LECTURE #29

Introduction
o Whenever the TX capacity of a medium linking 2 devices is greater than the TX
needs of the devices, the link can be shared
o Example: Large Water pipe can carry water to several separate houses at once
o Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows simultaneous TX of multiple signals
across a single data link
o As data communication usage increases, traffic also increases
o We can add a new line each time a new channel is needed
o Or we can install higher capacity links and use each to carry multiple signals
o All current TX media i.e. Coax, Optical fiber have high available BWs
o Each of these has carrying capacity far in excess of that needed for one signal
o If TX capacity of a link is greater than the TX needs of devices attached to it, the
excess capacity is wasted
Multiplexing
Set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link”

In the multiplexed system, „n‟ devices share the capacity of one link

o Fig. shows two possible ways of linking 4 pairs of device

o In fig. (a), each pair has its own link. If full capacity of each link is not utilized, it
will be wasted
o In fig. (b), TX b/w pairs are multiplexed . The same 4 pairs share the capacity of
single link
o Fig. (b) shows the basic format of a Multiplexed system
o The 4 devices on left direct their TX streams to a MUX , which combines them
into a single stream
o At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a DEMUX, which separates the
stream back into its component transmissions and directs them to their intended
devices
•Path: Physical Link
•Channel: A portion of the path that carries TX b/w a given pair of devices
•One path can have many channels
• Categories of Multiplexing

Y FDM
o An analog technique that can be applied when BW of the link is greater than the
combined BW of the signals to be TX
o Signals generated by each sending device modulate difference carrier frequencies
o These modulated signals are then combined into a single Composite signal that
can be transported by the link
o Carrier frequencies are separated by enough BW to accommodate the modulated
signal
o These BW ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel

FDM (Guard Bands)

•GUARD BANDS: Channels must be separated by strips of unused BW (guard
bands) to prevent signals from Overlapping

o In fig. the TX path is divided into 3 parts, each representing a channel to carry one
TX
o As an analogy, imagine a point where 3 narrow streets merge to form a 3-lane
highway
 o Each of these streets correspond to a lane of the highway
o Each car merging on to the highway from one of these streets still has its own lane
and can travel w/o interfering with cars from other lanes

The FDM Process-TIME DOMAIN

o Figure shows a Time domain fdm

o FDM is an analog process and we show it here in using Telephones as I/p & o/p
devices
o Each telephone generates a signal of similar frequency range
o Inside the MUX, these similar signals are modulated on to different carrier
frequencies
o The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal
that is sent over a media link that has enough BW to accommodate it

The FDM Process-Freq domain

o Fig is freq domain representation of FDM process

o In FDM, signals are modulated onto separate carrier frequencies (f1,f2,f3) using either
FM or AM
o Modulating one signal into the other results in a BW of at least twice the original
o In fig, the BW of resulting composite signal is more than 3 times the BW of each
input signal
o Plus extra BW to allow for necessary GUARD BANDS

• DEMULTIPLEXING
o DEMUX uses a series of filters to decompose multiplexed signal into its
constituent signals
o Individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them to the
carriers and passes them to the waiting receivers

DEMULTIPLEXING (Time Domain)

This figure is the time domain representation of the FDM MUX again using 3 telephones
as the communication devices

DEMULTIPLEXING (Freq Domain)

This figure is the time domain representation of the FDM MUX again using 3 telephones
as the communication devices

Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o It is conceptually the same as FDM except that multiplexing and demultiplexing
involves light signals TX through fiber optic channels
o Idea is the same: We are combining different signals of the different frequencies
o However in this case frequencies are very high

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 o WDM MUX and DEMUX
o Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider
band of light
o At the receiver are separated by DEMUX

Y Mechanism of WDM
o Although the technology is very complex, the idea is very simple
o We want to combine multiple sources into one single light at the the MUX
and do the reverse at the DEMUX

PRISM
o Combining and Splitting of light sources is easily handled by a PRISM
o From Physics, a prism can deflect the light depending upon the angle of incidence
and the frequency

o Using this technique, a MUX can be made to combine several input beams of light
each containing a narrow band of frequencies into one o/p beam of a wider band
of frequencies
o The DEMUX can also be made to reverse the process

TDM
o TDM is a digital process that can be applied when the data rate capacity of the TX
medium is greater than the data rate required by the sending and receiving devices

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 o In such case, multiple transmissions can occupy a single link by subdividing them
and Interleaving the portions

In fig, same link is used as in FDM. However, here the link is shown sectioned by time
rather than frequency In TDM fig, portions of signals 1, 2, 3 and 4 occupy the link
sequentially

Y Implementation of TDM
TDM can be implemented in two ways:
–Synchronous TDM
–Asynchronous TDM
Y Synchronous TDM
o The term synchronous has a different from that used in other areas of
telecommunication
o Here synchronous means that MUX allocates exactly the same time slot to
each device at all device whether or not the device has any thing to transmit

Y Synchronous TDM Example

o Time slot A for example is assigned to device A alone and cannot be used by
any other device
o Each time its allocated time slot comes up a device has the opportunity to send
a portion of its data
o If a device is unable to transmit or does not have data to send time slot
remains empty

Y Synchronous TDM Frames

o Time slots are grouped into Frames
o A frame consists of one complete cycle of Time slots including one or more
slots dedicated to each sending device
o In a system with „n‟ I/p lines, each frame has atleast „n‟ slots with each slot
allocated to carrying data from a specific I/p line
o If all the I/p devices sharing a link are transmitting at the same data rate, each
device has 1 timeslot per frame
o However it is possible to accommodate varying data rates
o A TX with two slots per frame will arrive twice as quickly as one with 1 slot
per frame

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 o The time slots dedicated to a given device occupy the same location in each
frame and constitute that device‟s channel

o In figure, we have 5 I/p lines Multiplexed onto a single path using

synchronous TDM
o In this example all of the I/p‟s have the same data rate, so the number of time
slots in each frame is equal to the number of I/p lines

Interleaving
o Synchronous TDM can be compared to a very fast rotating switch
o As the switch opens in front of a device, the device has the opportunity to send a
specifies amount of data on to the path
o The switch moves from device to device at a constant rate and in a fixed order
o This process is called INTERLEAVING
o Interleaving can be done by BITS, BYTES or by any other DATA UNIT
o In other words MUX can take one byte from each device, then another byte from each
device and so on
o In a given system interleaved units will always be of the same size

o Fig,, shows interleaving and frame building

o In the example we interleave the various TXs by character (equal to 1 byte each) but
the concept is the same for data units of any length
o Each device is sending a different message
o The MUX interleaves the different and forms them into FRAMES before putting them
onto the link
o At the receiver the DEMUX decomposes each frame by extracting each character

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o As a character is removed from a frame, it is passed to the appropriate receiving
device

Weakness of Synchronous TDM Figure

o Both figures point out major weakness in Synchronous TDM
o By assigning each timeslot to a specific I/p line, we end up with empty slots whenever
not all the lines are active
o In figure only the first three frames are completely filled, The last 3 frames have a
collective 6 empty slots
o Having 6 empty slots out of 24 means that a quarter of a capacity of the link is wasted
o Framing Bits
o Because the time slots order in a synchronous TDM does not vary from frame to
frame, very little overhead information need to be included in each frame
o The order of receipt tells the DEMUX where to direct each time slot so no
ADDRESSING is necessary

Demultiplexing Process
o Demultiplexer decomposes each frame by extracting each data unit in turn
o Weakness of synchronous TDM
–Waste of empty slots

Framing Bits
o Various factor however can cause timing inconsistencies.
o For this reason one or more synchronization bits are added to the beginning of each
frame
o These bits called Framing bits follow a pattern frame to frame that allows a DEMUX
to synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can separate time slots accurately
o This synch info consist of one bit /frame alternating b/w 0 and 1.

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Synchronous TDM Example

Summary
• Multiplexing
• Frequency division multiplexing
• Wave division multiplexing
• Time division multiplexing

Reading Sections
• Section 8.1,8.2,8.3,8.4
“Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan

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 LECTURE #30
Bit Stuffing
o It is possible to connect devices of different data rates to synchronous TDM
o For Example, device A uses one time slot, while the faster device B uses two slots
o The Time slot length is FIXED
o Therefore data rates should be integer multiples of each other
o For example, we can accommodate a device that is 5 times faster than the other device
by giving it five slots to one for each of the other devices
o We cannot accommodate a device which is five and a half times faster using this
method because we cannot introduce half a time slot into a frame
o When the speeds are not integer multiples of each other, they can be made to behave
as if they were
o This is done by a technique known as BIT STUFFING
o In bit stuffing, MUX adds extra bits to a device
o For Example, if we have one device with a bit rate of 2.75 times that of other devices,
we can add enough bits to raise this rate to 3 times that of others
o The extra bits are then discarded by the Demultiplexer

Asynchronous TDM
o Synchronous TDM does not guarantee full utilization of the timeslots
o Because the time slots are fixed and pre assigned, whenever a connected device is not
transmitting, the corresponding slot is empty and much of the channel capacity is
wasted
o For Example, imagine that we have multiplexed the o/p of 20 identical computers
onto a single line
o Using synchronous TDM, the speed of that line must be at least 20 times the speed of
each i/p line
o But what if only 10 computers are in use at a time?
o Half of the capacity of the line is wasted
o Asynchronous TDM or Statistical TDM is designed to avoid this type of waste
o Asynchronous means flexible or Not fixed
o In an asynchronous system, if we have „n‟ input lines, the frame contains no more
than „m‟ slots, where m is less than n

o In this way asynchronous TDM supports the same number of I/p lines as synchronous
TDM with a lower capacity link
o A slot is available to any device that wants to send data
o MUX scans I/p lines, accepts data until a frame is filled and then sends the frame
across the link

