Module no.

4
Contents:
 The Resistance
 The Effect of Temperature on the Resistance
 Resistor Color Coding
 Work, Power, and Energy
Topic Objectives:
 To define the meaning of resistance
 To explain the effect of temperature on the resistance
of the wire
 To identify the values of resistor using color codes
 To solve problems dealing resistor color coding
 To differentiate energy from work and power
RESISTANCE = the opposition to the flow of current (charge)

opposition due to collisions and friction between free

electrons

collision and friction converts electrical energy into HEAT!

FACTORS affecting resistance of material

1. Type of material (ρ)
L_
2. Length (L) R =ρ
3. Cross sectional Area (A) A
4. Temperature of the material (T)
where:
ρ = CM Ω / ft at T = 20oC (room temp)
= resistivity constant
L = length in feet
A = area in circular mils (CM)
CIRCULAR MILS (CM)
mil = a unit of measurement for length

1 mil = 1__ inch (or 0.001inch)

1000
1000 mils = 1 inch

Circular mil vs. Square mil

By definition;
1 mil d = 1 mil
A wire with a diameter
1 mil A = 1CM of 1 mil has an area
of 1 CM.
Applying the definition to a wire having a diameter of 1 mil,

A = π d 2
= π (1) 2
= π sq. mil = 1 CM
4 4 4

Since 1 CM = π sq. mils

4
4
Therefore; 1 sq. mil = CM
π
So for a wire with a diameter of N mils,
π
A = (N)2 sq. mils
4
π
= (N)2 [ 4 CM ]
4 π
A = N2 CM since d = N or ACM = (dmils)2
Sample Problems:

1. Find the area of a wire with a diameter of 1/8 inch.

2. What is the resistance of a 100ft length of copper wire of

0.020 inch diameter at 20oC? ( ρat 20o = 10.37 CM Ω / ft )

3. An undetermined number of feet of wire have been used

with a diameter of 1/16 inch and the resistance is 0.5Ω.
What is the length of the wire? (same ρ)

4. What is the diameter of a wire in inch, with an area of

6925CM?
 Temperature Effects on the Resistance of a copper wire

For good conductors, an

increase in temperature
will result in an increase in
the resistance level
R
(+) Temperature
coefficient

Temp
R
(-)Temperature
coefficient

Temp

http://www.electriccircuits.net/book,6,chapter,319,lesson,1470,thermoelectricity.aspx
 Resistance Curve R
R2
R1

X
(Absolute Zero)
-273.15oC

-234.5oC 0C
o T1 T2
(Inferred Absolute Zero)
Y
Using Similar Triangles

X Y /234.5/ + T1 /234.5/ + T2
= =
R1 R2 R1 R2

Note: Inferred absolute temp varies depending on material

Initial Temperature (Ti) of selected materials in oC

Silver - 234
Copper - 234.5
Gold - 274
Aluminum - 236
Tungsten - 204
Nickel - 147
Iron - 162

General Equation:

/Ti / + T1 /Ti / + T2
=
R1 R2
Sample Problems:

1. If the resistance of a copper wire is 50Ω at 20oC, what is its

resistance at 100oC?

2. If the resistance of a copper wire at freezing temperature is

30Ω, what is its resistance at -40 o C?

3. If the resistance of an aluminum at room temperature

(20 oC) is 100mΩ, at what temperature will it become
120mΩ?
Temperature coefficient of resistance

Example: Observe how wire temperature affect wire

resistance

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_12/5.html
At 20o Celsius, we get 12.5 volts across the load and a total of 1.5
volts (0.75 + 0.75) dropped across the wire resistance.
If the temperature were to rise to 35o Celsius, we could easily
determine the change of resistance for each piece of wire. Assuming
the use of copper wire (α = 0.004041) we get:

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_12/5.html
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_12/5.html
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS OF RESISTANCE, AT 20 DEGREES C

Material Element/Alloy "alpha" per degree Celsius

==========================================================
Nickel -------- Element --------------- 0.005866
Iron ---------- Element --------------- 0.005671
Molybdenum ---- Element --------------- 0.004579
Tungsten ------ Element --------------- 0.004403
Aluminum ------ Element --------------- 0.004308
Copper -------- Element --------------- 0.004041
Silver -------- Element --------------- 0.003819
Platinum ------ Element --------------- 0.003729
Gold ---------- Element --------------- 0.003715
Zinc ---------- Element --------------- 0.003847
Steel* --------- Alloy ---------------- 0.003
Nichrome ------- Alloy ---------------- 0.00017
Nichrome V ----- Alloy ---------------- 0.00013
Manganin ------- Alloy ------------ +/- 0.000015
Constantan ----- Alloy --------------- -0.000074
 Resistor Color Coding
Scheme

There are three types of resistor color coding. They have different
number of color bands and hence provide different information.
This is illustrated by the next table. You can calculate the value of
an unknown resistor by entering its color code in the fields below
the table.

