 observe meteorological and tidal conditions and the state of the sea;
.6 notify the master and undertake all necessary measures if the ship drags anchor;
,7 ensure that the state of readiness of the main engines and other machinery is in accordance with the master's
instructions;
.8 if visibility deteriorates, notify the master;
.9 ensure that the ship exhibits the appropriate lights and shapes and that appropriate sound signals are made in
accordance with all applicable regulations; and
.10 take measures to protect the environment from pollution by the ship and comply with applicable pollution regulations.

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Annex 3 — IMO STANDARD MARINE
NAVIGATIONAL VOCABULARY
To work safely, bridge organisation must be supported by effective communication.

Shipping is an international industry. This means that all personnel must work towards a
common language using words with defined meanings.
This annex contains relevant sections from the IMO Standard International Marine
Vocabulary with which you must become familiar.
Introduction
Shipping has a long history and uses many special words which are not part of
everyday speech ashore. They take time to learn and often sound unfamiliar to trainees. The
IMO introduced a vocabulary of navigational terms to standardise terms and orders to
improve meaning and avoid confusion.
Shipping is international and the languagesof some nationsare constructed differently

to English which is the most common. Trying to pass messages with national accents and
strange pronunciation on a noisy VHP is not easy.
Communications can be improved by use of the correct procedures and the adoption
of SEASPEAK — which sets out to put the context of the communication first with simple
pointers, e.g.
• "Information — my draft is 6 metres"
• "Question — what is your ETA?"
« "Answer —my ETA is 1430" »,
The use of these simple pointers gives non-English speakers a chance to tune in to the
message and enables them to concentrate more intently on the content. The IMO Standard
Marine Navigational Vocabulary must be studied and you should be ready to answer
questions at the end.
STANDARD MARINE NAVIGATIONAL VOCABULARY

When spelling is necessary, only the letter spelling table contained in the International Code
of Signals, Chapter X, and in radio regulations should be used.
PART 1 — GENERAL
1 Procedure/message markers
When it is necessary to indicate that phrases in this vocabulary are to be used, the
following messages may be sent:-
"Please use the Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary."
"I will use the Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary."
If necessary, external communication messages may be preceded by the following

message markers:
QUESTION indicates that thefollowingmessageisofaninterrogativecharacter

ANSWER indicates that the following message is the reply to a previous
question

indicates that the cor, tc.i ts of the following message are asking for
action from others with respect to the ship
INFORMATION indicates that the following message is restricted to observed facts
INTENTION indicates that the following message informs others about
immediate navigational actions intended to be taken,
"indicates fhat the following message informs other traffic
participants about dangers
ADVICE indicates that the following message implies the intention of the
sender to influence the recipient(s) by a recommendation
INSTRUCTION indicates that the following message implies the intention of the
sender to influence the recipient(s) by a regulation
2 Standard verbs
Where possible, sentences should be introduced by one of the following verb forms:
IMPERATIVE
Always to be used when mandatory orders are being given
You must Do not Must I?
INDICATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I require I do not require Do I require? **"*
lam I am not Ami?
You arc You are not *, Are you?
I have I do not have Do you have?
I can I cannot Can I? — is it possible?
Can you?
I wish to I do not wish to Do you wish to?
I will —future I will not—future
You may You need not May I? — permission
Advise Advise not
There is There is not Is there?
What is / are?
Where is / are?
When is / are?
Note: see Section 1 — Message markers
Responses
Where the answer to a question is in the affirmative, say:-
"yes ..." — followed by the appropriate phrase in full
Where the answer to a question is in the negative, say:-

"no ..." — followed by the appropriate phrase in full
Where the information is not immediately available but soon will be, say:-
"stand by"
Where the information cannot be obtained, say:-

"no information"
Where a message is not properly heard, say:-

"say again"
Where a message is not understood, say:-

"message not understood"
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE 128-

Distress/urgency/safety messages
MAYDAY (repeated three times) is to be used to announce a
distress message
PAN PAN (repeated three times) is to be used to announce an
urgency message
SECURITE (repeated three times) is to be used to announce a safety
message
5 Miscellaneous phrases
5.1 What is your name (and call sign)?
5.2 How do you read me?
5.3 I read you ... with signal strength ...
(bad / I ) (1 / barely perceptible)
(poor / 2) (2 / weak)
(fair / 3) (3 / fairly good)
(good / 4) (4 / good)
(excellent / 5) (5 / very good)
5.4 Stand-by on channel... .*
5.5 Change to channel...
5.6 I cannot read you. (Pass you message through vessel...) (Advise try channel ...)
5.7 I cannot understand you. Please use the . . .
• (Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary)
• (International Code of Signals)
5.8 I am passing a message for vessel...
5.9 Correction...
5.10 I am ready to receive your message
5.11 I am not ready to receive you message
5.12 I do not have channel... Please use channel...
6 Repetition
If any partsof the messageare considered sufficiently important to need safeguarding,
use the word ''repeat"
Examples: "You will load 163 repeat 163 tons bunkers
"Do not repeat not overtake"
7 Position
When latitude and longitudeare used, these shall be expressed in degreesand minutes
(and decimals of a minute if necessary), north or south of the Equator and east or west of
Greenwich.
When the position is related to a mark, the mark shall be a well-defined charted object.
The bearing shall be in the 360 degree notation from true north and shall be that of the position
FROM the mark.
Examples: "There are salvage operations in position 15 degrees 34 minutes north
61 degrees 29 minutes west."
"Your position is 13/degrees from Barr Head lighthouse distance two
decimal four miles."
8 Courses
Al ways to be expressed in 360 degree notation from north (true north unless otherwise
stated). Whether this is TO or FROM a mark can be stated.