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 • Advantages of Asynchronous TDM

•Two major advantages:

–Ability to allocate time slots dynamically
–Lower ration of time slots to I/p lines
Above two factors greatly reduce the likelihood of a waste

o Fig. shows a system with 5 I/p lines sharing a link using Asynchronous TDM
o Frame size is 3 slots per frame
o Fig shows how MUX handles 3 levels of traffic

o In the first case, only 3 of the 5 computers have data to send

o In the second case, 4 lines are sending data
o In the third case, all devices are sending data
o In each case, MUX scans the devices in order from 1 to 5 filling time slots as it
encounters data to be sent
Y Asynchronous TDM Figure 1
o In the first case, the 3 active i/p lines correspond to the 3 slots in each frame
o For the first 4 frames, the I/p is symmetrically distributed among all the devices.
o By the 5th frame however, devices 3 and 5 have completed their transmission but
device 1 still has two characters to go

Y Asynchronous TDM Figure 2

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o The MUX picks up the A from device 1, scans down the line without finding another
transmission and returns to device 1 to pick up the last A
o There being no data to fill the final slot, the MUX then fills the 5th frame with only 2
slots filled
o Compare with Synchronous TX: 6 frames of 5 slots each would be required=30 slots,
14 slots used only
o In second case, there is one more I/p line than there are slots in each frame
o This time MUX scans from 1 to 5 and fills up a frame before each of the lines are
checked
o The first frame contains data from device 1, 3,and 4

Y Asynchronous TDM Figure 3

o MUX continues the scan and puts first portion of 5th device into the first slot of next
frame and so on
o When the number of active senders does not equal the number of slots in a frame, the
time slots are not filled symmetrically
o Device 1 occupies the first slot in the first frame , 2nd slot in second frame and so on
o In the third case, frames are filled as shown above
o All 5 I/p lines are active
o In this case device 1 occupies the 1st slot in the first frame, the 3rd slot in the second
frame and so on

Aspects of Asynchronous TDM

Y Addressing and Overhead
o Case 2 & 3 above show a major weakness of Asynchronous TDM
o How does the DEMUX know which slot belongs to which output line?
o As opposed to Synchronous TDM, in this case, data from a given device might be in
the first slot of one frame and in the third of the next
o Therefore, each time slot must carry an address telling the DEMUX how to direct data
o This address is for local use only attached by the MUX and detached by the DEMUX
o In the figure above address is specified by a digit
o Adding address bits to each time slot increase the overhead of an Asynchronous
system and limits its efficiency
o Addresses usually consist of only a small number of bits
o Need for Addressing makes Asynchronous TDM inefficient for bit or byte
interleaving
o Imagine bit interleaving with each bit carrying an address
o One bit of data plus 3 bits of address
o Asynchronous TDM is efficient only when the size of the time slot is kept relatively
large
Inverse Multiplexing
o Opposite of Multiplexing
o Takes data from one high speed line and breaks it into portions that can be sent over
several lower speed lines simultaneously

Why do we need Inverse Multiplexing?

o An organization wants to send data, voice and video each of which requires a
different data rate
o To send voice it needs 64Kbps,
o To send data, it needs 128 Kbps link

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 o To send video it may need 1.544 Mbps link
o It can lease a 1.544 Mbps line from a common carrier and only use it fully for
sometime
o Or it can lease several separate channels of lower data rates
o Voice can be sent over any of these channels
o Data & Video can be broken into smaller portions using Inverse Multiplexing
and TX

• Multiplexing Application

THE TELEPHONE SYSTEM

o Multiplexing has long been used as an essential tool in the Telephone industry
o A country‟s telephone system may include various carriers that offer local and
long-distance service
o These various carriers form a Telephone Network I.e. PTCL

•Each subscriber is connected to the telephone network as a service line

Summary
• Time Division Multiplexing
• Asynchronous TDM
• Inverse Multiplexing
• The Telephone System

Reading Sections
• Section 8.4,8.5 “Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz
A. Forouzan

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 LECTURE #31

Telephone Services

• Common carrier Services & Hierarchies

o Telephone companies began by providing their subscribers with ANALOG services

using ANALOG networks
o Later digital services were introduced
o Nowadays carriers are even thinking about changing their service lines digital too
o Soon the entire n/w will be digital
o For now both types of services are available and both FDM and TDM are in use

• Analog Services
o Of the many analog services available to telephone subscribers, two are really
important:
–Switched Analog Services
–Leased Analog Services
o Familiar dial up service most often encountered when using a home telephone
o Uses twisted pair cable to connect subscriber‟s phone to the network via exchange
o This connection is called LOCAL LOOP
o The n/w it joins is called PSTN
o Signal on a local loop is Analog and BW is usually b/w 0 and 4000 Hz

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 Switched Analog Services

With switched lines, caller dials a number and call is conveyed to a

series of switches at the exchange
The switch connects two lines for the duration of the call

Analog Leased Service

Offers customers the opportunity to lease a line, sometimes called a

Dedicated Line
Dedicated line is permanently connected to the other customer
Although the connection still passes through switches in the
exchange, the customer experiences it as a single line because
switch is always closed
No dialing is needed

Conditioned Lines

o Another service offered by the carriers

o Conditioning means improving the quality of a line by lessening attenuation, signal
distortion or delay distortion
o Conditional lines are Analog but their quality makes them suitable for digital data
communication when connected to Modems

Analog Hierarchy
o To maximize efficiency, telephone companies multiplex signal from lower BW lines
onto higher BW lines
o In this way many switched or leased lines can be combined into fewer but bigger
channels
o FDM is used for analog lines

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 • Digital Services
o Digital services are largely offered nowadays
o Digital services are less sensitive than analog ones
o Telephone line acts as an antenna and pick up noise both in case of analog and digital
TX
o In analog, both noise and signal are analog
o In digital, signal can easily be separated

Types of Digital Services

Switched / 56 Service
It is digital version of Analog switched line
Allows data rates of up to 56 Kbps
Both parties must subscribe to the service
A caller with normal telephone service cannot connect to a telephone or
computer with this service even with a Modem

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Because this service is already digital, subscribers do not need modems
They need DSU (Digital service unit)
DSU changes the rate of digital data created by the subscriber‟s device to
56 Kbps and encodes it in the format used by service provider

DSU is often included in dialing process

DSU is more expensive than Modem
So why would a subscriber pay for switched/56 service and DSU?
Because digital line has better speed, better quality and less susceptibility
to noise
Bandwidth on Demand

Digital Data Service (DDS)

Digital version of analog leased line
Max. data rate of 64 Kbps
Like switched/56, DDS requires a DSU
DSU for this service is cheaper than switched /56 DSU because it does not
need a dial pad

Digital Signal (DS) Service

Telephone companies saw the need to develop a hierarchy of digital
services much like those used for Analog services
The next step was DS service
DS is a hierarchy of digital signals

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 DS-0 resembles DDS. It is single digital channel of 64 Kbps
DS-1 is 1.544 Mbps service = 24 * 64 Kbps+8 Kbps of overhead DS-
2 -76.312 Mbps=96*64 Kbps + 168Kbps
DS-3 -744.376 Mbps=672*64Kbps +1.368 Mbps of overhead DS-
4 -7274.176Mbps4032 * 64 Kbps+ 16.128Mbps overhead

T Lines
o DS-0 DS1 are the names of the Services
o To implement those services, telephone companies use T-lines
o These are the lines with capacities matched to the data rates of DS-0 to DS-4

ServiceLine Rate(Mbps) Voice channels

--------------------------------------------------------
DS-1 T-1 1.544 24
DS-2 T-2 6.312 96
DS-3 T-3 44.736 672
DS-4 T-4 274.176 4032

Summary
• The Telephone System
• Analog Services
• Digital Services
• Fiber To The Curb (FTTC)

Reading Sections

• Section 8.5, “Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A.

Forouzan

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 LECTURE #32
T Lines
• T Lines for Analog Lines
o T Lines are digital lines designed for digital data
o However they can also be used for analog transmission (Telephone
connections)
o Analog signals are first sampled and the Time Multiplexed

Y T 1 Frame (Figure)
o DS-1 requires 8 Kbps of overhead
o To understand this overhead, lets examine format of a 24-voice channel frame
o Frame used on T-1 line is usually 193 bits divided into 24 slots of 8 bits each
+ 1 bit for synchronization (24*8+1=193)
o 24 segments are interleaved in one frame
o If a T-1 carries 8000 frames, the data rate is 1.544 Mbps (193 * 8000=1.544
Mbps) which is capacity of the line

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 Y Fractional T Lines (Figures)
o Many subscribers do not need the entire capacity of the T line
o For example, a small business may need only one-fourth of the capacity of a
T-1 line
o If four business of same size lie in same building, they can share a T-1 line
o DSU/CSU allow the capacity of T-1 line to be interleaved into 4 channels

E-Lines
•Europeans use a version of T-lines called E-lines
•Two are conceptually identical but capacities vary
Line Rate(Mbps) Voice channels
------------------------------------------------
E-1 2.048 30
E-2 8.448 120
E-3 34.368 480
E-4 139.264 1920

Fiber to the Curb (FTTC)

•Optical fiber has many advantages:
–Noise Resistance
–High BW Capacity
•Very Expensive
•Telephone & Cable companies have devise FTTC to employ optical fiber while
keeping the expense down
•Optical Fiber is the medium from the Central Office of the telephone company
or from main office of a cable company to the Curb
•The medium from the Curb to the subscriber‟s premises if the less expensive
twisted pair or coaxial cable

Y FTTC in Telephone Network

o Optical Fiber is used to connect and multiplex different voice channels
o Copper twisted pair coming from individual premises is multiplexed in
junction boxes and converted to optical signals. Optical signals are

