Mechanics

Physics 151

Lecture 14
Special Relativity
(Chapter 7)
Special Relativity
„ You know it quite well already
„ Learned in Physics 15a/16
„ We skip all the historical discussions
„ E.g. about non-existence of absolute time
„ Start from two principles and build a clean formalism
„ Laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames
„ Speed of light in vacuum is the same in all inertial frames
„ Maxwell’s equations are always correct
Frames and Events
„ Consider two inertial frames S and S’
„ An event is specified by the position and the time
(t , x, y, z ) in S (t ′, x′, y′, z ′) in S’
„ Consider the distance between two events 1 and 2
„ We can always move the origins so that event 1 is
(t , x, y, z ) = (t ′, x′, y′, z ′) = (0, 0, 0, 0)
„ Physics does not depend on absolute position or time

„ We denote event 2 with (t , x, y, z ) and (t ′, x′, y′, z ′)

Spacetime Distance
„ Light is emitted at event 1 and detected at event 2
„ Speed of light, measured in S and S’, must be the same
x2 + y2 + z 2 x′2 + y ′2 + z ′2
c= =
t t′
c 2t 2 − ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 0
c 2 t ′2 − ( x′ 2 + y ′ 2 + z ′2 ) = 0

„ Define distance in spacetime (∆s)2 = c 2t 2 − ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )

We assume that the spacetime distance ∆s between any
two events is the same in all inertial frames
Light Cone
„ (∆s ) 2 = c 2t 2 − ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 0 represents light
„ If an object slower than light travels from event 1 to 2,
t must be larger Æ (∆s)2 > 0
„ If (∆s)2 < 0, there isn’t enough time for even light to reach

„ Interval between two events can fall into 3 regions

„ (∆s ) 2 > 0 timelike Reachable by ordinary objects
„ (∆s ) 2 < 0 spacelike Reachable only by tachyons (v > c)

„ (∆s ) 2 = 0 lightlike Reachable by light

Light Cone
„ (∆s)2 = 0 draws a cone in the t
4-dimensional space (∆s ) 2 > 0
„ Light cone divides spacetime
into past, future and elsewhere future
elsewhere
„ Division is frame-independent x
„ Protects causality (∆s ) 2 < 0
past
„ Past is past, future is future,
no matter which frame you are in
Time Dilation
„ Consider an object moving at a velocity v in S
(dx, dy, dz ) = (vx , v y , vz )dt
„ Define S’ so that this object is constantly at its origin
„ Consider small movement from event 1 to event 2
(∆s ) 2 = (c∆t ′) 2 in S ′
= (c∆t ) 2 − (∆x 2 + ∆y 2 + ∆z 2 ) in S
„ Make it infinitesimal
(cdt ′) 2 = (cdt ) 2 − (dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ) = (c 2 − v 2 )dt 2

dt ′ ≡ dτ = 1 − vc2 dt = 1 − β 2 dt < dt Moving clock

2

appears to run
slower
Proper time
4-Vectors
„ Express an event (t, x, y, z) as a ⎡ct ⎤
⎢ x ⎥ ct
4-dimensional vector ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
x= =⎢ ⎥
„ c is there to fix the unit ⎢ y⎥ ⎣r ⎦
⎢ ⎥
„ Length of this vector in “ordinary” ⎣z⎦
4-d space would be
x = xx = c 2t 2 + x 2 + y 2 + z 2
2
Totally useless for us
„ It’s more useful to define “length” as
⎡1 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ 0 −1 0 0 ⎥
x = x⋅x = x⎢ ⎥ x = c 2t 2 − ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
2

⎢ 0 0 −1 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 −1⎦ Metric tensor g
Minkowski Space
x = x ⋅ x = xgx = c 2t 2 − ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
2

