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Fundamentals of Criminology
New Dimensions

Kelly Frailing
Dee Wood Harper

Carolina Academic Press

Durham, North Carolina
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Copyright © 2013
Carolina Academic Press
All Rights Reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Frailing, Kelly.
Fundamentals of criminology : new dimensions / Kelly Frailing and Dee Wood
Harper.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-59460-690-8 (alk. paper)
1. Criminology. I. Harper, Dee Wood. II. Title.

HV6025.F73 2013
364--dc23

2013017674

Carolina Academic Press

700 Kent Street
Durham, North Carolina 27701
Telephone (919) 489-7486
Fax (919) 493-5668
www.cap-press.com

Printed in the United States of America

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Contents

List of Tables and Figures xv

Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxiii

Part I • Introduction

Chapter 1 • Introduction 3
What Is Crime? 3
Types of Crime 4
What Is Criminal Law? 5
Normative Systems 5
Changing Times, Changing Laws? 7
What Is Criminology? 7
The Evolution of Criminology 8
Codified Laws and Prescribed Punishments 8
The Emergence of Classical Criminology (1700s) 9
The Emergence of Positive Criminology (1800s) 12
Box 1.1 Sir Francis Galton: Overlooked in Criminology? 12
Box 1.2 The Criminal Mind 15
The Precursors of Sociological Criminology (1800s) 16
The Emergence of Criminology as Its Own Discipline 19
A Word about Theory 19
Box 1.3 A Timeline of Criminology 20
Conclusion 21
Websites to Visit 22
Discussion Questions 22
References 23

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vi CONTENTS

Chapter 2 • How Much Crime Is There, and How Do We Study It? 27

Introduction 27
Official Crime Statistics 27
The Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) 27
Box 2.1 The Crime Rate 30
The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) 30
Victimization Statistics 32
The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) 32
Self-Report Surveys 33
International Crime Data Sources 35
Research Designs in Criminology 36
Secondary Analysis and Record Reviews 37
Surveys 38
Field Research 39
Longitudinal Studies 40
Meta-Analysis 41
Conclusion 43
Websites to Visit 43
Discussion Questions 44
References 44

Part II • Theories and Correlates of Crime

Chapter 3 • Why Do They Do It? Psychosocial and Biosocial Answers 51

Introduction 51
Psychosocial Theories of Crime 52
Intelligence and Crime 52
Box 3.1 The Heritability of Antisocial Behavior and Eugenics 52
Traits and Crime 53
Psychopathy and Crime 58
Box 3.2 Is Psychopathy a Mental Illness? 61
Biosocial Theories of Crime 61
Body Type and Appearance 62
Brain Dysfunction 63
Arousal 63
Neurochemistry 65
Box 3.3 What about Testosterone? 65
Genetics 66
Strengths and Weaknesses of Psychosocial and Biosocial Theories of Crime 67
Conclusion: Policy Implications of Psychosocial and Biosocial Theories 68
Websites to Visit 69
Discussion Questions 69
References 70
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CONTENTS vii

Chapter 4 • Why Do They Do It? Social Structural Answers 75

Introduction 75
Social Disorganization 75
Research on Social Disorganization 78
Strengths and Weaknesses of Social Disorganization 80
Anomie/Strain 80
Institutional Anomie Theory 81
Classic Strain Theory 82
General Strain Theory 83
Research on Anomie/Strain 85
Strengths and Weaknesses of Anomie/Strain 86
Subcultural Theories 87
Gangs 90
Research on Subcultural Theories 91
Strengths and Weaknesses of Subcultural Theories 92
Conclusion: Policy Implications of Social Structural Perspectives 92
Social Disorganization 92
Anomie/Strain 93
Subcultural 94
Websites to Visit 96
Discussion Questions 96
References 96

Chapter 5 • Why Do They Do It? Social Process Answers 103

Introduction 103
Differential Association/Social Learning 103
Research on Differential Association/Social Learning 106
Strengths and Weaknesses of Differential Association/Social Learning 107
Social Control 108
Research on Social Control 109
Strengths and Weaknesses of Social Control 109
Self-Control 110
Research on Self-Control 111
Box 5.1 How Is Self-Control Measured? 112
Strengths and Weaknesses of Self-Control 113
Labeling 114
Research on Labeling 114
Strengths and Weaknesses of Labeling 116
Neutralization 116
Research on Neutralization 117
Strengths and Weaknesses of Neutralization 117
Conclusion: Policy Implications of Social Process Perspectives 118
Differential Association/Social Learning 118
Social Control 119
Self-Control 119
Labeling and Neutralization 120
Websites to Visit 121
Discussion Questions 121
References 121
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viii CONTENTS