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 multiplexed using WDM at switching office to create wider BW optical

Y FTTC in Cable TV Network

o Cable TV uses optical fibers to connect and multiplex different cable channels
o Coaxial cables coming from individual premises are multiplexed in the
junction box and converted to the optical signals
o Optical signals are multiplexed using WDM at switching office to create wider
BW optical signals

ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION

Introduction
o Networks must be able to transfer data from one device to another with complete
accuracy
o A system that cannot guarantee that the data received by one device is identical to the
data transmitted by another device is essentially useless
o Anytime the data is TX from source to destination, it gets corrupted on the way
o Many factors including NOISE can alter or wipe out one or more bits of a given data
unit
o Reliable systems must have a mechanism for detecting and correcting such ERRORS
o Error detection and Correction is implemented either at the data link layer or at the
Transport layer

Types of Errors

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o Whenever an EM signal flows from one point to the other, it is subject to
unpredictable interference from heat, magnetism and other forms of electricity
o This interference can change the shape or timing of the signal
o If the signal is carrying encoded binary data, such changes can alter the meaning of
the data
Summary
• T-Lines in Analog Transmission
• Fractional T-Lines
• E-Lines
• Fiber To The Curb (FTTC)
• Error Detection and Correction

Reading Sections

Section 8.5, 8.7, 9.1,

“Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan

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 LECTURE #33
Types of Errors
• Single Bit & Burst
o In a single-bit error, a 0 is changed to a 1 or a 1 to a 0
o In a burst error multiple bits are changed
o For Example, a 0.01 second burst of impulse noise on a TX with a data rate of
1200 bps might change all or some of 12 bits of information

o The term single bit error means that only one bit of a given data unit (such as a
byte, character, or a packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1
o Figure shows the effect of a single bit error on a data unit
o ASCII character 000000010 (ASCII STX) is sent but 00001010 (ASCII LF) is
received
o Single bit errors are the least likely type of error in serial data TX
o To see Why? Imagine a sender sends data at 1Mbps
o This means that each bit lasts only 1/1,000,000 seconds or 1 microsecond
o For single bit error to occur, the noise must have a duration of 1 microsecond
which is very rare, noise lasts much longer than that
o However, single bit error can occur if we are sending data using parallel TX
o For Example, if 8 wires are used to send all of the eight bits of a byte at the same
time and one of the wires is noise, one bit can be corrupted in each byte

• Burst Errors
•The term burst error means that two or more bit sin the data unit have changed from 1
to 0 or from 0 to 1

o Figure shows the effect of a burst error on a data unit

o In this case 0100010001000011 was sent but 0101110101000011 was received
o Note that a burst error does not necessarily mean that error occur in consecutive
bits

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 o The length of the burst is measured from the first corrupted bit to the last
corrupted bit
o Some bits in b/w may not have been corrupted
o Burst error is most likely to happen in a serial TX
o The duration of the noise is normally longer than the duration of a bit which
means that when noise affects data, it affects a set of bits
o The number of bits affected depends on the data rate and duration of noise

o For example, if we are sending data at 1 Kbps, a noise of 1/100 seconds

can affect 10 bits
o If we are sending data at 1 Mbps, the same noise can affect 10,000 bits
Error Detection
o Even if we know what type of errors can occur, will we recognize one when we
see it?
o If we have a copy of the intended TX for comparison, of course we will
o But what if we don‟t have a copy of the original
o Then we will have no way of knowing we have received an error until we have
decoded the TX and failed to make sense of it
o For a device to check for errors this way will be Costly and Slow
o We don‟t need a machine that decodes every thing and then sits and decides
whether a specific word makes sense or not
o We need a mechanism that is Simple and Completely objective

Y Redundancy
o One error detection mechanism that would satisfy these requirements would be to
send every data unit twice
o The receiving device would then be able to do a bit-for-bit comparison b/w two
TXs
o Any discrepancy will indicate an error and an appropriate error correction
mechanism could be set in place
o This system will be completely Accurate because the odds of error affecting the
same bits in both version will be infinitesimally small
o But this system will be extra ordinarily SLOW
o Not only will the TX time double, but the time it takes to compare two data units
is also added up
o The concept of including extra information in the TX solely for the purpose of
comparison is a good one
o But instead of repeating the entire data stream, a shorter group of bits may be
appended to the end of each unit
o This technique is called REDUNDANCY because the extra bit are redundant to
the information and are discarded as soon as the accuracy of TX has been
determined

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o Fig shows the process of using redundant bits to check the accuracy of data unit
o Once the data stream has been generated, it passes through a device that analyzes it
and adds on an appropriately coded redundancy check
o The data unit now enlarged by several bits (7) travels over the link to the receiver
o The receiver puts the entire stream through a checking function
o If the received bit stream passes the checking criteria, the data portion of the data unit
is accepted and the redundant bits are discarded
• Types of Redundancy Checks
o There are 4 types of redundancy checks used in data communication:
–Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)
–Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
–Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
–Checksum
o First 3 are normally implemented in the physical layer for use in data link
layer
o Fourth is used by Upper layers

Y Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)

o Most common and least expensive
o Also called Parity Check
o A redundant bit called parity bit is appended to every data unit so that total
number of 1‟s in the unit becomes even including the parity bit

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•We want to TX the binary data unit 1100001
•Adding together the number of 1‟s gives us 3, an odd number
o Before TX, we pass the data unit through a parity generator, which counts the 1‟s
and appends the parity bit (1) to the end
o The total number of 1‟s is now 4, an even number
o The system now transfers the entire expanded across the network link

o When it reaches its destination, the RX puts all 8 bits through an even parity
checking function
o If the RX sees 11100001, it counts four ones, an even number and the data unit
passes
o But what if the data unit has been damaged in transit?
o What if instead of 11100001, receiver sees 11100101?
o Then when the parity checker counts the 1‟s, it gets 5 an odd number
o The receiver knows that an error has occurred somewhere and therefore rejects the
whole unit
o Some systems may also use ODD parity checking
o The principal is the same as even parity

./ Example 9.1, 9.2, 9.3

Example 9.1
Sender wants to send “world” In ASCII, the five characters are coded as:
1110111 w 1110111 0
1101111 o 1101111 0
1110010 r 1110010 0
1101100 l 1101100 0
1100100 d 1100100 1

Example 9.2
• | Suppose “world” is received by the receiver without being corrupted:

• Receiver counts the 1‟s and passes it

1110111 w 1110111 0 6
1101111 o 1101111 0 6
1110010 r 1110010 0 4
1101100 l 1101100 0 4
1100100 d 1100100 1 4

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Example 9.3

• Suppose “world” is received by the receiver corrupted:

• Receiver counts the 1‟s and rejects it

1110111 w 1111111 0 7
1101111 o 1101111 0 6
1110010 r 1110110 0 5
1101100 l 1101100 0 4

• Performance of VRC
o VRC can detect all single bit errors
o Can also detect Burst errors as long as the total number of bits changed is ODD
(1,3,5 etc)

Examples
• We have an Even Parity data unit where the total number of 1‟s including the
parity bit is „6‟ : 1000111011
• If 3 bits change value resulting parity will be odd and an error will be detected:
1111111011: 1‟s = 9
• If 2 bits change value resulting parity will still be even and error will not be
detected: 1110111011: 1‟s = 8

o VRC cannot detect errors when the total number of bits changed are even
o VRC checker will return a result of 1 and the data unit will be rejected
o The same hold true for any odd number of errors
o In the second case, VRC checker will check parity and will return an even
number although the data unit contains two errors

o VRC cannot detect error when the number of bits changed is even
o If any two bits change in TX, the changes cancel each other and the data unit will
pass a parity check even though the data unit is damaged
o Same holds true for any even number of errors

Summary

• Types of Errors
• Error Detection Techniques
• Redundancy
• Types of Redundancy Checks

Reading Sections
• Section 9.1, 9.2, 9.3
“Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 173

 LECTURE #34
Error Detection And Correction Methods
• Longitudinal Red Check(LRC)
o In LRC, a block of bits is organized in a table (rows and columns)
o For example instead of sending 32 bits, we organize them in a table made of 4
rows and 8 columns

o We then calculate the Parity bit for each column and create a new row of 8 bits
which are the parity bits for the whole block
o Note that the first parity bit in the 5th row is calculated based on all the first
bits
o The second parity bit is calculated based on all the second bits and so on
o We then attach the 8 parity bits to the original data and send them to the
receiver
Example 9.4
Suppose the following block is sent:
10101001
00111001
11011101
11100111

10101010 (LRC)

• It is hit by a burst of length 8 and some bits are corrupted:

10100011
10001001
11011101
11100111

10101010 (LRC)
• Receiver checks LRC, some of bits do not follow even parity rule and whole
block is discarded

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 10100011
10001001
11011101
11100111

10101010 (LRC)

• Performance of LRC

o Burst errors can be detected more often

o As shown in the last example, an LRC of „n; bits can easily detect a burst error
of „n‟ bits
o A burst error of more than „n‟ bits is also detected by LRC with a very high
probability
o One pattern of errors remain elusive
o If two bits in one data unit are changed and two bits in exactly the same place
in another data unit are also damaged
For Example:
– Original data units
11110000
11000011
– Changed data units
01110001
01000010
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
o Most powerful of checking techniques
o VRC and LRC are based on Addition
o CRC is based on Binary Division
o A sequence of redundant bits called CRC or CRC remainder is appended to
the end of the data unit, so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly
divisible by a second predetermined binary number
o At its destination, the data unit is divided by the same number
o If at this step, there is no remainder, the incoming data unit is assumed to be
intact and is therefore accepted
o A remainder indicates that a data unit has been damaged and therefore must be
rejected