9 Bearings
The bearing of the mark or vessel concerned is the bearing in the 360 degree notation
from north (true north unless otherwise stated), except in the case of relative bearings.
Bearings may be either FROM the mark or FROM the vessel.
Examples: "The pilot boat is bearing 215 ° from you."
"Your bearing is 127° from the signal station."
Note: Vessels reporting their position should always quote their bearing FROM the
mark, as described in paragraph 7.
Relative Bearings
Relative bearings can be expressed in degrees relative to the vessel's head or bow.
More frequently this is in relation to the port or starboard bow
Example: "The buoy is 030" on your port bow."
Relative D/F bearings are more commonly expressed in the 360 degree notation.
10 Distances
Preferably to be expressed in nautical miles or cables (tenths of a mile) otherwise in
kilometres or metres, the units always to be stated.
11 Speed
To be expressed in knots:
(a) without further notation meaning speed through the water; or -
(b) "ground speed" meaning speed over the ground.
12 Numbers
Numbers are to be spoken:
"One-five-zero" for 150,
"Two point five" for 2-5.
13 Geographical names
Place names used should be those on the chart or Sailing Directions in use. Should
these not be understood, latitude and longitude should be given.
14 Time
Times should be expressed in the 24 hour notation indicating whether UTC, zone time
or local shore time is being used.
Note: In cases not covered by the above phraseology normal radiotelephone practice
will prevail.
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE —130-

Annex 4
Briefing
Supplement to
SEAWAYS
The Journal of The Nautical Institute
PASSAGE PLANNING
The Nautical Institute Council
FOREWORD
PASSAGE PLANNING is a way of minimising the risk of navigational errors. With tighter schedules, reduced
manning, faster turn-rounds and more intense operations, the requirement for pre-planning becomes
even more necessary.
The aim of passage planning is to prepare for the navigation of a ship so that the intended passage
can be executed from berth to berth in a safe manner in respect of both the vessel and protection of
the environment, as well as ensuring positive control of the vessel at all times. Without planning, the
time to process essential information may not be available at critical times when the navigator is
occupied confirming landmarks, altering course, avoiding traffic and carrying out other bridge duties
such as communications. Under these circumstances mistakes can be made and errors go undetected.
A particular benefit of planning is that it enables the appropriate navigational methods to be used at
different phases of the voyage. In narrow or confined waters it becomes more important to concentrate
on forward-looking pilotage techniques. However, before they can be applied it is necessary to provide
detailed guidance in advance.
Passage planning can be time consuming and therefore carries a cost in terms of human resources,
expertise and supporting administration.
The value of passage planning is difficult to quantify. If it is done well, and the ship's navigation is
consistently reliable, then there is no cost penalty against which to assess its relative merits to the
company. However, if it is not practised, the costs of navigational incidents can be significant.
Some guidance is provided in the STCW Convention concerning 'Basic Principles to be Observed in
Keeping a Navigational Watch' which states that:
'The intended voyage shall be planned in advance taking into consideration all pertinent
information and any course laid down should be checked before the voyage
commences'.
However, this statement needs further amplification if it is to be meaningful.