Chapter 6 • Why Do They Do It? Critical Answers 129

Introduction 129
Marxist Criminology 129
Early Marxist Criminology 130
Modern Marxist Criminology 130
Research on Marxist Criminology 132
Strengths and Weaknesses of Marxist Criminology 133
Conflict Criminology 134
Research on Conflict Criminology 135
Box 6.1 Green Criminology and the Ecocidal Tendencies
of Late Modernity 136
Strengths and Weaknesses of Conflict Criminology 137
Peacemaking Criminology 137
Research on Peacemaking Criminology 139
Strengths and Weaknesses of Peacemaking Criminology 140
Feminist Criminology 140
Liberation Perspective 142
Patriarchy Perspective 143
Maleness and Crime 143
Research on Feminist Criminology 143
Strengths and Weaknesses of Feminist Criminology 144
Conclusion: Policy Implications of Critical Theories 145
Marxist Criminology 145
Conflict Criminology 145
Peacemaking Criminology 146
Feminist Criminology 146
Websites to Visit 147
Discussion Questions 147
References 147

Chapter 7 • Why Do They Do It? A Lifetime of Answers 153

Introduction 153
Robert Agnew’s General Theory of Crime and Delinquency 156
Research on Robert Agnew’s General Theory of Crime and Delinquency 159
Strengths and Weaknesses of Robert Agnew’s General Theory of
Crime and Delinquency 160
David Farrington’s Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential (ICAP) Theory 160
Research on David Farrington’s Integrated Cognitive Antisocial
Potential (ICAP) Theory 162
Strengths and Weaknesses of David Farrington’s Integrated Cognitive
Antisocial Potential (ICAP) Theory 164
Terrie Moffitt’s Dual Pathway Developmental Theory 165
Research on Terrie Moffitt’s Dual Pathway Developmental Theory 167
Strengths and Weaknesses of Terrie Moffitt’s Dual
Pathway Developmental Theory 170
Robert Sampson and John Laub’s Life-Course Theory 171
Research on Robert Sampson and John Laub’s Life-Course Theory 174
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CONTENTS ix

Strengths and Weaknesses of Robert Sampson and John Laub’s

Life-Course Theory 175
Conclusion: Policy Implications of Developmental Theories 176
The Individual Domain 176
The Family Domain 177
The Environmental Domain 178
Summary of Criminological Theories So Far 181
Websites to Visit 183
Discussion Questions 183
References 184

Chapter 8 • The Pushes and Pulls of Crime 191

Introduction 191
The Pushes: Covariates of Crime 192
Social Class 192
Box 8.1 The Culture of Poverty: A Double Edged Sword? 193
Gender 194
Race 196
Age 198
Drugs 199
Box 8.2 What Are Drug Related Homicides, Anyway? 200
Mental Illness 201
Box 8.3 What about Veterans and PTSD? 202
Guns 202
The Pulls: Seductions of Crime 203
Enriching Oneself in the Short Term 204
Proving Manhood 205
Demanding Respect 206
Conclusion 207
Websites to Visit 207
Discussion Questions 208
References 208

Part III • Where, When and to Whom Does Crime Happen?

Chapter 9 • Crime in Context: Choices and Opportunities to Offend 215

Introduction 215
Deterrence Theory: Setting the Stage for Rational Choice 215
Choice and Crime: Rational Choice Theory 218
Research on Rational Choice Theory 220
Strengths and Weaknesses of Rational Choice Theory 222
Opportunity and Crime: Routine Activity Theory 222
Research on Routine Activity Theory 224
Strengths and Weaknesses of Routine Activity Theory 225
Settings and Crime: Situational Crime Prevention 226
Research on Situational Crime Prevention 226
Strengths and Weaknesses of Situational Crime Prevention 227
Situational Action Theory 228
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x CONTENTS