Qualities of CRC
•To be valid the CRC must have two qualities:
–It must have exactly one less bit than the divisor

–Appending it to the end of the data must make the resulting bit sequence exactly
divisible by the divisor

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 175

•First a string of n 0‟s is appended to the data unit
•The number „n‟ is one less than the number of bits in the predetermined divisor, which
is n+1 bits
•Secondly, newly elongated data unit is divided by the divisor using a process called
binary division. The remainder resulting from this division is the CRC

•Third,the CRC of „n‟ bits replaces the appended 0‟s at the end of the data unit
•Note that CRC may consist of all zeros
•The data unit arrives at the receiver followed by the CRC
•The receiver treats the whole string as a unit and divides it by the same divisor that was
used to find the CRC remainder
•If string arrives without an error, the CRC checker yields a remainder of zero and data
unit passes
•If the string has been changed in transit, the division yields a non-zero remainder and
the data unit does not pass
The CRC Generator
•Uses Modulo-2 Division

The CRC Checker

•Functions exactly like CRC Generator

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 176

Polynomials
o CRC generator ( the divisor) is most often represented not as a string of 1‟s and 0‟s
but as an algebraic polynomial
o The polynomial format is useful for two reasons:
–It is short
–Can be used to prove the concept mathematically
Selection of a Polynomial
o A polynomial should have the following properties:
–It should not be divisible by „x‟
–It should be divisible by „x+1‟

•The first condition guarantees that all burst errors of a length equal to the degree of the
polynomial are detected
•The 2nd guarantees that all burst errors affecting an odd number of bits are detected

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 177

Popular Polynomials for CRC

• Performance of CRC
o CRC can detect all burst errors that affect an odd number of errors
o CRC can detect all burst errors of length less than or equal to the degree of the
polynomial
o CRC can detect with a very high probability burst errors of length greater than
the degree of the polynomial
Example 9.6

• The CRC-12 ( x
12
+ x 11 + x3 + x + 1 ) has a degree of 12
• It will detect
– All burst errors affecting odd no. of bits
– All burst errors with a length equal to or less than 12
– 99.97 % of the time burst errors with a length of 12 or more

Summary
• Types of Redundancy Checks
• Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Reading Section

• Section 9.4, 9.5

“Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 178

 LECTURE #35
Error Correction And Detection Method
• CHECKSUM
o Error detection method used by the Higher Layers
o Like VRC, LRC, CRC, Checksum is also based on the concept of
redundancy
One’s Complement

Finding one‟s complement

– Invert every 1 to 0 and 0 to 1
– A and –A are one‟s complement of each other
– +A = 1010 → -A = 0101
– +0 = 0000 → -0 = 1111
o Error detection method used by the Higher Layers
o Like VRC, LRC, CRC, Checksum is also based on the concept of redundancy

Y CHECKSUM Generator

o The sender subdivides data units into equal segments of „n‟ bits(16 bits)
o These segments are added together using one‟s complement
o The total (sum) is then complemented and appended to the end of the original
data unit as redundancy bits called CHECKSUM
o The extended data unit is transmitted across the network
o The receiver subdivides data unit as above and adds all segments together and
complement the result
o If the intended data unit is intact, total value found by adding the data
segments and the checksum field should be zero
o If the result is not zero, the packet contains an error & the receiver rejects it

Checksum Figure

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 179

 • Performance of Checksum
o Detects all errors involving an odd number of bits
o Detects most errors involving an even number of bits
o One pattern remains elusive

Examples
Example 9.7

• Suppose a block of 16 bits need to be sent: 10101001 00111001

10101001
00111001
----------------
11100010 Sum
00011101 Checksum
• Sent pattern:
10101001 00111001 00011101
checksum

Example 9.8
• Examples of no error and a burst error

Segment 1 10101001 Segment1 10101111

Segment 2 00111001 Segment2 11111001
Checksum 00011101 Checksum 00011101
----------------- ----------------
Sum 11111111 Sum 11000110
Complement 00000000 Complement 00111001

• Error is invisible if a bit inversion is balanced by an opposite bit inversion in

the corresponding digit of another segment

Segment1 10111101

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 Segment2 00101001
Checksum 00011001
----------------------
Sum 11111111
→ The error is undetected
ERROR CORRECTION
o Mechanisms that we have studied all detect errors but do not correct them

o Error correction can be done in two ways:

–Receiver can ask Sender for Re- TX
–Receiver can use an error-detecting code, which automatically correct certain
errors
o Error correcting code are more sophisticated than error detecting codes
o They require more redundancy bits
o The number of bits required to correct multiple –bit or burst error is so high
that in most cases it is inefficient
o Error correction is limited to 1, 2 or 3 bit

• Single-bit Error Correction

•Simplest case of error correction
o Error correction requires more redundancy bits than error
detection
o One additional bit can detect single-bit errors
• Parity bit in VRC
• One bit for two states: error or no error
o To correct the error, more bits are required
• Error correction locates the invalid bit or bits
• 8 states for 7-bit data: no error, error in bit 1, and so
on
• Looks like three bits of redundancy is adequate
• What if an error occurs in the redundancy bits?
Hamming Code
Redundancy Bits (r)
o r must be able to indicate at least m+r+1 states
o m+r+1 states must be discoverable by r bits
o Therefore, 2r ≥ m+r+1
o If m=7, r=4 as 24 ≥ 7+4+1

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Hamming Code
• Each r bit is the VRC bit for one combination of data bits
• r1(r2) bit is calculated using all bit positions whose binary representation includes
a 1 in the first(second) position, and so on

Summary
• Checksum
• Single-Bit Error Correction
• Hamming Code

Reading Sections

• Section 9.6, 9.7, “Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz
A. Forouzan

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 182

 LECTURE #36
Hamming Code
Redundancy Bits (r)
o r must be able to indicate at least m+r+1 states
o m+r+1 states must be discoverable by r bits
o Therefore, 2r ≥ m+r+1
o If m=7, r=4 as 24 ≥ 7+4+1

Hamming Code
• Each r bit is the VRC bit for one combination of data bits
• r1(r2) bit is calculated using all bit positions whose binary representation includes
a 1 in the first(second) position, and so on

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 183

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 184
Data Link Layer
Introduction
o Unless accurately received by a 2nd device, a signal TX over a wire is a waste of
electricity
o With TX alone, we can put a signal to the line, but we have
–no way of controlling which of several devices attached to that line will
receive it
–no way of knowing if the intended receiver is ready and able to receive it
–No way of keeping a second device from TX at the same time
o Communication requires at least 2 devices working together:
–Sender
–Receiver
o Even such a basic arrangement requires great deal of coordination
o For Example, in Half Duplex TX, it is essential that only one device TX at a time
o If both device TX, the signals will collide leaving nothing on the line but Noise
o The coordination of half-duplex TX is a part of a procedure called Line Discipline,
which is one of the functions included in the second layer of OSI Model, the data link
layer

o In addition to Line Discipline, the most important functions in the data link layer are
Flow Control and Error Control
o Collectively these functions are called Data Link Control

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 • Data Link Layer & its Functions

• Data Link Control

Y Line Discipline:
– Coordinates the link systems, which device can send and when it can send?
Y Flow Control:
–The amount of data that can be sent before the receiving acknowledgement
–It also provides the receiver‟s acknowledgement for frames received intact and
so is linked to error control

Y Error Control:
–Means Error detection and Correction
–It allows the receiver to inform the sender of any frames lost or damaged in TX
and coordinates Retransmission of those frames by the sender

Y Line Discipline
o How efficient the system is, no device in it should be allowed to transmit until that
device has the evidence that the intended receiver is:
–able to receive
–is prepared to accept the TX
o What if the Rx device does not expect a transmission or is busy

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o With no way of determining the status of the intended receiver, the transmitting
device may waste its time sending data to a non-functioning receiver

o The Line Discipline functions of the data link layer oversee:

– the establishment of links and
–The right of a particular device to transmit at a given time
• Ways to do Line Discipline
Line Discipline is done in 2 ways:
•Enquiry / Acknowledgement (ENQ/ACK)
–Used in Peer-to-Peer Communication

•Poll / Select
–Primary-Secondary communication

Summary

• Hamming Code
• Data Link Control
• Line Discipline
– ENQ/ACK
– POLL/SELECT
• Flow Control

Reading Sections

Section 9.7, 10.1 “Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A.
Forouzan

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 187

 LECTURE #37
Line Discipline
Enquiry / Acknowledgement (ENQ/ACK)
o Used primarily in systems where there is no question of wrong receiver getting the
transmission
o In other words when there is a Dedicated Link b/w the two devices so that the
only device that can receive data is the intended one
o Enquiry / Acknowledgement (ENQ/ACK)
o ENQ/ACK coordinates who may start a transmission and whether or not the
intended recipient is ready and enabled

o Using ENQ/ACK, a session can be initiated by either station on a link as long as

both are of equal rank- a printer for example cannot initiate communication with a
CPU
o Enquiry / Acknowledgement (ENQ/ACK)
o In both half duplex and full duplex TX, the initiating device establishes the
session
o In half-duplex, the initiator then sends its data while the responder waits
o The respondent may take over the link when the initiator is finished or has
requested a response
o In full duplex, both the devices can TX simultaneously once the link has been
established

How It Works?
o The receiver must answer either with an acknowledgement (ACK) frame if it is
ready to receive or with a negative acknowledgement ( NAK), if it is not
o By requiring a response, even if the answer is negative, the initiator knows that his
enquiry was in fact received even if the receiver is currently unable to receive
o If neither an ACK or a NAK is received within a specified time limit, the initiator
assumes that an ENQ frame was lost in transit, it disconnects and sends a
replacement
o An initiating system ordinarily makes 3 such attempts before giving up
o If the response to the ENQ is negative for 3 attempts, the initiator disconnects and
begins the process again at another time
•If the response is positive the initiator is free to send its data