This briefing, therefore, is designed to focus on the principles of passage planning and the plan's
execution, and to provide a document which can be discussed both at sea and ashore to encourage a
professional commitment.
Captain LA. Holder, ExC, MPhil, FNl, FRIN, FCIT, President, The Nautical Institute, January 1994.
•;,*&
plan must take into account the expected traffic flow
PASSAGE PLANNING and be flexible enough to allow for collision avoidance
in line with the International Regulations for
preventing Collisions at Sea.
Aim
THE AIM of this briefing is to demonstrate to govern-
ments, marine management, masters, pilots and deck TABLE 1 , .
officers that passage planning from berth to berth is Information sources for passage planning
an essential navigational discipline and that it must be include:
supported, encouraged and applied as part of bridge 1. Chart catalogue.
team management. 2 Navigational charts.
3. Ocean passages for the world.
Scope 4. Routeing charts, pilot charts and IMO Ship s
This Nautical Institute briefing outlines the Routeing.
principles of berth-to-berth passage planning. It covers 5. Sailing directions and pilot books.
the subject within the context of coastal navigation; 6. Light lists.
however, ocean passages must also be planned m 7. Tide tables.
detail It assumes a knowledge of navigation and the 8 Tidal stream atlases.
use, and limitations, of radar and other aids to a Notices to Mariners (Navareas, Hydrolants,
navigation. Hydropacs).
10. Radio signal information (including VTS and
Planning port service).
The purpose of passage planning is to ensure
positive control over the safe navigation of the ship at
IT. Climatic informafion,
all times. To achieve this purpose, the ship's track to
oceanoorapb/c data. Weather, seastate
be made good, once it has been finally put on to the
ice forecasts,
12. Leadline chart.
chart, will become the focus of attention. 13. Distance tables.
For ferries, liners and other vessels engaged on 14. Electronic navigational systems informa-
regular passages, the passage plan will have been tion.
established for normal operating conditions and only 15. Radio and local warnings.
the variable items like weather and tidal information 16. Owner's and other unpublished sources.
will need to be updated. If, however, the vessel 17. Manoeuvring data.
changes route or the officers change, then thorough 18. Personal experience.
briefings will need to take place. 19. Mariner's Handbook.
For the majority of ships visiting different ports, the 20. Guide to Port Entry.
process of planning must be given due consideration.
Early advice about an intended voyage may come
from a variety of sources and frequently the master
will need to provide a voyage itinerary quickly, TABLE 2.
covering distances, times and restrictions for Vessel's status reports needed for passage
provisional cargo bookings. Once the intended voyage planning include:
has been confirmed, planning will commence in detail. 1. Main propulsion system.
The master should discuss an outline route with the 2. Steering gear.
navigation officer. The appraisal process will then take 3. Navigational equipment
place, during which all relevant information will be 4. Anchors,
collected from sources such as those listed in Table 1, 5. Thrusters.
while bearing in mind those parameters listed in 6. Auxiliaries.
Table 2. 7. Trim and draught of vessel and air draught
This information will then be used in preparing the 8. Transverse stability.
plan, along with guidance from the master 9. The availability of manpower.
concerning, for example,the clearing distances which
he considers appropriate. The navigating officer will
ensure that the ship can always be navigated in safe Preparing the plan
waters, that critical parts of the voyage are identified, When preparing the plan the navigating officer will
voyage timings are checked and that the appropriate need to take account of the following
navigational techniques required for each part of the • Adequate underkeel clearance at all times, including
voyage are highlighted. It has to be stressed that the allowances for squat, pitch, roll, swell, predicted
plan must be complete, from berth to berth. The plan tidal height and possible increase of draught due to
must also include those parts of the voyage during heel and trim.
which it is expected that a pilot will be on board. • Safe distances off dangers, allowing for weather,
The construction of a passage plan encourages all tidal stream, anticipated traffic, reliability of survey
those concerned to think ahead, to foresee potential data, availability of safe water and navigational
problems and plan a strategy to minimise risk. systems in use.
Contingency plans must be made, such as identifying • Alter-course positions which can be monitored
deep-water escape routes from turns, possible conveniently by means of radar or by visual
alternative routes and emergency anchorages. The bearings.
• Management of chart changes, which should not ensure that all watchkeeping officers are properly
occur at critical points of the passage. briefed; and that the plan is kept amended and up to
• Traffic Separation Schemes, and the requirements date for the intended passage.
of Rule 10.
• Predicted tidal information, leading to the pre-
working of allowances for set. Tidal constraints Monitoring the passage plan
limiting ETD/ETA at locks, etc. It is common practice on merchant ships to fix the
• Visibility of lights, rising/dipping distances, arcs and ship's position and then make an allowance for set and
colours of light sectors. drift depending upon offset from the previous fix. This
• Safe speeds along the route, leading to a speed approach to navigation is REACTIVE, being based
plan, and an ETA plan, making due allowance for upon past observations. If either of these is wrong,
possible reduced visibility. A plan for reducing then any predictions using them will be erroneous.
speed under control should be considered. When using fixes in this way, it is usually better to
• Selection of depths for comparison with the echo- make the fixes at regular intervals. This enables a
sounder, taking note of the predicted height of tide. simple check to be made with respect to speed. It also
• Reporting points, VHP frequencies, VTS helps the quick and effective calculation of short-term
requirements, areas of special concern and pilot EPs (Estimated Positions), using the latest course and
stations. Points for taking tugs. speed made good, to warn of any immediate
• Abort positions and contingency plans in case of problems developing.
accident or emergency or bad visibility. However, in narrow waters, techniques need to be
• The primary and secondary systems of navigation used which enable the navigator to maintain a forward
to be used. outlook, that is to be PROACTIVE, whilst monitoring
Requirements for any electronic chart systems. the deviation from the intended track being made
All charts and publications available are up to date. good. Frequent, hurried visits to the chart table to fix
Equipment status. the vessel's position may not be the most effective use
Margins of allowable error, safety clearing bearings of the time available. Also, whilst doing this the overall
and ranges. sense of awareness can be interrupted and it is easy
The making up of a bridge, or conning, notebook. during critical phases to become disorientated. It is
Choice of ocean route (circle, composite or rhumb worth remembering to monitor the echo-sounder.
line). This instrument can often provide the first warning
• Choice of ocean route to avoid weather/ice. signs that the vessel is standing into danger, since in
The master must satisfy himself that the passage almost all situations the nearest land is beneath the
plan meets all his requirements and he must then vessel.
Passage planning therefore should be a preparation for effective piloting by selecting, and
marking in advance, those relevant navigational techniques which will lead to safe control of the
ship and adherence to the plan.
This point was emphasised in the Nautical Briefing the period between fixes. As the ship approaches
on Bridge Watchkeeping, when the Council of The confined waters the fix interval becomes shorter.
Nautical Institute observed that: When appropriate navigational markers have been
The need to confirm the ship's position frequently identified, pilotage techniques should be used.'
is a statement which needs further examination. A fix
should be taken whenever the vessel completes a turn There can be a reluctance amongst some officers to
on a new track and at regular intervals thereafter. The accept pilotage techniques as valid methods of
fix interval should be such that the vessel cannot be navigation. This inhibits their use and application, so
set appreciably off track or into danger by the depriving the bridge team of predictive information
anticipated effects of tidal stream, wind or currents in when it is most needed.