„ 4-d space in which the length is defined as above is

called the Minkowski space
„ Metric tensor g expresses how length is defined
„ Metric tensor for ordinary space = unit matrix 1
„ We now say
Length of any 4-vector in Minkowski space is the same
in all inertial frames
Lorentz Transformation
„ So far we have not specified how S and S’ are related
„ The Question Of The Day is
What is the general form of the transformation
(ct , x, y, z ) ⎯⎯
L
→(ct ′, x′, y′, z ′)
that keeps the spacetime distance ∆s2 invariant?
„ We know the name: Lorentz transformation
„ Let’s figure out its characteristics
What is the general form of the transformation
that conserves the length in the Minkowski space?
Linearity
„ Physics does not depend on absolute position or time
„ Shifting the origin of S must simply shift the origin of S’
x → x+a x′ → x′ + a′ i.e. L(x + a) = L(x) + a′
„ Try x = 0 Æ L(a) = L(0) + a′
L(x + a) = L(x) + L(a) − L(0) True for any x and a
„ If we define L′(x) ≡ L(x) − L(0)
L′(x + a) = L′(x) + L′(a) L’ is linear

„ L(x) must be a linear function of x + fixed offset

Poincaré Transformation
„ Knowing that the transformation is linear
⎡ct ⎤ ⎡ ct ′⎤ Translation
⎢x⎥ ⎢ x′ ⎥ Any linear of origin
x = ⎢ ⎥ x′ = ⎢ ⎥ transformation x′ = Lx + a
⎢ y⎥ ⎢ y′ ⎥ is written as
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
z ⎣ z′ ⎦ 4x4 matrix

„ This is called Poincaré transformation

„ a moves the origin Æ No physical consequences
„ We ignore the translation and consider L only
„ This is called homogeneous Lorentz transformation
Let me write this as “HLT”
Lorentz Transformation
„ Now we have x′ = Lx L is a 4x4 real matrix
„ What are the constraints on L?
„ L must conserve the length of any 4-vector
x = xgx x′ = x′gx′ = xLgLx LgL = g
2 2
=
„ In terms of components
L ji g jk Lkl = gil 16 real equations
„ g is symmetric Æ Equation is symmetric
Æ 6 of 16 equations are duplicates
„ There are 10 constraints
L has 6 degrees of freedom
Rotation
„ Remember how rotation matrices were defined?
„ Conserve the length of any 3-vector in Cartesian space
„ In fact any rotation A in 3-space satisfies the condition
x = c 2t 2 − ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = const
2

Unaffected Conserved
„ 3-d rotation is a subset of HLT
„ Not the most exciting part of it

„ Rotation has 3 degrees of freedom (Euler angles)

„ There must be 3 more in HLT
Lorentz Boost
„ Consider two inertial frames S and S’
„ Origin of S’ must be moving at a constant velocity in S
( x′, y′, z ′) = 0 x = vx t y = v y t z = vz t
„ Rotate S and S’ so that x and x’ are parallel to v
„ Plus, y and y’, z and z’ are parallel to each other
„ OK to do this because rotation is a subset of HLT
⎡ ct ′⎤ ⎡ L00 L01 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ ct ⎤
y and z ⎢ x′ ⎥ ⎢ L L 0 0 ⎥⎢x⎥
are out of ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 10 11 ⎥⎢ ⎥
the game ⎢ y′ ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0⎥ ⎢ y ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
′
⎣z ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦ ⎣ z ⎦
 ⎡ L00 L01 0 0 ⎤
Lorentz Boost ⎢L
L = ⎢ 10
L11 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢ 0 0 1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
„ L must satisfy LgL = g ⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦

L200 − L10
2
= 1 L201 − L11
2
= −1 L00 L01 − L10 L11 = 0
„ Origin of S’ is x′ = 0 0 = L10 ct + L11 x
v L10
„ This must satisfy x = vt β ≡ =−
c L11
⎡ L00 L01 ⎤ ⎡ ±γ ∓γβ ⎤ 1
⎢L ⎥ =⎢ γ ≡±
γ ⎥⎦
Solve!
⎣ 10 L11 ⎦ ⎣ −γβ 1− β 2
„ Looks familiar except…
What are these
signs?
Sign Ambiguities
1
γ≡
„ There are 4-fold sign ambiguities 1− β 2