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 188

 o The initiator first transmits a frame called an enquiry (ENQ) asking if the receiver
is available to receive data
o Once all of its data have been transmitted, the sending system finishes with an
End of Transmission (EOT) frame

• Poll / Select
Primary-Secondary communication
o This method works with topologies where one device is designed as a Primary station
and the other devices are Secondary stations
o Multipoint systems must coordinate several nodes, not just two
o The questions are not only Are you Ready? But also Which of the device has the right
to use the channel
o Whenever a multipoint link consists of a primary device and multiple secondary
devices using a single TX line , all exchanges must be made through the primary
device even when the ultimate destination is a secondary device
o The primary device controls the link and the secondary device follow sits instruction
o It is up to the primary to determine which device is allowed to use the channel ata
given time
o The primary therefore is always the initiator of the a session

•If the primary wants to receive data, it asks the second-arise if they have anything to
send, This is called POLLING
•If the primary wants to send data, it tells the target secondary to get ready to receive,
This function is called SELECTING

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ADDRESSING
o For point-to-point configuration, there is no need for addressing
o Any TX put onto the link by one device can be intended only for the other
o For the primary device in a a multipoint topology to be able to identify and
communicate with a specific secondary device, there must be some addressing
convention
o For this reason, every device on the link has an address that can be used for
identification
o In any transmission, this address will appear in a specified portion of each frame,
called the Address Field or Header depending upon the protocol
o If the TX comes from a secondary device, the address indicates the originator of the
data
Y SELECT
o The select mode is used whenever the primary device has something to send
o Primary control the link and if primary is not sending or receiving data, it knows that
the link is available
o If it has something to send, it sends it
o As a frame makes its way to the intended device, each of the other devices check the
address field
o Only when the device recognizes its own address, does it open the frame and read the
data
o In case of a SEL frame, the enclosed data consists of an alert that data is forthcoming
o What it does not know, however is if the target device it ready to receive (ON)
o So the primary must alert the secondary to the upcoming TX and wait for an
acknowledgement of the secondary ready status
o Primary send a SEL frame, one field of which includes the address of the intended RX
o If the secondary is awake and running, it returns an ACK frame to the primary
o The primary then sends one or more data frames , each addressed to the intended
secondary

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 190

 Y POLL
o Used by the primary device to receive transmissions from the secondary devices
o The secondaries are not allowed to TX data until asked
o By keeping control with the primary, the multipoint system guarantees that only one
TX can occur at a time
o When the primary is ready to receive, data , it must ask (POLL) each device in turn if
it has anything to send
o When the first secondary is approached, it responds either with a NAK frame if it has
nothing to send or with data if it does
o If the response is negative, primary then polls the next secondary
o When the primary has received data, it acknowledges by sending an ACK
•Two possibilities for termination:
–A secondary sends all its data and finishes with EOT frame
–Primary says “ Time is Up”

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 191

 • Flow Control -Definition
•2nd aspect of data link control is Flow Control
•In most protocols, flow control is a set of procedures that tells the sender how
much data it can transmit before it must wait for an ACK from the receiver
•The flow of data must not be allowed to overwhelm the receiver
Summary
• Line Discipline
-ENQ/ACK
-POLL/SELECT
• Flow Control
– Stop-and-Wait
– Sliding Window

Reading Sections
Section 10.1,10.2 “Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz
A. Forouzan

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 192

 LECTURE #38

Flow Control- Explanation

o Any receiving device has a limited speed at which it can process incoming data and a
limited amount of memory in which to store incoming data
o The receiving device must be able to inform the sending device before those limits are
reached and to request that the TX device send fewer frames or stop temporarily

• Flow Control-Buffer

o Incoming data must be processed and checked before it can be used

o The rate of such processing is often slower than the rate of TX
o So, each receiving device has a block of memory called BUFFER, reserved for
storing incoming data until it is processed
o If the buffer begins to fill up, the receiver must be able to tell the sender to halt the TX
until it is once again able to receive

Methods for Flow Control

o Two methods have been developed to control the flow of data across communication
links :
Y Stop and Wait
Y Sliding Window
Y Stop and Wait
In this method, the sender waits for an ACK after every frame it sends

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 193

o Only when an ACK has been received, is the next frame sent
o This process of alternately sending and waiting repeats until the sender transmits an
EOT frame
Example: Officer giving dictation to the Typist, He says a word, typist says OK,
he says the next word, typist says OK and so on
• Advantages of Stop and Wait
•SIMPLICITY
–Each frame is checked and acknowledged before the next frame is sent
• Disadvantages of Stop and Wait
•INEFFICIENT ( Slow)
o Each frame must travel all the way to the receiver and an ACK must travel all
the way back before the next frame can be sent
o If the distance b/w devices is long, the time spent waiting for ACKs between
each frame can be significantly long

• Sliding Window
o In this method, sender can transmit several frames before needing an ACK
o Frames can be sent one right after another meaning link can carry several
frames at once and its capacity can be used efficiently
o The receiver uses a single ACK to confirm the receipt of multiple data frames
o Sliding Window refers to imaginary boxes at both the sender and the receiver
o This window can hold frames at either end and provides the upper limit on the
number of frames that can be sent before requiring an ACK
o Frames may be ACK at any point w/o waiting for the window to fill up and
may be TX as long as the window is not yet Full
o To keep track of which frames have been transmitted and which received,
sliding window introduces an identification scheme based on the size of the
window
o The frames are numbered modulo-n means from 0 to n-1
o If n=8, frames are numbered 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,….

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 194

o When the receiver sends the ACK, it includes the number of the next frame it
expects to receive

•For example, to ACK the receipt of a string of frames ending in frame 4,

the receiver sends an ACK with number 5
•The window can hold n-1 frames at either end, therefore a max of n-1
frames may be sent before an ACK is required

•At the beginning of a TX, sender‟s window contains n-1 frames

•As frames are sent out, the left boundary of window moves inward,
shrinking the size of the window
•When an ACK is received, the window expands to allow in a number of
new frames equal to the number of frames acknowledged by that ACK

•At the beginning of TX, the receiver window contains n-1 spaces for
frames
•As new frames come in, the size of the receiver window shrinks
© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 195
 •The receiver window therefore does not show the frames that are
received but the frames that may still be received before an ACK is sent

• ERROR CONTROL
Refers primarily to error detection and correction

•AUTOMATIC REPEAT REQUEST (ARQ)

Error control in data link layer is implemented simply:
–Anytime an error is detected in an exchange, a negative
acknowledgement (NAK) is returned and the specified frames are
retransmitted
Categories of Error Control

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Stop and Wait ARQ
o It is a form of stop-and-wait flow control extended to include
retransmission of data in case of Lost or Damaged frames
o For retransmission to work, 4 features are added to the basic flow control
mechanism
o Sending device keeps a copy of the last frame transmitted until it receives
the ACK for that frame
o Both data and ACK frames are numbered 0 and 1 alternately
o A data 0 frame is acknowledged by a ACK 1 frame indicating that the
receiver has received data 0 and is now expecting data 1
o Sending device keeps a copy of the last frame transmitted until it receives
the ACK for that frame
o Both data and ACK frames are numbered 0 and 1 alternately
–A data 0 frame is acknowledged by a ACK 1 frame indicating that the
receiver has received data 0 and is now expecting data 1
• If an error is discovered in a data frame an NAK frame is returned
NAK frames which are not sent tell the sender to retransmit the last
frame
• The sending device is equipped with Timer. If an expected ACK is
not received within an allotted time period, the sender assumes that
the last frame sent is lost and resends the frame

• Damaged Frame

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 • Lost Frame
Any of the 3 frame types can be lost in transit:

Y Lost Data Frame

Y Lost ACK Frame
Y Lost NAK Frame

• Lost ACK, NAK Frame

•
Summary
• Flow Control
-Stop-and-Wait-
-Sliding Window
• Error Control

Reading Sections

Section 10.2, 10.3 “Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A.
Forouzan

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 198

 LECTURE #39
SLIDING WINDOW ARQ
Among several popular mechanisms for error control two protocols are important:

Y Go-back-n ARQ
Y Selective Reject ARQ

Three features are added to sliding window flow control to allow for the retransmission of
the lost or the damaged frames:

o The sending device keeps copies of the transmitted frames until all of them have been
acknowledged
o In addition to ACK frames, receiver also has the option of NAK frames, if data has
been received damaged
o Because sliding window is a continuous TX mechanism, both ACK and NAK frames
must be numbered for identification

• ACK frames carry the number of the next frame expected

• ACK 5 tells sender that all frames up to frame 5 are received
• NAK frames carry the number of the damaged frame itself
• If data frames 4 and 5 are damaged, NAK 4 and NAK 5 must
be sent
o Like sender in stop-and wait ARQ, the sliding window ARQ is also equipped with a
timer in the sender to deal with lost ACKs

• Go Back n ARQ
In Go Back n ARQ, if one frame is lost or damaged, all frames sent since last frame
acknowledged are retransmitted
Go Back n- Damaged Frame

Y Go Back n- Lost Data Frame

o Sliding window requires that data frames be transmitted sequentially

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 o If one or more frames are so noise corrupted that they become lost in
transit, the next frame to arrive at the receiver will be out of sequence

Y Go Back n- Lost ACK

o When the window capacity is reached and all frames allowed have
been sent, the sender starts a Timer

o If an ACK is not received before that Timer expires, sender retransmits

all the frames since the last ACK

• Selective Reject ARQ

o In selective-reject ARQ, only the specific damaged or lost frame is
retransmitted
o If a frame is corrupted in transit, a NAK is returned and the frame is resent out
of sequence