danger. By observing the leads, the navigator is
PILOTAGE TECHNIQUES continuously monitoring progress along the planned
track.
Limiting danger lines (no-go areas) Transits also show the observer which way to go to
Charts supplied to ships are the same for everyone, regain track, and with experience and care, the amount
whether for use on board a VLCC at 25 metres draught off track. The prudent officer will ensure that a leading
or on a coaster sailing at 3 metres draught. It is line is safe for his vessel size, and that following it does
therefore imperative that the chart is made suitable for not contravene the provisions of the International
the specific condition of the vessel on which the chart Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, such as
is being used. This should be done by marking the keeping to the right of the fairway as prescribed in Rule
'limiting danger lines' - often referred to as marking 9, or crossing the Traffic Separation Schemes correctly
out the 'no-go areas.' as prescribed in Rule 10.
These are valuable safety limits to any plan, be it for
coastal or ocean passage. Lines must be drawn on the Clearing bearings and clearing ranges
chart to highlight where the vessel cannot go. Proper Clearing marks can be used to ensure that a ship is
allowance must be made for maximum draft and remaining within a safe area or is not approaching a
predicted tidal height and any other limiting condition. danger. A small amount of pre-planning means that a
The concept of marking no-go areas has the following single bearing or range can quickly give effective
benefits: information about the proximity of the ship to danger.
• It forces consideration of the factors affecting under Head marks
keel clearance, which is always the high risk Often a ship is required to follow a track in narrow
element, waters without the benefit of a leading line. In this case
• It forces a concentrated study of the chart, rather a suitable head marker should be selected. This should
than just a glance. be a readily identifiable conspicuous object, which lies
• It immediately highlights to anyone who looks at on the projection of the relevant track to be made
the chart the, often large , areas that must be good. As long as the bearing of the head marker,
avoided. corrected for errors and preferably taken with a centre-
It is not enough to depend on, say, a printed depth line bearing repeater, remains'constant (i.e., the same
contour line. The lines have to be prominent in order as the required track), the ship will remain on track. It
to highlight the immediate danger quickly and should be noted that the ship need not necessarily be
effectively at any time under any light condition. heading directly at the object, only that it is on the line
It is important to draw the no-go boundaries as of the required track. In most cases the ship's head will
accurately as possible. They should show, for need to be offset to allow for the tidal stream or
example, that the vessel can pass the wrong side of a leeway.
mark, in an emergency, although this may not
normally be desirable. It can be seen from the study of Parallel indexing
some recent incidents that had this information been This is the simplest and quickest pilotage technique
immediately available, then a grounding or collision that gives continuous monitoring of the track that the
would most probably not have occurred. In this ship is making good. Parallel indexes should be
context passing the wrong side of a buoy is nothing planned for every part of a coastal passage.
compared with the consequences of even a minor Like all radar techniques, parallel indexing should be
incident. practised in clear weather during straightforward
passages so that personnel become thoroughly
Transits (ranges) familiar with the technique before attempting to use it
Transits (known as ranges in some areas) - i.e., the in confined or difficult passages, at night or in
line on the chart upon which an observer would see restricted visibility.
two identifiable objects in line - can be used to give Great care should be taken in identifying and
the OOW a quick indication of his position. Although confirming reference points on the chart and on the
a transit is only a single position line, it has the radar; and also in verifying the radar range when using
advantage that it does not require the use of special the parallel index.
equipment. For accuracy the distance between the Altering course
observer and the nearer object should be no more Course changes should be chosen so that their
than three times the distance between the objects position can be easily established and the turn can be
observed, though transits at distances greater than monitored. In pilotage waters the ship's manoeuvring
this can be used to advantage. data must always be considered, and wheelover
Transits are sometimes printed on charts of inshore positions must always be planned. It has become
waters, but good use can be made of natural or clearly customary to plan this wheelover position at a
identifiable transits found at the planning stage and convenient beam bearing. It is better to use a lead
drawn on the chart. Transits can be used effectively as bearing that is approximately parallel to the next
cues within the passage plan, and also as limiting course; such a lead will act as a self-correcting
danger lines. mechanism to ensure that the ship turns correctly on
to the new track even if off-track on the previous leg.
Leading lines The wheelover position can be prepared on the
Leading lines are transits which form a track line to understanding that a constant rudder angle will be
be made good to ensure that the ship passes clear of applied from which advance and transfer can be
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE — 134.
calculated and allowances made for set and drift. when it is needed most.
Alternatively, if a rate-of-turn indicator or a rate
autopilot are fitted, then constant-radius turns can be Error management
planned based upon the relationship that, for a given It is human nature to make mistakes. Experienced
speed, the rate of turn is proportional to the radius. people can make mistakes, usually through slips or
Again, set and drift can be offset before the turn lapses caused by preoccupation or distraction,
commences to ensure the ship ends the turn on track. through short cuts in procedures or through applying
When planning turns in confined waters, it is good 'standard' routines unthinkingly in unexpected or
practice to prepare the turn with a reference point on unusual circumstances.
the new course. This enables the end of the turn to be Inexperienced people are more likely to make
monitored to ensure the ship is properly aligned to the mistakes through lack of knowledge, lack of training,
new track. not using safe procedures, or through over
confidence.
Picking-up pilots Similarly, everyone can make mistakes through
Prior to approaching a pilot boarding point, time fatigue, or as a result of ambiguous information,
must be spent planning the speed and heading Rarely is an accident caused by a single error. Usually
required to ensure the best lee possible. Transfer of small errors build up into an error chain. In most
personnel is always a high-risk event, and this risk situations the correction of any single one of the small
must be assessed and minimised. Pilot cutters often errors in the error chain will lead to the safe resolution
operate offshore near sandbanks, and an assessment of the situation. People should organise their actions
should be made of available sea room in case there is to minimise the possibility of an error chain
an emergency. developing sufficiently to lead to an accident.
Anchorages This should be done by adopting self-checking
Approaches into, as well as departures from, procedures such as always verifying position with
anchorages must be planned, taking account of more than two position lines, monitoring the depth
manoeuvring data, as well as possible current or tidal recorder or checking the track and compass course
effect. A speed plan should also be drawn up; particularly after an alteration of course. Similarly,
anchoring at the wrong speed is a major cause of ship navigational systems must not be relied upon
damage. Alternative anchoring positions must be implicitly and one system must be checked against
planned on to the chart. When the vessel has to another regularly.
approach a busy anchorage it may not be possible to The strength of a passage plan is that it can be
preplan the anchorage position. Instead, the safe checked before implementation, and provides a basis
depth in the anchorage area must be verified and the for monitoring the passage. Encouraging the habit of
anchorage position selected in relation to the other obtaining an independent check by another member
ships already anchored. of the bridge team prior to executing any action set out
in the passage plan will minimise the risk of errors
Contingency plans going undetected. An unexpected deviation from the
By preparing in advance for possible contingencies, plan may indicate the development of an error chain.
a quick and effective response can be made when the Any such deviation, for whatever reason, should alert
unexpected happens. Plans should be considered for the bridge team to the possibility of equipment failure,
coping with, amongst other things, main engine a human error or an unexpected current. When the
failure, steering loss, port or channel closures, radar deviation might arise from a variety of causes then the
failure, reduction in visibility, heavy traffic at crucial plan provides the best framework for resolving the
points, movement or closure of a pilot station, or any problem.
of the accidents and emergencies that can occur to a
ship on passage. Summary
Emergency anchorages, abort points and Passage planning can be considered as a manage-
alternative routes should be selected and marked on ment activity where the relevant controls have been
the chart. Only then will every member of the bridge thought about in advance. The steps can be
team be able to take best advantage of such planning, summarised as follows:
Collect relevant information.