Spatial Distribution of Crime: Hot Spots and Broken Windows 229

Hot Spots 229
Broken Windows 231
Criminal Opportunity in Context: Disasters 232
9/11 233
Hurricane Katrina 233
Other Disasters 236
Other Criminal Opportunity 237
White Collar Crime 237
Political Crime 238
Cybercrime 239
Organized Criminal Enterprises 241
Box 9.1 Organized Retail Crime? What’s That? 242
Conclusion: Policy Implications of Choice and Opportunity
Theories of Crime 243
Websites to Visit 243
Discussion Questions 244
References 244

Chapter 10 • The Victims of Crime 253

Introduction 253
Who Is Victimized? 253
Child Abuse 256
Box 10.1 What about Recurring Victimization? 257
Bullying 258
Workplace Violence 259
Box 10.2 Are Schools Safe Places? 260
Box 10.3 Going Postal? 260
Hate Crime Victims 261
Box 10.4 Hate Crimes against the Amish . . . by the Amish 262
Theories of Victimization 262
Victim Precipitation Theory 262
Routine Activity and Lifestyle Theories 263
Box 10.5 Tourism: A Risky Lifestyle? 263
Changing Perspectives on Victims of Crime 264
The Problems of Crime Victims 264
Legislation and Services to Assist Victims 265
Box 10.6 Some Other Legislation Designed to Assist Victims 266
Conclusion 267
Websites to Visit 267
Discussion Questions 267
References 268
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CONTENTS xi

Part IV • Explanation of Crime Types

Chapter 11 • Violent Crime 273

Introduction 273
Murder 273
Multiple Murder 277
Homicide-Suicide 279
Rape 280
Defining and Measuring Rape 281
Statutory Rape 283
Motives for Rape: Sex or Power? 283
Evolution of Rape Definitions and Laws 284
Box 11.1 Stalking: An Intimate Problem 285
Robbery 286
Aggravated Assault 289
“New” Forms of Violence 291
Domestic Violence 291
Human Trafficking 293
Terrorism 294
Box 11.2 Terrorism: In the Eye of the Beholder? 294
Conclusion: Theoretical Explanations of Violent Crime 296
Websites to Visit 297
Discussion Questions 297
References 297

Chapter 12 • Property Crime 303

Introduction 303
A Brief History of Property Crime 303
The Wide Variety of Theft 305
Types of UCR Larceny-Theft: Shoplifting 307
Types of UCR Larceny-Theft: Pocket Picking and Purse Snatching 311
Not Part I UCR Property Crimes, but Theft Just the Same:
Forgery, Fraud, Embezzlement and Looting 312
Burglary and Related Crimes 317
Box 12.1 Did My House Get Robbed While I Was at Work?
Disentangling Robbery and Burglary 321
Motor Vehicle Theft 321
Box 12.2 What about Carjacking? 325
Crimes that Cause Property Damage: Arson and Vandalism 326
Box 12.3 Cyber Vandalism: Is That Even a Thing? 330
Conclusion: Theoretical Explanations of Property Crime 330
Websites to Visit 331
Discussion Questions 331
References 332
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xii CONTENTS

Chapter 13 • White and Other Collar Crime 337

Introduction 337
White Collar Crime 337
Types and Examples of White Collar Crime: Occupational and
Professional Occupational Crime 339
Pink Collar Crime 339
Types and Examples of White Collar Corporate Crime 342
Corporate Theft and Fraud 342
Box 13.1 Corporate Theft and Fraud in the Late 1990s and Early 2000s 345
Corporate Violence 346
Theories of White Collar Crime 349
Khaki Collar Crime 353
Conclusion 356
Websites to Visit 357
Discussion Questions 357
References 357

Chapter 14 • Public Order Crime and Criminalized Lifestyles 363

Introduction 363
The Extent of Public Order Crime 363
Alcohol 365
Box 14.1 The Evolution of Blue Laws 366
Drugs 366
Box 14.2 Before the Harrison Act 367
Box 14.3 Where Is Marijuana Legalized? 371
Prostitution 373
The Criminalization of Some Lifestyles 375
Homosexuality 376
Box 14.4 Is There an Epigenetic Basis for Homosexuality? 378
Pedophilia 379
Box 14.5 Jerry Sandusky 380
Box 14.6 The North American Man/Boy Love Association (NAMBLA) 381
Child Pornography 382
Homelessness 385
Box 14.7 A Police Initiative to Aid the Homeless 386
Mental Illness 386
Conclusion 388
Theoretical Explanations of Public Order Crime 388
Criminalized Lifestyles 388
Websites to Visit 388
Discussion Questions 389
References 389
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CONTENTS xiii