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 o The Rx device must be able to sort frames and insert the retransmitted frame
into the proper place

The selective reject ARQ differs from Go Back n in the following ways:
o The Rx device must contain sorting logic to enable it to reorder frames
received out of sequence
o Sending device must contain a searching mechanism that allows it to
find and select only the requested frame for retransmission
o Selective Reject ARQ
o A buffer in the receiver must keep all previously received frames on
hold until all retransmissions have been stored

o To avoid selectivity, ACK number, like NAK numbers must refer to

frame received instead of next expected frame
o A smaller window size is required because of this added complexity

Y Selective Reject ARQ-Lost Frame

Lost ACK/NAK are treated exactly in the same way as by Go Back n

Selective Reject ARQ vs Go Back n

o Although retransmitting only specific damaged or lost frames may seems more
efficient than resending all the frames

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 o Because of the complexity of sorting and storage required by the receiver and
extra logic needed by sender to select specific frames for retransmission, selective
reject ARQ is EXPENSIVE and not often used
o Selective reject gives better performance but in practice it is usually it is discarded
in favor of go-back-n for simplicity of implementation

Protocols
Protocol: Set of rules or conventions for executing a particular task

Protocol in Data Comm.: Set of rules or specifications used to implement one or more
layers of the OSI Model

Example: EIA 232-D interface is a protocol used at the physical layer in the OSI Model
Protocols

Data Link Protocols: Set of specifications used to implement the data link layer
Data link protocols contain rules for:
–Line Discipline
–Flow Control
–Error Control

Categories of Data Link Protocols

Data link protocols can be divided into two sub-groups:

Asynchronous Protocols: Treat each character in a Bit stream independently

Synchronous Protocols: Take the whole bit stream and chop it into characters of equal
Size

Y Asynchronous Protocols
Employed mainly in Modems

Inherent Slowness is a disadvantage: Requires addition of start and stop bits

and extended spaces b/w frames, so these are mainly replaced with High-speed
synchronous mechanisms

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 Not Complex and Inexpensive to Implement
Transmission does not require timing coordination; Timing is done by using
extra bits

• Different Asynchronous Protocols

A variety of Asynchronous protocols have been developed

We will discuss some of the important ones

./ XMODEM
In 1979 Ward Christiansen designed a File transfer protocol for Telephone-line
communication b/w PCs called XMODEM

Half Duplex and Stop-and-Wait ARQ protocol

XMODEM
o The first field is a One Byte start of header (SOH) field
o The second field is a two-byte Header.
–The first header byte , the Sequence number carries the Frame number
–The second header byte is used to check the validity of the sequence number
o The fixed data field holds 128 bytes of data
o The last field CRC checks for errors in the data field only

Transmission in XMODEM
o TX begins with sending of a NAK frame from the receiver to the sender
o Each time, the sender sends a frame, it must wait for an ACK before sending next
frame

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o If NAK is received instead of ACK, the last frame is sent again
o A frame is also resent if no response arrives from a receiver after a fixed time period
o A sender can also receive cancel (CAN) to abort TX

Control Frames in XMODEM

Control frames from the receiver

–ACK: Acknowledgement
–NAK: Error or start of transmission
–CAN: Aborts the transmission

Summary
•Error Control
–Stop-and-Wait ARQ
–Sliding Window ARQ
•Go-back-n
•Selective Reject
•Data Link Protocols
Reading Sections
•Section 10.3, 11.1,
“Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 204

 LECTURE #40
YMODEM
YMODEM is similar to X-MODEM with only the following major differences:

o 1024-Byte data unit

o Two CANs to abort Transmission
o ITU-T CRC-16 for Error Checking
o Multiple files can be sent simultaneously

ZMODEM
•Newer Protocol
•Combines features of
– XMODEM
and
– YMODEM

BLAST
o Blocked Asynchronous Transmission
o More powerful than XMODEM
o Full Duplex
o Sliding Window Flow Control
o Allows transfer of Data and Binary Files

KERMIT
o Designed at Columbia University
o Most Widely used Asynchronous Protocol
o File Transfer protocol is similar in operation to XMODEM, with sender waiting for an
NAK before it starts TX
o Kermit allows the transmission of control characters as Text

Synchronous Protocols
Speed of synchronous TX makes it a better choice over Asynchronous T for LAN, MAN
and WAN technology

Classes of Synchronous Protocols

Synchronous Protocols can be divided into two main classes:

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 Y Character – Oriented Protocols
Y Bit – Oriented Protocols

Character – Oriented Protocols

o Also called Byte- Oriented Protocol
o These protocols interpret a transmission frame or packet as a succession of characters,
each usually composed of one byte
o All control information is in the form of an existing character encoding system

Bit – Oriented Protocols

These protocols interpret a transmission frame or packet as a succession of
individual bits, made meaningful by their placement in the frame
Control information can be one or multiple bits depending on the information
embodied in the pattern

o Character –Oriented Protocols are not as efficient as bit – oriented protocols and are
seldom used
o They are easy to comprehend and employ the same logic as bit-oriented protocols
o Their study will provide the basis for studying the other data link layer protocols
o In all data link protocols, control information is inserted in the data frame as separate
control frames or as addition to existing data frames
o In character oriented protocols, this info is in the form of code words taken from
existing character sets such as ASCII
o IBN‟s BSC is the best known character oriented protocol

Binary Synchronous Communication (BSC)

o Developed by IBM in 1964
o Usable in both point-to-point and multiple communications
o It supports half-duplex TX using stop-and-wait ARQ flow control
o Does not support full duplex TX or sliding window protocol

BSC FRAMES
•BSC protocol divides a transmission into frames
CONTROL FRAMES
o If a frame is used strictly for control purposes, it is called a Control frame
o Control frames are used to exchange information b/w communicating devices for
example, to establish the connection, to control the flow, to request error correction
etc

DATA FRAMES

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o If a frame contains part or all of the message itself, it is called a Data Frame
o Data frames are used to transmit information, but may also contain control
information applicable to that information

o Figure shows the format of a simple data frame

o Arrow shows the direct of TX
o The frame begins with two or more synch. (SYN) characters
o These characters alert the receiver to the arrival of a new frame and provide a bit
pattern used by the receiving device to synch itself with that of the sending device
o After the two synch characters, comes a start of text (STX) character
o This character signals to the receiver that the control information is ending and the
next byte will be data
o Data or text can consist of varying number of characters
o An end of text (ETX) indicates the end of text
o Finally, the Block Check Count (BCC) are included for error correction
o A BCC field can be a one-character LRC or a two –character CRC

Data Frame with Header

•A frame as simple as above is seldom used
•Usually we need to include the address of the receiving device, the address of the
sending device and the identity number of the frame (0 or 1) for stop-and-wait ARQ

o All the above information is included in a special field called Header

o Header begins with start of the header (SOH) character
o The header comes after the SYNs and before the STX character
o Everything received after the SOH field but before STX character is the Header
information

Multiblock Frame

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 The probability of an error in the block of text increases with the length of the frame
o The more bits in a frame, the more are the chances of an error
o For this reason, text in a message is often divided b/w several blocks
o Each block starts with STX and ends with ITB, intermediate text block except the last
one
o Last block ends with ETX character
o After the ETX has been reached, and the last BCC checked, the receiver sends a
single ACK for the entire frame
o The figure includes only 2 blocks but actual frames can have more than two
o Some messages may be too long to fit in a frame
o Several frames can carry continuation of a single message
o To let the Rx know that the end of frame is not the end of transmission, the ETX
character in all the frames but the last one is replaced by an End of Transmission
block (ETB)
o The receiver must acknowledge each frame separately

Multi
Frames

Control Frames
o A control frame is used by one device to send commands to or to get information
from another device
o A control frame contains control characters but no data
o It carries information specific to the functioning of the data link layer itself

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Control frames serve 3 purposes:

– Establishing Connections
– Maintaining Flow and Error Control during Data Transmission
– Terminating Connection

Summary
•Data Link Protocols
•Asynchronous Protocols
•Synchronous Protocols
Reading Sections
•Section11.1, 11.2
“Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan

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 LECTURE #41
Bit-Oriented Protocols
o In character-oriented protocols, bits are grouped into predefined patterns forming
characters
o By comparison, bit-oriented protocols can pack more information into shorter frames

A lot of bit-oriented protocols have been developed over the years:

o One of these HDLC is the design of the ISO and has become the basis for all bit-
oriented protocols in use today
•In 1975, IBM gave Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC)
•In 1979, ISO answered with High Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
o Since 1981, ITU-T has developed a series of protocols called Link Access Protocols
o LAPs: LAPB, LAPD, LAPM, LAPZ etc. all based on HDLC

HDLC is basis for all protocols, so we will study it in detail:

High Level Data Link Control (HDLC)

o Bit-oriented data link protocol designed for:
– Full Duplex and Half Duplex
– Point-to-point And Multipoint Links
Characterization of HDLC
HDLC can be characterized by:
–Station Types
–Configurations
–Response Modes

STATION TYPES (1)

HDLC differentiates b/w 3 types of stations:
– Primary Station

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 – Secondary Station
– Combined Station

STATION TYPES (2)

Primary Station
o Primary station works in the same way as primary devices in the discussion of flow
control
o The primary is a device in point-to-point or multipoint line configuration that has
complete control of the link

STATION TYPES (3)

Secondary Station
o The primary sends commands to the secondary stations
o A primary issues commands and a secondary issues responses

STATION TYPES (4)

Combined Station
o A combined station can both command and respond
o A combined station is one of a set of connected peer devices programmed to behave
either as a primary or as a secondary depending on the nature and the direction of the
transmission