⎡ L00 L01 ⎤ ⎡ ±γ ∓γβ ⎤ Sign of ct’ is arbitrary

⎢L ⎥ =⎢
⎣ 10 L11 ⎦ ⎣ ∓γβ ±γ ⎥⎦ Sign of x’ is arbitrary

„ Only 1 represents Lorentz transformation

„ Think about the low-velocity limit
⎡ ±γ ∓γβ ⎤ β →0 ⎡ ±1 0 ⎤
⎢ ∓γβ ±γ ⎥ ⎯⎯⎯ γ →1
→⎢
± ⎥ This must be unit matrix
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦
⎡ L00 L01 ⎤ ⎡ γ −γβ ⎤
⎢L ⎥ =⎢
⎣ 10 L11 ⎦ ⎣ −γβ γ ⎥⎦
Space-Time Reversal
„ What are the other solutions?
⎡ L00 L01 ⎤ ⎡ γ −γβ ⎤
„ ⎢L ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ flips x axis: Space inversion
⎣ 10 L11 ⎦ ⎣γβ −γ ⎦
⎡ L00 L01 ⎤ ⎡ −γ γβ ⎤
„
⎢L ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ flips t : Time reversal
⎣ 10 L11 ⎦ ⎣ −γβ γ ⎦
„ They reverse the orientation of time and/or space
„ Laws of physics are happy with such transformation
„ Not “continuous” part of the Lorentz transformation
„ We aren’t interested for the moment
 ⎡ γ −γβ 0 0⎤
General Boost ⎢ −γβ
L=⎢
γ 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢ 0 0 1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
„ We’ve got L for boost in x ⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦

„ We can rotate S and S’ to get L for boost in any direction

„ We can also use a bit of vector algebra
„ Split 3-vector r into two parts
(r ⋅ β)β
r = Parallel Perpendicular r⊥ = r − r
β 2 to v to v

„ Parallel component transforms like x above

ct ′ = γ ct − γβ r = γ ct − γ (β ⋅ r )
(r ⋅ β)β(γ − 1)
r′ = −γ βct + γ r + r⊥ = −γ βct + r +
β2
Proper Lorentz Transformation
Proper Lorentz
„ Writing down explicitly for general β transformation
⎡ γ −γβ x −γβ y −γβ z ⎤
⎢ β x2 βxβ y βxβz ⎥
⎢ −γβ x 1 + (γ − 1) β 2 (γ − 1) β 2 (γ − 1) β 2 ⎥
L=⎢ β yβx β y2 βyβz
⎥
⎢ −γβ y (γ − 1) 2 1 + (γ − 1) β 2 (γ − 1) β 2 ⎥
β
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −γβ (γ − 1) βz βx
(γ − 1)
βzβ y
1 + (γ − 1) βz ⎥
2

⎢⎣ z β2 β2 β2 ⎥⎦
⎡ γ −γ β ⎤
⎢ ⎥
=⎢ ββ ⎥ 3 degrees of freedom (βx, βy, βz)
−γ β 1 + (γ − 1) 2
⎢⎣ β ⎥⎦
Æ General form of Lorentz
transformation without rotation
Lorentz T at a Glance
⎡ γ −γ β ⎤
„ Proper Lorentz Transformation ⎢ ⎥
L=⎢ ββ ⎥
„ 3 degrees of freedom in β PLT
⎢⎣
−γ β 1 + (γ − 1) 2
β ⎥⎦
„ Orientation of the axes are unchanged
„ Homogeneous Lorentz Transformation LA
„ A is rotation. 3 + 3 = 6 degrees of freedom
„ Origin is unchanged
„ Poincaré transformation x′ = LAx + a
„ a shifts the origin. 6 + 4 = 10 degrees of freedom
„ Completely general form of transformation between inertial
systems that satisfy special relativity
Properties of L ⎡ γ
⎢
−γβ x
β x2
−γβ y
βxβ y
−γβ z
βxβz ⎥
⎤
⎢ −γβ x 1 + (γ − 1) β2
(γ − 1) β2
(γ − 1) β2 ⎥
L=⎢ βyβx β y2 β yβz
⎥
⎢ −γβ y (γ − 1) 2 1 + (γ − 1) β 2 (γ − 1) β 2 ⎥
„ L Æ 1 when β Æ 0 ⎢ β
⎥
⎢ −γβ β β
(γ − 1) βz 2 x
β
(γ − 1) β 2z β y
1 + (γ − 1) β z2 ⎥⎥
β 2