4-band color code 5-band color code 6-band color code

2 digits, multiplier, 3 digits, multiplier, 3 digits, multiplier,
tolerance tolerance tolerance,
thermal coefficient

http://www.breakup.de/resources/resistor.html
How to read Resistor Color Codes

Black Brown Red OrangeYellow Green Blue Violet Gray White

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

THE MNEMONIC Tolerance%

B - Bad 0 (Black) Gold - 5%

B - Boy 1 (Brown) Silver - 10%
R - Ravish 2 (Red) No color - (20%)
O - Our 3 (Orange)
Y - Young 4 (Yellow)
G - Girls 5 (Green)
B - But 6 (Blue)
V- Violeta 7 (Violet)
G - Gave 8 (Gray)
W - Willingly 9 (White)

http://xtronics.com/kits/rcode.htm
http://users.etech.fh-hamburg.de/users/gelab/Html/Inhalte/resistor-color-code.htm
Sample Problems:

Find the resistance value in ohms and the percent

tolerance of: (using proper prefix only)
a) Red, Violet, Orange, Silver
b) Brown, Black, Brown, Silver
c) Green, Blue, Green, Gold
d) Red, Violet, Gold, Silver
e) Red, Violet, Black, Gold, Red
f) Yellow, Black, Red, Black, Brown
g) Orange, Orange, Red, Orange, Green

Give the color code for each value of resistor

a) 330±5%
b) 2.2kΩ±10%
c) 100kΩ±5%
d) 5Ω±10%
Module no.5
Contents:
 Ohm’s Law

Topic Objectives:

 To state the principle of Ohm’s Law

 To illustrate the Ohm’s Law wheel.
 To solve problems using the principle of Ohm’s Law
OHM’S LAW WHEEL

http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-ohm.htm
OHM’S LAW – derived from the equation for all
(George Simon Ohm) physical systems

EFFECT = CAUSE
OPPOSITION

EFFECT = flow of charge (current)

CAUSE = pressure (voltage)
OPPOSITION = resistance

E (amperes, A) E = IR (volts, V)
I =
R
E
R = (ohms, Ω)
I
Circuit Application
VR E
I = =
R R
I
E R VR

Note:
For any resistor, in any network, the direction of current
through a resistor will define the polarity of the voltage
drop across the resistor.
- VR +
+ VR - ● ●
● ●
R I
I R
 Module no.6
Contents:
 Resistors in Series Connection
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Topic Objectives:

 To explain the meaning of series connection

 To show different ways resistors can be connected in
series
 To introduce the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
 To apply KVL in dealing with parallel connections of
circuit
RESISTORS IN SERIES R1

R2 +
I R1 E _ R2
● ●
B A
R1

+ I
E _ R2

R3
Resistors can be connected in series, that is, the current flows
through them one after another.

Since there is only one path for the current to travel, the
current through each of the resistor is the same!
Identifying Series Connections

A series connection provides only one path for current between

two points in a circuit so that the same current flow through
each series resistor.

B
A ● A ● A ● ●-
+ + +

B ● B
● B ● A
- - - +●
 Connect all the resistors in series from R1 to R5 using A to B
path.
(a) R1 (b)
● R4
A
A● R2
R4 R1
R3
●B
R2 R5

R3

R5
(c) (d)
B ● R1 R4 A R4

A ● ● R2

R3 R2 R1 R5
R5
● R3
B ●
B
Effect of Connecting Resistors in Series

A The total resistance of a series

10Ω 30Ω 100Ω connection is equal to the sum
RT
of the resistances of each
B individual resistor.