Configuration (1)
o Configuration refers to the relationship of the hardware devices on a link
o Primary , secondary and combined stations can be configured in three ways:

Y Unbalanced Configuration
Y Symmetrical Configuration
Y Balanced Configuration

Configuration (2)
Unbalanced Configuration
o Also called Master/Slave Configuration
o One device is a primary and others are secondary
o Unbalanced configuration can be point to point if only two devices are
involved
o Most of the times it is multipoint with one primary controlling several
secondaries
Configuration (3)
Symmetrical Configuration
o Each physical station on a link consists of two logical stations, one a primary
and the other a secondary
o Separate lines link the primary aspect of one physical station to the secondary
aspect of another physical station

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 Configuration (4)
Balanced Configuration
o Both stations in a point-to-point topology are of combined type
o HDLC does not support balanced multipoint
Station Types & Configurations

Modes
o A mode in HDLC is the relationship b/w two devices involved in an exchange
o The mode describes who controls the link
o HDLC supports 3 modes of communication b/w stations:
–Normal Response Mode (NRM)
–Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)
–Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)

Normal Response Mode (NRM)

o Refers to the standard primary-secondary relationship
o Secondary device must have permission from primary device before transmitting
o Once permission has been granted, the secondary may initiate a response transmission
of one or more frames containing data

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Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)
o A secondary may initiate a TX w/o permission from the primary whenever the
channel is idle
o ARM does not alter the primary secondary relationship in any other way
o All transmissions from the primary still go to the secondary and are then relayed to
the other devices

Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)

o All stations are equal and therefore only combined stations connected in point-to-
point are used
o Either combined station may initiate TX with the other combined station w/o
permission
HDLC Frames

HDLC defines 3 types of Frames:

– Information Frames (I-Frames)
– Supervisory Frames (S-Frames)
– Unnumbered Frames(U-Frames)

I-Frames are used to transport user data and control information relating to user data
S-Frames are used only to transport control information
U-F rame are reserved for System Management

Each frame in HDLC may contain up to six fields

–A beginning Flag Field
–An address field
–A control field
–An information Field
–A frame check sequence (FCS)
–An ending Flag Field

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Flag Field

•The flag field of an HDLC frame is an 8-bit sequence with a bit patter 01111110 that
identifies both the beginning and the ending of the of a frame
•It serves as a Synchronization pattern for the receiver
•Fig. shows placement of 2 flag fields in an I-Frame
HDLC Address Field

o
The second field of HDLC frame contains the address of the secondary station
that is either the originator or the destination of the frame
o If a primary station creates Frame it includes a „To‟ address and if a secondary
creates the frame, it contains a „From‟ address
o Can be of one byte or several bytes depending upon the network
o If the address field is only 1 byte, the last bit is always a 1
o If the address is of several bytes, all bytes but the last one will end with 0 , and the
last will end with a 1
o Ending each intermediate byte with 0 indicates to the receiver that there are more
address bytes to come
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HDLC Control Field

o The control field is a one o two byte segment of the frame used for flow management
o The two byte case is called the Extended Mode

Control fields differ depending on the frame type:

– If the control field is a 0, the frame is an I-Frame
– If the first bit is 1 and the second bit is a 0 , it is S-Frame
– If both first and second bits are 1‟s, it is U-Frame
o P/F bit is a single bit with dual purpose
o It has meaning only when it is „1‟ and it can mean Poll or Final
o When the frame is sent by a primary to secondary, it means POLL
o When the frame is sent by a secondary to a primary, it is FINAL

HDLC Control Field –EXTENDED

o Control field in the I-Frame and S-Frame is two bytes long to allow seven bits of
sending and receiving sequence
o However the control field in the U-Frame is still one byte

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o Information field contains the user‟s data in an I-Frame and Network Management
information in a U-Frame
o An S-Frame has no information field
o Its length can vary from one network to another but remains fixed within each
network
o It is possible to send Control information in the information field of the I-Frame along
with data.
o This process is called Piggybacking

o The FCS is HDLC‟s error detection field

o
o It can contain a two- or four byte CRC

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Link Access Procedures
Y LAPB
–Link access procedure, balanced
Y LAPD
–Link access procedure for D- channel
Y LAPM
–Link access procedure for modems
Summary
•Synchronous Protocols
–Bit-Oriented Protocols
•HDLC
•Link Access Protocols (LAPs)

Reading Sections
•Section11.4, 11.5
“Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 217

 LECTURE #42
Local Area Network

A local area network is a data communication system that allows a number of

independent devices to communicate directly with each other in a limited geographical
area

Architectures for LANS

Dominated by 4 architectures:

o Ethernet, Token Bus, Token Ring -7 Standards of IEEE and a part of its Project 802
o Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) -7 ANSI Standard

LAN compared with OSI

o In 1985, the computer society of IEEE started a project called PROJECT 802 to set
standards to enable intercommunication b/w equipment from a variety of
manufacturers
o This project does not seek to replace any part of the OSI Model
o Instead it is a way of specifying functions of physical layer , the data link layer and up
to some extent the network layer to allow for interconnectivity of major LAN
protocols
o The relationship of IEEE project 802 to the OSI Model is shown in the figure:

• FIGURE

o IEEE has divided the data link layer into two sub-layers:
Logical Link Control (LLC)
Medium Access Control (MAC)

o LLC is non-architecture specific i.e. it is the same for all IEEE-defined LANs
o The MAC sub layer on the other hand contains a number of distinct modules; each
carries proprietary info specific to the LAN product being used
o LAN compared with OSI -Figure

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o In addition to the two sub-layers , Project 802 contain a section governing
internetworking
o This section assures the compatibility of different LANs and MANs across protocols
and allows data to be exchanged across otherwise incompatible networks

PROJECT 802
o Strength of Project 802 is Modularity
o By subdividing the functions necessary for LAN management, the designers were
able to standardize those that can be generalized and isolate those that must remain
specific

Y IEEE 802.11
o Is the section of Project 802 devoted to internetworking issues in LANs and MANs
o Although not yet complete, it seek to resolve the incompatibilities b/w network
architectures w/o requiring modifications in existing addressing, access, and error
recovery mechanisms

Y LLC
In general, IEEE project 802 model takes the structure of an HDLC frame and divides
into two sets of functions:
• One set contains the end-user portions of the frame: The logical address,
control information and data
• These functions are handled by IEEE 802.2 LLC protocol
• LLC is upper of data link layer and is common to all LAN protocols

Y MAC
o The second set of functions, the MAC sub-layer , resolves the contention for the
shared media
o It contains Synchronization Flag, Flow and Error control specifications as well as
the physical address of next station to receive & route a packet

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 o MAC protocols are specific to LAN using them (Ethernet, Token Ring, Token
Bus etc)
o Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
o The data unit in the LLC level is called the Protocol Data unit (PDU)
o The PDU contains 4 fields familiar from HDLC:
–A destination service access point (DSAP)
–A source service access point (SSAP)
–A control field
–An Information field
Protocol Data Unit (PDU)

DSAP and SSAP

o The DSAP and SSAP are addresses used by LLC to identify the protocol stacks on the
receiving and sending machines that are generating and using data
o The first bit of the DSAP indicates whether the frame is intended for an individual or
a group
o The first bit of SSAP indicates whether the communication is a command or a
response PDU

CONTROL
o The control field of PDU is identical to the control field in HDLC.
o As in HDLC, PDU frames can be I-frames, S-frames, or U-Frames and carry all of the
codes and the information that the corresponding HDLC frame carry

•The PDU has no flag fields, no CRC, and no station address

•These fields are added in the lower sub-layer i.e. MAC Layer

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ETHERNET
IEEE 802.3 supports a LAN standard originally developed by Xerox and later extended
by a joint venture b/w Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel Corporation and Xerox
This is called ETHERNET

Categories of 802.3-Figure

IEEE 802.3 defines two categories:

–BASEBAND
–BROADBAND
The word “base” specifies a digital signal
The word “broad” specifies an analog signal

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IEEE divides the base band category into 5 standards:
–10 Base 5 , 10 Base 2, 10 Base-T, 1 Base 5, 100 Base-T
o The first number (10, 1, or 100) indicates the data rate in Mbps.
o The last number or letter (5, 2, 1, or T) indicates the maximum cable length or the
type of cable
o IEEE defines only one specification for the broadband category:
–10 Broad 36
o Again the first number (10) indicates the data rate.
o The last number defines the maximum cable length
o Max. cable length restriction can be changed using networking devices i.e. Repeaters
or Bridges

Access Method: CSMA/CD

• Multiple Access: Multiple users access to a single line
• Carrier Sense: A device listens to the line before it transmits
• Collision Detection: Extremely high voltage indicates a collision

Need for a Access Method

• Whenever multiple users have unregulated access to a single line, there is a danger of
signals overlapping and destroying each other
• Such overlaps which turn signals to Noise are called COLLISIONS
• As traffic increases on multiple-access link, so do collisions
• A LAN therefore needs a mechanism to coordinate traffic, minimize the number of
collisions and maximizes the number of frames that are delivered successfully
• The access mechanism used in Ethernet is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
•MA-7 CSMA -7 CSMA/CD
• CSMA/CD
o The original design was a multiple access method in which every workstation had
equal access to the link
o In multiple access, there was no provision for traffic coordination
o Access to the line was open to any node at any time
o Any device wishing to transmit sent its data and then relied on ACKs to know if it had
reached its destination

o In a CSMA system, any device wishing to transmit must first listen for existing traffic
on the line
o A device must listen by checking for voltage
o If no voltage is detected, the line is considered idle and the TX is initiated
o CSMA cuts down on the number of collisions but does not eliminate them
o If a system transmits after checking the line and another system transmits during this
small interval, collisions can still occur
o The final step is the addition of Collision Detection (CD)
o In CSMA/CD, the station wishing to transmit first listens to make certain the link is
free, then transmits its data, then listens again