Mark out accurate 'No-Go' areas.
Decide the navigational techniques to be used and prepare safe tracks.
Verify that the navigational instruments needed are available and that errors are checked.
Ensure that the ship's passage along required track can be monitored effectively.
Provide for the effective monitoring of turns.
Prepare for contingencies.
Show clearly currents, special points of concern, VHP frequencies, planned ETAs, speeds and
reporting points.
Highlight pilot ladder and anchor party requirements, crew standby times and points at which
the bridge team may need to be enlarged.
Communicate the plan in a consistent way so that it can be followed by all the bridge team
including a pilot, if used.
Ensure that the officers are proficient in the skills necessary to execute the plan, and if
necessary institute training or guidance programmes to this end.
in? J BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
The navigating officer given responsibility for 4. Strandings and their Causes, R.A. Cahill, Fairplay,
drawing up the plan must expect discussion and 1985.
amendment as better ways of laying down the plan 5. A Guide to the Collision Avoidance Rules, A.N.
develop. If the passage is a complicated one, it may be Cockcroftand J.N.F. Lameijer, Fourth Edition 1990,
advisable to prepare a draft, to discuss it and then Heinemann Newnes.
prepare the final version. The level of planning has to 6. The Admiralty Manual of Navigation, Vol 1,
be relevant to the circumstances. HMSO.
Once the passage plan has been executed, it is good 7. Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer,
practice to 'debrief at some later stage. In this way Meurn, Cornell Maritime Press.
any lessons that need to be taken into account in future 8. Passage Planning, DOT, HMSO (now out of print).
planning can be learnt. 9. Parallel Indexing Techniques, Smith & Mulroney,
This Nautical Briefing is designed to discuss the available from Warsash Nautical Bookshop.
concepts of passage planning. For a more detailed 10. Merchant Shipping Notices, UK Department of
guidance on the practical steps which should be taken Transport.
in preparing the passage plan, consult the book Bridge • M845 Dangers in the use of VHP radio in
Team Management. The chapters cover the following collision avoidance.
subjects: Bridge Team Management - The Back- • M854 Navigation safety and passage planning.
ground; Passage Appraisal; Passage Planning; Plan • M1102 Keeping a safe navigational watch.
Execution; Monitoring the Ship's Progress; • M1263 Keeping a lookout.
Teamwork; Navigating under Pilotage; and the • M1348 Navigation in fog.
Automation of Bridge Systems. • M1158 Radar collision avoidance and parallel
This book is also linked to a training video which index techniques.
covers: the documents required, 'no-go' areas, • M Notices can be obtained from HMSO London
marking the track, margins of safety, fixing the ship, 071-873 9090.
parallel indexing, alter-course positions, ship's speed
and ETA, and abort points. References
See back page for details of the book and video. 1. IMO STCW Convention,1978.
2. ICS Bridge Procedure Guide, Second Edition 1990.
Background reading 3. Navigation Safety M Notice 854 HMSO.
1. The Management of Safety in Shipping, The 4. Pilotage and Shiphandling, The Nautical Institute.
Nautical Institute, 1991. 5. Nautical Briefing, Bridge Watchkeeping, The
2. The Nautical Institute on Command, 1986. Nautical Institute, April 1993.
3. Collisions and their Causes, R.A. Cahill, Fairplay, 6. Bridge Team Management, A.J. Swift, The
1983. Nautical Institute, 1993.

IkM uu ilJI LI U U LI
T!
U Ill
U U 11 U
II
REQUIRED BOARDING ARRANGEMENTS FOR PILOT In accordance with I.M.O. requirements and I.M.P.A. recommendations
INTERNATIONAL MARITIME PILOTS' ASSOCIATION
H.Q.S. "Wellington", Temple Stairs, Victoria Embankment, London WC2R 2PN Tel: +44 (0)20 7240 3973 Fax: +44 (0)20 7240 3518
Lifebuoy with~ -
If-ignitine light Bulwark ladder secured to ship
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Annex 6
THE INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS
FOR PREVENTING COLLISIONS AT SEA 1972
as amended in 1981,1987,1989,1993 and 2003 (Nov)
Part A — General
RULE1
Application
(a) These Rules shall apply to all vessels upon the high seas and in all waters
connected therewith navigable by seagoing vessels.
(b) Nothing in these Rules shall interfere with the operation of special rules made
by an appropriate authority for roadsteads, harbours, rivers, lakes or inland waterways
connected with the high seas and navigable by seagoing vessels. Such special rules shall
conform as closely as possible to these Rules.
«
(c) Nothing in these Rules shall interfere with the operation of any special rules
made by the Government of any State with respect to additional station or signal lights,
shapes or whistle signals for ships of war and vessels proceeding under convoy, or with
respect to additional station or signal lights or shapes for fishing vessels engaged in fishing
as a fleet. These additional station or signal lights, shapes or whistle signals shall, so far as
possible, be such that they cannot be mistaken for any light, shape or signal authorized
elsewhere under these Rules.
(d) Traffic separation schemes may be adopted by the Organisation for the
purpose of these Rules.
(e) Whenever the Government concerned shall have determined that a vessel of
special construction or purpose cannot comply fully with the provisions of any of these
Rules with respect to the number, position, range or arc of visibility of lights or shapes, as
well as to the disposition and characteristics of sound-signalling appliances, such vessel
shall comply with such other provisions in regard to the number, position, range or arc of
visibility of lights or shapes, as well as to the disposition and characteristics of sound-
signalling appliances, as her Government shall have determined to be the closest possible
compliance with these Rules in respect of that vessel.
RULE 2
Responsibility
(a) Nothing in these Rules shall exonerate any vessel, or the owner, master or crew
thereof, from the consequences of any neglect to comply with these Rules or of the neglect
of any precaution which may be required by the ordinary practice of seamen, or by the
special circumstances of the case.
(b) In construing and complying with these Rules due regard shall be had to all
dangers of navigation and collision and to any special circumstances, including the
limitations of the vessels involved, which may make a departure from these Rules necessary
to avoid immediate danger.