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + …. + RN

= 30Ω + 10Ω + 100Ω

RN = 140Ω
Applying OHM’S LAW in series Circuits
Ex.1
+V1- +V2- +V3-
a
+ R1 =10Ω R2 =30Ω R3 =100Ω RT
E 140Ω
_ 8.4V
IS b

E 8.4V
Is = R = = 0.06A
T 140Ω Same current flowing
through each resistor
Is = 60mA
Note:
The polarity of the voltage across a resistor is determined
by the direction of the current!
+V- -V+ -
V 10Ω
10Ω 10Ω +

V1 = IsR1 V3 = IsR3
= (60mA)(10Ω) = (60mA)(100Ω)
V1 = 0.6V V3 = 6V
V2 = IsR2
= (60mA)(30Ω)
V2 = 1.8V
Ex.2 +V1- Determine:
a) RT
+ I R1=2Ω -
20V _ R2=1Ω V2 b) Is
R3=5Ω + c) Voltage across
each resistor
-V3+
Ex.3 -V2+

R1=7Ω R2=4Ω
50V
_
R3=7Ω
Determine V2
+
R4=7Ω
Power Distribution in Series Circuits
+V1- +V2- +V3-
since
+ IS R1 R2 R3
E _
RT V 2
P1 = V1 Is = Is2 R1 = 1
R1
Therefore:
PT = E Is PT = P1 + P2 + P3 Check using Example 1

Ex.4 R R2
1
Determine:
a) RT
1kΩ 3kΩ
b) Is
R3 2kΩ c) Voltage across each resistor
50V
d) Power supplied by the battery
e) Power dissipated by each resistor
f) Check if (d) and (e) are equal
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)
- “The algebraic sum of the potential rises and drops
around a closed path (or loop) is zero.”
Symbol : Σ V =0
+V1-
a● ●b APPLYING KVL:
R1
+ + +E – V1 – V2 = 0
E _ R2
KVL V2
- E = V1 + V2
d● ●c

-“ The applied voltage of a series dc circuit will equal the sum

of the voltage drops of the circuit.”
Symbol : Σ Vrises = Σ Vdrops
Ex.5 +V1- +4.2V-

R1 R2
+ + Determine V1
E1 _ 16V E2 _ 9V

Ex.6
+ 12V - + 6V -
●
R1
+ R
+ 2 +
Determine Vx
E 32V Vx R3 14V
- _
-
●
Ex.7

- 15V +

R3 Determine
I2 -
- a) V2 using KVL
54V R2 7Ω V2
E b) I2
+ +
R1 c) R1 and R3

+ 18V -
VOLTAGE DIVISION PRINCIPLE
(For Series Circuit Application)
+ 12V -

R1= 6Ω
+ +
E 20V R2 = 3Ω
6V
_
-
R3 = 1Ω

- 2V +

Note:
The voltage across series resistive elements will divide
as the magnitude of resistance levels.
In other words:
LARGER RESISTANCE = MORE VOLTAGE
THE VOLTAGE DIVIDER PRINCIPLE
“The voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the
Value of that resistor times the total applied voltage.”
IT +V1-
R T = R1 + R 2
+ RT R1 I1
I2 +
E R2
E
V2 IT = I1 = I2 =
- RT
_

E
since, V1 = I1 R1 = (R1)
RT
therefore, E
V2 = (R2)
RT
Ex.8 Using Voltage divider principle, determine voltages
V1, V3, and V’

+
R1 2Ω V1
_
+
+ V’
_
E 60V R2 5Ω
-
+
R3 8Ω V_3
PASSIVE LINEAR CIRCUITS
Circuit Symbols of:

RESISTOR CAPACITOR INDUCTOR

ACTIVE LINEAR CIRCUITS

Independent Voltage Source Independent AC Current Source

http://www.swarthmore.edu/NatSci/echeeve1/Ref/E72WhaKnow/WhaKnow.html
INDEPENDENT SOURCES
A voltage source is any device or
system that produces an
electromotive force between its
terminals. A primary voltage
source can supply (or absorb)
energy to a circuit.

A current source is an electrical

or electronic device that delivers
or absorbs electric current.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_source
DEPENDENT SOURCES

Voltage dependent voltage source

Voltage dependent current source

Current dependent current source

Current dependent voltage source

http://www.swarthmore.edu/NatSci/echeeve1/Ref/E72WhaKnow/WhaKnow.html
Voltage Current Controlled Voltage Controlled Current Battery
Source Source Source Source of cells
Other Electrical symbols

http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/circuits/u9l4a.html
DEPENDENT SOURCES

A B

i
+ +
5V
_ C _ 10 i

Fig. 1.14 The source on the right-hand side is a current

controlled voltage source.