Part V • Connecting Criminology and Criminal Justice

Chapter 15 • What Criminology Means for Criminal Justice

Now and in the Future 395
Introduction 395
Criminology and Criminal Justice Policymaking: Punishment 395
Box 15.1 Three Strikes and You’re Out Laws 397
Criminology and Criminal Justice Policymaking: Prevention 401
Criminology and Criminal Justice Policymaking: Rehabilitation 403
Box 15.2 What about Drug Courts? 404
Some Lingering Issues for Criminology and Criminal Justice 406
Changing Crime Rates in the United States 406
Box 15.3 The United States’ Imprisonment Rate: How and Why? 409
Gun Control 413
Box 15.4 Conceal Carry Laws and Crime 414
Box 15.5 What about Gun Marketing? 416
Wider Legalization of Prostitution and Drugs 418
Sex Offender Policies 420
Box 15.6 Confinement of Sexually Violent Predators 423
The Death Penalty 424
Conclusion 426
Websites to Visit 427
Discussion Questions 427
References 428

Appendix • Details of the Major Theories of Crime Causation 441

About the Authors 447

Index 449
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List of Tables and Figures

Tables
Table 2.1. Uniform Crime Reports Part I and II offenses 28
Table 2.2. NIBRS Group A and B offenses 31

Table 3.1. A summary of Miller and Lynam’s (2001) personality

models and dimensions 55
Table 3.2. Description of MPQ scales and higher order categories 57
Table 3.3. Summary of personality traits associated with crime 58
Table 3.4. Diagnostic criteria for antisocial personality disorder from
two recent versions of the DSM 59

Table 4.1. Merton’s strategies and responses to goals and means 83

Table 5.1. Characteristics of high and low self-control individuals 111

Table 7.1. Risk and protective factors across life stages and domains 155
Table 7.2. Selected interventions that prevent crime 180
Table 7.3. Brief summary of criminological theories 182

Table 8.1. Percent of arrestees testing positive for any of 10 drugs, 2009 199

Table 9.1. Disaster phases 234

Table 9.2. Instances of fraud after three disasters 236
Table 9.3. Assassins, targets and categories 238

Table 10.1. Demographic characteristics of violent and serious violent

crime victims, 2011 254
Table 10.2. Percentage of victimizations reported to the police by type
and seriousness of crime, 2011 255
Table 10.3. Characteristics of those likely to be bullied and to bully 258

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xvi LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 10.4. Warning signs for bullying and being bullied 259
Table 10.5. Tangible and intangible costs per offense for each of 13 crimes
in 2008 dollars 265

Table 11.1. Multiple murder types and definitions 277

Table 11.2. Holmes and DeBurger’s (1998) typology of serial
killers with examples 279
Table 11.3. The characteristics of homicide- suicides compared to
homicides and suicides in the United States, 2004–2006 279

Table 12.1. Shoplifters’ motivations 308

Table 12.2. Some small and big cons 316
Table 12.3. Motor vehicle theft top ten cities and cars 321

Table 13.1. Some pink collar criminals 341

Table 14.1. Number of arrests and arrestee characteristics for public

order crimes in the U.S., 2011 364
Table 14.2. DEA’s drug schedules 370
Table 14.3. The legal status of prostitution around the world 374
Table 14.4. A typology of child pornography offenders 384

Figures
Figure 2.1. Percent of 8th, 10th and 12th graders who used marijuana
in the last year 34

Figure 3.1. Hare’s Psychopathy Checklist Revised (PCL- R) 60

Figure 4.1. Burgess’ concentric zone concept 76

Figure 4.2. Social disorganization theory 78
Figure 4.3. Graphic illustration of GST 84
Figure 4.4. Some currently active gangs in the United States by region 91

Figure 5.1. The labeling process and its outcomes 115

Figure 6.1. Number of men and women arrested for Part I UCR crimes
in the U.S. in 2010 141