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Annex 8 — GLOSSARY OF TERMS
1 General
Air draught Height of highest point of vessel's structure above waterline, e.g.
radar, funnel, cranes, masthead.
Anchor position Place where a specific vessel is anchored or is to anchor.
Bell book Manoeuvring book.
Calling-in-point (CIP) (see way point)
"Correction" An error has been made in this transmission, the corrected version
is...
Dragging (of anchor) An anchor moving over the sea bottom involuntarily because it is
no longer preventing the movement of the vessel.
Dredging anchor Vessel moving, under control, with anchor moving along the sea
bottom.
Draught Depth from waterline to vessel'sbottom, maximum/deepest unless
otherwise specified.
Established Brought into service, placed in position.
ETA Estimated time of arrival.
ETD Estimated time of departure.
Fairway Navigable part of waterway.
Fairway speed Mandatory speed in a fairway.
Foul (anchor) Anchor has its own cable twisted around it or has fouled an
obstruction.
Foul (propeller) A line, wire, net, etc. is wound round the propeller.
Hampered vessel A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre by the nature of her
work.
Icing Formation of ice on vessels.
Inoperative Not functioning.
Mark General term for a navigational mark, e.g. buoy, structure or
topographical feature which may beused to fix a vessel's position.
Offshore installation Any offshore structure (e.g. a drilling rig, production platform,
etc.) which may present a hazard to navigation.
Receiving point A mark or place at which a vessel comes under obligatory entry,
transit, or escort procedure (such as for port entry, canal transit or
icebreaker escort).
Reporting point (see way point)
Vessel crossing A vessel proceeding across a fairway/traffic lane/route.
Vessel inward A vessel which is proceeding from sea to harbour or dock.
Vessel leaving A vessel which is in the process of leaving a berth or anchorage.
(When she has entered the navigable fairway she will be referred
to as an outward, inward, crossing or turning vessel.)
Vessel outward A vessel which is proceeding from harbour or anchorage to
seawards.
Vessel turning A vessel making a LARGE alteration in course, such as to stem the
tide when anchoring, or to enter, or proceed, after leaving a berth,
or dock.
Under Keel Clearance
UKC Thedepth of water allowed for, under the keel for safe navigation.
Way point A mark or place at which a vessel is required to report to establish

its position. (Also known as reporting point or calling-in point.)
165 — BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

2 Terms used in ships'routeing
At ten tion is drawn to the following terms which are regularly used in communications
regarding ships' routeing and are defined in the General Provisions on Ships' Routeing
(Assembly resolution A.572C14)):- -
— Routeing system
— Traffic separation zone
— Separation zone or line
— Traffic lane
— Roundabout
— Inshore traffic zone '
— Two-way route
— Recommended track
— Deep water route
— Precautionary area
— Area to be avoided
— Established direction of traffic flow
— Recommended direction of traffic flow
3 Abbreviations used in this guide ^

ARPA Automatic Radar Plotting Aid , -T
COLREGS Collision Regulations
CPA Closest Point of Approach
ECDIS Electronic Chart Display and Information System
GMDSS Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
GPS Global Positioning System
ICPCS International Convention for Preventing Collisions at Sea
ICS International Chamber of Shipping
IMO International Maritime Organization
MARS Marine Accident Reporting Scheme
MF Medium Frequency
OOW Officer of the Watch
SatComms Satellite Communications
SatNav Satellite Navigation
SAQ Self Assessment Question
SEASPE AK Standard phrases in the IMO Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary
SOLAS Safety of Life at Sea Convention
TSS Traffic Separation Scheme
VHP Very High Frequency
VTS Vessel Traffic Service
3/O Third Officer

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
Annex 9 — LOG BOOK ENTRIES
Instructions for keeping the Deck Log Book — a company

example.
1) An original numbered page is never to be removed from this book as, in the event of
any proceedings, legal or otherwise, it is the only Log Book which will be accepted as
evidence.
2) Only those abbreviations shown in paras 12 and 13 below, page (iii) of this log book
and H.O. 5011 may be used.
3) When at sea and in port, the Deck Log is to be written at the end of each Watch and is
to be initialled.
4) When at Anchorage, Harbour or Port, particulars of the Berth occupied are to be
inserted in Columns (1) to (4) inclusive.
5) Details such as Gyro Errors, Pilot Names, Tugs, Times of True and Statistical Arr./
Dep., Anchor Bearings, R.P.M. if appropriate, Log if appropriate, Radar Watch
maintained, 2 hourly D.R. Positions, should be inserted in column (11).
6) If there is insufficient space in the Remarks section, insert a gummed paper strip.
7) All bearings and courses are to be expressed in Degrees (True).
8) Completion of the headed columns and spaces together with concise remarks must be
such that it will always be possible to form an accurate appreciation of all that took
place. From navigational entries, it must also be possible to- calculate the ship's
position at any given time.
9) Thefollowingemergencyexercises,drillsand instructional sessions should be recorded
on pages (iv) at the beginning of the log book:-
All equipment tests as required by Fleet Regulation Cl9
Accident Boat Exercises
Boat Lowering Exercises
General Emergency Drills for Passengers/Crew .:
Safety Instruction of Newly Joined Crew
Watertight Door Instruction
10) Both at SEA and in HARBOUR, particulars of the following are to be recorded under
"Remarks":-
Ballast Tanks, emptying and filling of
Berths
Bridge Equipment and Steering Gear, testing of
Bunkering Operations
Burial of the Dead, name, description, sex and age of deceased. Ship's position if at sea.
If landed, where ashore
Casualties
Clocks, synchronisation of Bridge and Engine Room
Deaths, name, cause, description, sex and age of deceased. Ship's position if at sea
Double Bottom Tanks, emptying and filling of (incl. Bunkering times)
Emergencies
Emergency Drills, showing time and nature of drill. (Full details should be written in
summary on page (iv)
Incidents of Importance or of an Unusual Nature
Lookouts, time of posting when anchored in restricted visibility
Notice to Engine Control Room for Stand By Engines
Rounds, record of visiting by Fire Patrol/OOW
Opening and Securing of Shell Doors, ship side openings
Weather and Sea State particulars
11) WHEN AT SEA AND WHEN ENTERING AND LEAVING HARBOUR, particulars