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o During the data transmission, the station checks for the extremely high voltages that
indicate a collision
o If a collision is detected, the station quits the current TX and waits a predetermined
amount of time for the line to clear, then sends its data again

Y Addressing
o Each station on the Ethernet network such as a PC, workstation or printer has its own
Network Interface Card (NIC)
o The NIC usually fits inside the station and provides the station with a 6-byte physical
address
o The number on the NIC is unique

Y Data Rate
o Ethernet LANs can support data rates between 1 and 100 Mbps

Implementation
o In IEEE 802.3 standard, the IEEE defines types of cables, connections and signals that
are to be used in each of the five different Ethernet implementations
o Each frame is transmitted to every station on the link but read only by the station to
which it is addressed

10 Base 5: Thick Ethernet

o The first of the physical standards defined in IEEE 802.3 model is called 10 Base 5,
Thick Ethernet or Thicknet
o The name is derived from the size of the cable which is roughly the size of a garden
hose and cannot be bent with hands
o 10 Base 5 is a bus topology LAN that uses base band signaling and has a max.
segment length of 500 meters

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Size Limitations of 10 Base 5
o Networking devices such as Repeaters and Bridges are used to overcome the size
limitation of LAN
o In Thicknet, a LAN can be divided into segments by connecting devices
o In this case, the length of each segment is limited to 500 meters
o However to reduce collisions, the total length of the bus should not exceed 2500
meters (5 segments)
o Also the standard demands that each station be separated from each other 2.5 meters
o 200 stations per segment and 1000 stations total

Topology of 10 Base 5
The physical connectors and cables utilized by 10 base 5 include coaxial cable, Network
Interface Card, Transceivers and Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) cables

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Y RG-8 Cable
RG-8 cable (Radio Government) is a thick coaxial cable that provides the
backbone of IEEE 802.3 standard

Y TRANSCEIVER
Each station is attached by an AUI cable to an intermediary device called a
Medium Attachment Unit (MAU) or a Transceiver
Transceiver performs the CSMS/CD function of checking for voltages and
collisions on the line and may contain a small buffer

Y AUI Cables
Each station is linked to its corresponding transceiver by an AUI cable also called
the Transceiver cable
An AUI is a 15 wire cable with plug that performs the physical layer interface
functions b/w the station and the transceiver
An AUI has a max. Length of 50 meters and it terminates in a 15-pin DB- 15
connector

Y TRANSCEIVER TAP
Each transceiver contains a connecting mechanism called a TAP because it allows
the transceiver to tap into the line at any point
The TAP is a thick cable sized well with a metal spike in the center

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o The spike is attached to wires inside the transceiver
o When the cable is pressed into the well, the spike pierces the jacket and sheathing
layers and makes an electrical connection b/w the transceiver and the cables
o This kind of connector is often called a VAMPIRE TAP because it bites the cable

Summary
•Local Area Networks (LANs)
•Project 802
•Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
•Ethernet
Reading Sections
•Section12.1, 12.2
“Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 226

 LECTURE #43
Ethernet

10 Base 2: Thin Ethernet

o The second Ethernet Implementation defined by IEEE 802 series is called 10 Base
2, Thin Ethernet, Thin net
o Also called Cheap net because it provides an inexpensive alternative to 10 Base 5
Ethernet, with the same data rate
o Like 10 Base 5, 10 Base 2 is a Bus Topology LAN
o 10 Base 2: Thin Ethernet
• The advantages of thin Ethernet are :
–reduced cost and
–ease of installation
Because the cable is lighter weight and more flexible than that used in Thicknet
• The disadvantages are:
–Short Range (185 m as opposed to 500 m)
–Smaller Capacity (thinner cable accommodates fewer stations)
• Physical Topology of 10 base 2
o The connectors and cables utilized are: NICs, Thin coaxial cable and BNC-T
connectors
o In this technology, the transceiver circuitry is moved to the NIC, and
transceiver tap is replaced by connector that splices directly into the cable
o No AUI cables are needed

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Y NIC
o NICs in Thin Ethernet provide the same functionality as those in Thicknet plus the
functions of the Transceiver
o A 10 Base 2 NIC not only provides the station with an address but also checks for
voltages on the link

Y RG-58 Cable
o These cables are relatively easy to install and move around
o Especially inside the buildings where cable must be pulled through the walls and
the ceilings

Y BNC-T
The BNC-T connector is a T-shaped device with three ports:
–One for the NIC
–One each for the input and output ends of the cable
10 base T: Twisted Pair Ethernet
o Most popular standard defined in IEEE 802.3 series is 10 Base T also called Twisted
Pair Ethernet
o It is a Star topology LAN that uses Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP) cable instead of
coaxial cable
o It supports a data rate of 10 Mbps and has a maximum length of 100 meters

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o Instead of individual transceivers, 10 Base T Ethernet places all of its networking
operations in an intelligent Hub with a port for each station
o Stations are linked into the hub by four pair RJ-45 cable terminating at each end in a
male-type connector much like a Telephone jack
o The hub fans out any transmitted frame to all of its connected stations
o Each station contains a NIC
o A 4-pair UTP of not more than 100 meters connects the NIC to the appropriate port in
10 Base T Hub
o The weight & flexibility of the cable and the convenience of RJ-45 jack and plug
makes it the easiest to install and reinstall

1 Base 5: STAR LAN

o Star LAN is infrequently used nowadays because of its slow speed of approx. 1Mbps
o Range can be increased by DAISY CHAINING
o Like 10 Base T, Star LAN uses Twisted pair cable to connect stations to a central hub
o Star LAN allows 10 devices to be linked with only the lead device connected to the
hub

Switched Ethernet
o An attempt to improve the performance of 10BASE-T
o N ×10 Mbps with N devices

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Fast Ethernet
o Data rate can be increased by decreasing the collision domain
o If 10 Mbps ⇒ 100 Mbps, then
– 2500 m ⇒ 250 m

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• 100 Base-TX and 100 Base-FX

• 100 Base-T4

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Gigabit Ethernet
o Usually serves as a backbone
o Four implementations
–1000Base-SX, 1000Base-LX: Optical fiber, 550-5000 m
–1000Base-CX (STP), 1000Base-T (UTP): 25 m

Token Bus
o Other LANs are not suitable for this purpose
o Token Bus has no commercial application in data communications
o Token Ring allows each station to send one frame per turn
o Access method: Token passing

Summary
•Ethernet
–Implementations
•Other Ethernet Networks
•Token Bus/Ring
Reading Sections
•Section 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5
“Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 232

 LECTURE #44
Token Ring

o Token Ring allows each station to send one frame per turn
o Access method: Token passing

Access Control of Token Ring

Y Priority and reservation
–Each station has a priority code
Y Time limits
–Token Ring imposes a time limit to keep traffic moving
• Monitor Stations
o One station is designated as a monitor station to handle several problems
o Monitor station generates a new token when it is lost
o Monitor station removes recirculating data frames

Token Ring Frame

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Data Frame Fields

Implementation
o Each station in the Token Ring regenerates the frame
o One disabled or disconnected node could stop the traffic flow around the entire
network
–Each station is connected to an automatic switch

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Token Ring Switch

Y Multi station Access Unit (MAU)

o Individual automatic switches are combined in to a hub
o One MAU can support up to 8 stations
o Although it looks like a star, it is in fact a ring

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• FDDI

o Fiber Distributed Data Interface standardized by ANSI and the ITU-T

o 100 Mbps LAN protocol
o CDDI: Copper version of FDDI
o Access method: Token passing

Y FDDI Time Registers

Time registers
–Values are set when the ring is initialized and do not vary
–SA (Synchronous Allocation)
–TTRT (Target Token Rotation Time)
–AMT (Absolute Maximum Time)
Y FDDI Timers

Timers
–Each station contains two timers
–TRT (Token Rotation Timer) : Incrementing
–THT (Token Holding Timer) : Decrementing

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Station Procedure

Station Procedure
o THT is set to the difference between TTRT and TRT
o THT = TTRT - TRT
o TRT is reset to zero (TRT = 0)
o The station sends S-frames during the time in SA
o The station sends A-frames as long as THT ≥ 0
o Release the token

Dual Ring (Figure-1)

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Dual Ring (Figure-2)

Summary
•Token Ring
•FDDI
Reading Sections
•Section 12.5, 12.6, 12.7
“Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 238

 LECTURE #45
Internet
o An internet is a generic term used to mean an interconnection of individual networks
o To create an internet, we need networking devices called routers and gateways
o An internet is different from the Internet
o Internet is the name of a specific worldwide network

Connecting devices (Figure-1)

Connecting devices (Figure-2)

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Repeaters
Repeaters (Figure-1)

o A repeater allows us to extend only the physical length of a network

o Repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier
Repeaters (Figure-2)

Repeaters (Figure-3)

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Bridges

o Bridges can divide a large network into smaller segments

When a frame enters a bridge, the bridge:

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 –not only regenerates the signal
–but check the address of the destination and forwards the new copy only to the
segment to which the address belongs

Routers

Routers relay packets among multiple interconnection networks

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TCP/IP
o Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol
o 1969
o ARPA(Advanced Research Project Agency) net

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 TCP/IP and OSI

TCP/IP Protocols
• Network Layer
–IP (Internetworking Protocol )
–ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)
–RARP(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
–ICMP(Internet Control Message Protocol)
–IGMP(Internet Group Message Protocol)
• Transport Layer
–TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
–UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Summary

•Internet work
•Connecting Devices
–Repeaters
–Bridges
–Routers
•TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Reading Sections
•Section 21.1, 21.2, 21.3, 24.1, 24.2,
“Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan

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