Figure 7.1. Effects of life domains on one another and on crime 158
Figure 7.2. Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential (ICAP) theory 163
Figure 7.3. Dual pathway developmental theory 168
Figure 7.4. Life-course theory 173

Figure 9.1. A rational choice explanation for a specific crime 219

Figure 9.2. Routine activity theory 223
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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES xvii

Figure 11.1. Murder, rape, robbery and aggravated assault rates in the
United States per 100,000, 1960–2011 274
Figure 11.2. Murder rate per 100,000 in the United States, 1960–2011 275
Figure 11.3. Number of arrests for murder by age in the United States, 2011 276
Figure 11.4. Percent of relationships between murder offenders and victims
(where the relationship is known, 56 percent of murders)
in the United States, 2011 276
Figure 11.5. Number of arrests for rape by age in the United States, 2011 282
Figure 11.6. Percent of robberies committed by location in the
United States, 2011 286
Figure 11.7. Number of arrests for robbery by age in the United States, 2011 287
Figure 11.8. Percent of weapons used in aggravated assaults in the
United States, 2011 290
Figure 11.9. Number of arrests for aggravated assault by age in the
United States, 2011 290

Figure 12.1. Property and violent crime rates in the United States per
100,000, 1960–2011 305
Figure 12.2. Larceny- theft, burglary, motor vehicle theft and arson rates in the
United States per 100,000, 1960–2011 306
Figure 12.3. Percent of different larceny- theft in the United States, 2011 306
Figure 12.4. Number of arrests for larceny- theft by age in the
United States, 2011 307
Figure 12.5. Percent of daytime and nighttime residential and commercial
burglaries in the United States, 2011 317
Figure 12.6. Number of arrests for burglary by age in the United States, 2011 318
Figure 12.7. Number of arrests for motor vehicle theft by age in the
United States, 2011 322
Figure 12.8. Percent of arson offenses involving structures, mobile and
other property 326
Figure 12.9. Number of arrests for arson by age in the United States, 2011 327
Figure 12.10. Number of arrests for vandalism by age in the
United States, 2011 328

Figure 13.1. Percent of men and women arrested for embezzlement in the
United States, 1995–2011 340

Figure 15.1. Violent crime rate in the United States per 100K, 1960–2011 406
Figure 15.2. Property crime rate in the United States per 100K, 1960–2011 407
Figure 15.3. Homicide rate in the United States per 100K, 1960–2011 407
Figure 15.4. Homicide rate for New Orleans, LA and the United States
per 100,000, 1985–2011 408
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Preface

There is a large number of criminology textbooks out there and a smaller yet still
sizable number of excellent books, so why add another into the mix and why call it
Fundamentals of Criminology: New Dimensions?
We believe that this book well captures the fundamentals of criminology through
its descriptions of the extent of crime, major theories of crime causation and crime
types. While many criminology textbooks do this, there are several things that set Fun-
damentals of Criminology: New Dimensions apart from other criminology texts. First,
for each theory of crime, we provide a description of the tenets of the theory as well as
a discussion of empirical research that tests the theory in a variety of settings; an
evaluation of each theory’s strengths and weaknesses; and an explanation of its policy
implications. We take care to introduce readers to that empirical research that supports
or does not support the theories of crime causation, we include empirical research that
attempts to extend the theories of crime in new directions and in both instances, we
refer to both past and very current empirical work. We believe this, in combination
with a discussion of strengths and weaknesses and policy implications, assists readers
in understanding each theory of crime in and of itself and in relation to the others, as
well as what these theories mean for the real world. Providing this assistance is all the
more important for readers who have had little to no exposure to theories of crime
causation prior to opening this book and to that end, we also created a useful Appendix
summarizing the details of the major theories of crime.
Second, we provide the most up-to-date information on crime commission in our
descriptions of the different types of crime as well as changes in the amounts over time.
This assists readers in understanding the extent of the crime problem as a whole and
as broken down into specific offenses, as well as the characteristics of people involved
in crime both as offenders and as victims. Third, we devote a lengthy chapter to the
connection between criminological theory and the criminal justice system, in which
we consider the theoretical bases for punishment, prevention and rehabilitation and
how they are connected to the criminal justice system. We also consider a handful of
lingering issues for criminology and criminal justice that make the connection between
these two disciplines explicit and comprehensible for readers. Throughout the book,