of the following in addition to those referred to in para 9 are to be recorded:-
Arrival and Departure, a narrative covering all salient points
Anchor Bearings
Anchoring, time of. Details of anchor used, cable veered and depth of water. Time of
weighing anchor
Average speed and distance between ports
Bearings of Navigational marks and features
Engine Movements, principal orders unless automatically recorded, R.P.M. ordered
Inspection of Quayside, Fleet Regulation ... refers
International Regulations, compliance with in restricted visibility
Pilots, times of embarkation/disembarkation, advice taken. Pilotage charge
Positions, method of obtaining (e.g. Sat, Radar, Decca, Obs.)
Restricted Visibility, time of encountering, precautions and actions taken
Speed adjustments other than normal manoeuvres, (e.g. Embarking Pilots, passing
dredgers, ships alongside, etc.)
Stations for entering and leaving harbour, times of
Stopping of Main Engines and reduction of programmed speed for any reason
Tugs, times of securing, letting go or in attendance
Visibility, time of deterioration and improvement
Watertight Doors, times of opening and closing, operational mode
12) With reference to para 2, the following abbreviations are approved for use either
singly or together:- ;
A/C Altered Course F Fahrenheit ROE Rang on full speed
Ahd Ahead FP Fore Peak Tank RPM Revolutionsperminute(ME)
Ampl Amplitude FW FreshWater R/T Radio Telephone
AP After Peak Tank Fwd Forward Sat Satellite position
Arr Arrival/Arrived FWE Finished with Engines SBB Stand by below (ME)
Av Average CM Distance between the meta- SD Safety of Dock
Ast Astern centre & the centre of gravity Sp Speed
Az Azimuth 1 IMS Her Majesty's Ship Ahead Movements
Bar Baromcter/s hms Hours, minutes, seconds Full Sp Full speed
Brg Bearing (True) IFO Intermediate Fuel Oil '/2 Sp Half speed
BT Ballast Tank KG Height or centre of gravity Slow Slow
BW Breakwater LB Lifeboat DS Dead Slow
By Buoy LT Local Time Astern Movements
C Centigrade Max Maximum Full Ast Full Speed Astern
l
c Cable/s (Vios of nautical ml) m Metres /2 Ast Half Speed Astern
CI Clutched in MDO Marine Diesel Oil SJw Ast Slow Astern
Co Course (True) ME Main Engine DS Ast Dead Slow Astern
(D) Decca fix MFO Marine Fuel Oil SS Steamship
DB Double-bottom tank Min Minimum Stbd Starboard
Dec Declutched MS/MV Motor Ship/Motor Vessel T True Course
Dep Departure/Depart NT New Time (after an alteration TK Tank
Disch Discharge, Discharged, of docks VMO Various to Master's Orders
Discharging Obs Observations (VMO Various to Master's
Displ Displacement tonnage Obsd Observed (&PA Orders & Pilot's Advice
Dist Distance PA Position Approximate WB Water Ballast
DR Dead Reckoning PDS Piped down stations WTD Watertight Door
ER Engine Room (R) Radar (eg (R) Brg 105° = Z GMT
E/S Echo Sounder
13) In addition to the abbreviations laid down in para 12, the following signs and symbols
may be used :-
Abeam (Port or Starboard as indicted by arrow)
Anchor
° Degree of Arc or Temperature
' Foot/Feet, Mile (Nautical), Minutes of Arc as indicated in context
" Inch /es or second /s of Arc
45
/ is The upper figure shows length of cable veered. The lower indicates depth of wa ter obtained by
sounding at time of anchoring
NOTE: a) Astronomical observations in the Nautical Almanac may be used
b) Navigational abbreviations as prescribed in the Mariner's Handbook N.P. 100 and B.A.
chart 5011 may be used

14) Prior to departure from each port, positive reports are to be made to the Captain in
accordance with Fleet Regulations:-
REGULATIONNO. REPORT REPORTING OFFICER
Navigation and bridge equipment Officer of the Watch
Stability condition Deputy Captain
Safety equipment Chief Officer
Main and auxiliary machinery Chief Engineer
Securing of shell doors/openings Nominated Officer/CPO
Hatches, scuttles, deadlights Senior Officer of the Watch
Passenger and crew numbers Purser
Times of receipt of the above reports are to be entered in the appropriate columns on
page 2 together with any pertinent comments in the remarks column and initialled by
the Captain in column viii prior to true departure confirming receipt of these reports.
These guidelines are published courtesy ofP&O Cruises (UK) Ltd.
31
BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING
SAQ ANSWERS
1. This is possibly the most dangerous situation under the Rules. In fog the other vessel
cannot know that I am constrained by my draught and I have very little room in which
to manoeuvre. I would call the Master, set up a careful watch on radar and work out
the best manoeuvre in the water available, sounding the fog horn
When the Master comes to the bridge I would brief him on the situation with own
course and speed and the course and speed of the target vessel. If the Master was
unable to come to the bridge and if risk of collision existed at, say, 15 knots, I would
reduce the speed of the ship as quickly as possible by stopping the engines, applying
helm hard a starboard, hard a port to assist speed reduction within the channel limits
and watch the other vessel closely.
2. Notify the pilot IMMEDIATELY, re-ring the telegraph and call the engine control
room. If there was no response I would expect the Master and pilot to use the
emergency stop and use the anchors if necessary. I would record the time in the
manoeuvring book
3. As OOW I have a duty to query any unexpected deviation from the pilotage plan. I
would therefore:-
Ask the pilot if the action was intended
If appropriate ask the pilot to check the heading at the steering position to verify any
compass error
If I was concerned about any deviation from the plan or the safety of the ship I would
call the Master
4. Records are necessary to establish trends. Without records it is not possible to know
when an instrument has an error, if I have made a mistake or if the ship is out of
position or steering a wrong course
5. The course alteration should take place at a time when it is safe in terms of the position
of the ship and the traffic in the area. If the OOW is in doubt as to when he can
accomplish this course alteration he should inform the Master of the circumstances
6. Monitoring ground speed and revolutions