⎢⎣
L-1 is given by β Æ –β ⎦
z
„

⎡ γ −γ β ⎤⎡γ γβ ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ Check
⎢ −γ β 1 + (γ − 1) ββ ⎥ ⎢γ β 1 + (γ − 1) ββ ⎥ = 1 this!
⎢⎣ β 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ β 2 ⎥⎦
„ Diagonally symmetric
„ Remember: rotation matrix A is anti-symmetric
„ LA (for HLT) is neither symmetric nor anti-symmetric
Addition of Velocities
„ Make two PLTs L and L’ in series
„ If β and β’ are parallel, we can define x as their direction
⎡ γ′ −γ ′β ′⎤ ⎡ γ −γβ ⎤ Only ct and x
L′L = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −γβ ⎥ components
⎣ −γ ′
β ′ γ ′ ⎦⎣ γ ⎦ shown
⎡ γ ′γ (1 + β ′β ) −γ ′γ ( β + β ′) ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
⎣ −γ ′
γ ( β + β ′) γ ′
γ (1 + β ′
β ) ⎦
β + β′
„ Same as one PLT with β ′′ = Addition of
1 + β ′β velocities

„ |β”| < 1 for any β and β’ Å as expected

Addition of Velocities
„ What if we add two velocities that are not parallel?
„ For example, β is in x, β’ is in y
⎡ γ′ 0 −γ ′β ′⎤ ⎡ γ −γβ 0⎤
L′L = ⎢⎢ 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ −γβ 0 ⎥⎥
Only ct, x, y
1 γ components
⎢⎣ −γ ′β ′ 0 γ ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦ shown

⎡ γ ′γ −γ ′γβ −γ ′β ′⎤
= ⎢⎢ −γβ 0 ⎥⎥
Ugly
γ asymmetric
⎢⎣ −γ ′γβ ′ γ ′γβ ′β γ ′ ⎥⎦ matrix

„ Obviously L′L ≠ LL′ PLTs are not commutative

Addition of Velocities
„ In general, L’L is asymmetric
„ Two PLTs do not add up to a PLT
„ On the other hand, two HLTs do add up to a HLT
„ HLTs are defined as “linear transformations that conserve
length of 4-vectors and do not move the origin”
Æ Two successive HLTs automatically satisfy this
„ Therefore two PLTs must make a HLT
„ i.e., L’L must be written as L”A
„ i.e., PLT + PLT = PLT + a rotation
„ Goldstein section 7.3 makes a big fuss about this
Lorentz Group
„ Homogeneous Lorentz transformations make a closed
group (Lorentz group)
„ Product of two members is always a member
„ Rotations make a group
„ Which is a subgroup of the Lorentz group
„ Proof Æ Euler’s theorem
„ Proper Lorentz transformations do not make a group
Summary
„ Discussed Lorentz transformation
„ Linear transformation of 4-vectors that conserve the length
in Minkowski space
„ Derived general form of homogeneous Lorentz
transformation
„ Product of rotation and proper Lorentz transformation
„ Found explicit matrix expression of PLT
„ HLTs form a group, PLTs don’t
„ Now we know how the spacetime transforms
„ Next: physical quantities in the spacetime