xix
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xx PREFACE

we attempt to connect relevant concepts in a way that makes it easier for readers to
obtain a complete and comprehensive picture of criminology. We also provide some
historical context so that readers may draw on what they already know to better
understand the concepts in this book.
That explains the Fundamentals of Criminology, but what about the New Dimensions?
There are a number of different concepts we explore in this book that to our knowledge
are absent from the majority if not all other introductory criminology texts. We include
them not just to be able to subtitle this book New Dimensions but to give readers the
richest, most complete understanding of what crime is, how much of it there is, what
causes it and what we can do to stop it. These new dimensions include but are not
limited to research designs in criminology, new theories of crime causation, crime in
different contexts, connections between criminology and criminal justice policy and a
number of lingering issues for both disciplines. In more detail, the new dimensions of
this book include:

Sir Francis Galton Tangible and intangible costs of

The criminal mind and the concept of victimization
mens rea Homicide-suicide
International data sources Cyber vandalism
Criminologists’ commonly used Pink collar crime
methodological techniques Khaki collar crime
Crime control through eugenics Criminalized lifestyles
The Jukes family Theoretical basis for crime punishment,
The Grasmick scale for measuring prevention and rehabilitation
self-control Explanations for changes in the crime
Green Criminology rate
The pushes and pulls of crime Gun control and crime
Situational action theory Wider legalization of prostitution and
Organized retail crime its effect on crime

Crime and disasters Wider legalization of drugs and its effect

on crime
Active shooter situations
Sex offender policies
Hate crimes and victims
The death penalty and deterrence

The Organization of This Book

This book is organized into five parts. Naturally, we begin at the beginning. Part I
provides introductory material and Chapter 1 addresses what crime is, how society
responds to crime and what criminology is. Chapter 2 raises and answers the related
questions of how much crime is there and how we study it.
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PREFACE xxi

Part II of the book deals with theories and correlates of crime. Here we ask the
question why do they do it and we find myriad answers, including psychosocial and
biosocial answers (Chapter 3), social structural answers, social process answers (Chapter
5), critical answers (Chapter 6) and a lifetime of answers (Chapter 7). We conclude this
section with a thorough treatment of the pushes and pulls of crime (Chapter 8).
Part III ask the questions where, when and to whom does crime happen. Chapter
9 considers the contexts in which choices to offend are made and opportunities for
offending are present. In Chapter 10, we cover the nature and extent of criminal vic-
timization as well as consider explanatory theories.
Part IV is an explanation of crime types beginning with violent crimes (Chapter
11), including both traditional and new forms of violence and a discussion of their
causes. Our explanation of property crime in Chapter 12 begins with a brief history of
stealing and continues with what we know about the many forms of theft and the people
who engage in it. Chapter 13 explores white and other collar crime and shows how
different positions people hold in the workplace and other organizations, especially the
military, give rise to different forms of criminality. In Chapter 14, we discuss public
order crimes as well as the criminalization of certain lifestyles.
Finally, Part V connects criminology and criminal justice in a variety of areas such
as punishment, crime prevention and rehabilitation. It also explores lingering issues
that have implications for both criminology and criminal justice. We conclude in Chapter
15 that these need to be addressed forthrightly lest the criminological enterprise ring
hollow. We believe this text will provide those who read it with a thorough understanding
of what crime is, what causes it and what can be done about it, as well as the ability
and desire to pose important questions for the future of both criminology and criminal
justice.
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Acknowledgments

To my husband Jay and my daughter Matilda, thank you for your enduring love
and support through this seemingly endless process. You are my treasures. I am grateful
to Kristian Hernandez for his tireless research assistance as well as to my colleagues and
students at Texas A&M International University for their patience and flexibility. Of
course this book would not have been possible if not for the good people at Carolina
Academic Press, who have our appreciation.
To my wife, Daniele Denis who is forever my bride. I am grateful to the Department
of Criminal Justice and my colleagues William E. Thornton, Shauna Rae Taylor, Bethany
Brown, Brenda Vollman, Vincenzo Sainato, David Khey and Christian Bolden for their
collegiality and the College of Social Sciences at Loyola University New Orleans for con-
tinuing to provide me with an office to do my research and writing.

xxiii