Warning that the tide is changing
7. The gangway was up and clear of obstructions

The vessel was singled up
No pipes, hoses, nets, telephone lines or cables were connected to the shore
Cranes, chicksans, derricks, gantries and other cargo related equipment was clear
8. Rule 9 states that a vessel proceeding along the course of a narrow channel or fairway
should keep as near to the outer limit of the channel or fairway, which lies on the
starboard side, as is safe and practicable. Other small vessels shall not impede my
passage but I would keep a vigilant lookout to avoid collision in a crossing situation.
Rule 10 states that I shall proceed in the appropriate traffic lane in the direction of
traffic flow for that lane. If there is crossing traffic I must comply with the rules for
vessels in sight of one another, or in fog comply with Rule 19
9. The Rules requires fog signals to be sounded

It is quite common for ship's radars to break down and there arc many small vessels
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE , — 170 -

and leisure craft which do not have radar and may not be seen on my radar. Sounding
the whistle or fog horn is the only way they can detect our presence
10. This varies from ship to ship in still water but the information for your ship should be
available on board. It is usually much further than originally thought. Having
obtained the answer, note it in the answer column and compare it with other ships.
11. If there was an emergency I would call the Master to the bridge immediately and
explain the situation when he arrived. For routine items I would be prepared in
advance giving a summary of the circumstances for making the call
12. Note down what the International Convention states in Article 27 Annex 2
13. Gyro Course 092°, Compass Course 098°
14. Only in real emergencies where there is no time to telephone or sound the whistle. The
most likely times to sound the alarm would be when the OOW needs urgent assistance
or when the vessel is in immediate danger and when other methods of calling
personnel are inadequate
15. The helmsman or the automatic pilot is steering the correct course
The standard compass error is determined at least once a watch and, when possible,
after any major alteration of the course; the standard and gyro compass are frequently
compared and repeaters are synchronized with their master compass
The automatic pilot is tested manually at least once a watch
The navigation and signal lights and other navigational equipment arc functioning
fix the ship's position
The change-over from automatic to manual steering and vice-versa should be made
by, or under the supervision of, a responsible officer
The alertness of the lookout
Changes in the weather and barometric pressure
Wea ther forecasts
16. Slips and lapses, knowledge based mistakes, violations of rules and instructions and
incorrect responses due to cultural conditioning
17. I would call the Master in accorda nee wi th instructions. I would post a lookout to assist
with searching for other vessels and fishing vessels in the vicinity
I would have thedepth recorder runningand the maximum number of radars running
I would ensure that the GPS was working. If there was a problem with other
equipment I would consider using the radio direction finder
I would follow the policy on the closing of water tight doors
18. Getting local navigation warnings
19. By familiarising myself with the intended pilotage passage and the tracks laid down
on the chart in accordance with the pilot's briefing
I would then know the intended courses to be steered and I could then establish the
ship's speed and monitor progress
I would independently fix the ship's position and note the times of passing buoys
I would note the distance off radar conspicuous land
I would monitor the depth recorder against the chart
1 would observe traffic
20. The STCW Convention resolution on Bridge Watchkccping (Annex 2)

Company navigational instructions
171 BRIDGE WATCHKEEP1NG

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What are the main responsibilities of the officer on watch?

What are the main responsibilities of the officer on watch?

What should be checked regularly during a watch?

What should be checked regularly during a watch?

BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

Chapter 1 Preparing for sea 9—20

SAQ ANSWERS 170—179

THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE —2—

Co-ordinator — Captain D.G.T.Greenhalgh MNI

Shore based Sea going

Captain G.T.Davis ExC FNI Mr A.Clarke MNI

Mr F.S.Greenfield MNI Captain D.Goddard MNI

Captain N.H.Malpass MNI Mr J.REvans MNI

Captain J.L.C.Milne ExC MNI Captain D.C.Kettlety FNI

Mr K.A.Parsons MNI Captain M.R.Powell MNI

Captain A.J.Swift MNI Mr J.G.Preston AMNI

Captain W.N.Seybold FNI Captain P.J.D.Russell FNI

—3— BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

A message from the Secretary General of the IMO

"Watchkeeping officers, through their diligence and professionalism,

—5— BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

by Captain L.A.Holder, ExC MPhil FNI

Competence in navigation and seamanship is based upon a sound

It is surprising that there are so few books on watchkeeping. Part of the

Bridge Watchkeeping is part of a programme of videos and training

This study guide has brought together a team of experienced masters

THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE —6—

Welcome to this study guide on Bridge Watchkeeping. It has been

It is designed to pass on practical advice by senior officers in the hope

Aim of the Guide

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

An example of a self-assessment question

THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE —8—

The ship in port

Supplementary activities might include the loading of stores, security,

The need for systematic testing

The need for seamanship

The command structure

—9— BRIDGE WATCHKEEPING

The responsibility of the OOW

"The officer in charge of the navigational watch is the master's

Testing the gear

Preparations in the engine room and engine control room

(text continued on page 15)

THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE •10 —

2. The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea are to be

3. If you are in doubt as to another vessel's intentions, or if the bearing of

4 In reduced visibility immediately comply with international regulations.

5 If severe line squalls or freak meteorological phenomena such as

6 Watchkeepers are to use all means and opportunities in order to

8 At sea, gyro and magnetic compasses are to be compared frequently and

9 All incoming radio or VHP warnings are to be drawn to the attention of

11 All OOWs are to familiarise themselves with the section on tropical

12 UNDER PILOTAGE. An accurate record of the ship's passage (passing

13 AT ANCHORAGE. Use any or all of the navigational aids to monitor the

14 Most anchorages, however sheltered, can become untenable in a very

THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE — 12-

Date Date. Date

THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE — 14-