Journal of Applied Leadership and Management, 2012, Volume 1 20

The Leadership Productivity Model

Christoph Desjardins ([email protected])

University of Applied Sciences Kempten, Germany

Summary

Research questions: What are the core dimensions of leadership productivity? Which leadership
tasks need to be performed to increase the productivity of employees?

Methods: Four empirical studies across different organizations using the Leadership
Productivity Survey as an instrument to measure the impact of the
performance of leaders on the productivity of their subordinates.

Results: Goal Orientation, Support and Time Optimization, if performed by a

leader, increase the productivity of their subordinates.

Structure of the article: 1. Essay; 2. Literature Review; 3. Research questions & methods; 4.
Detailed empirical results; 5. Conclusions; 6. About the author;
7. References

1. ESSAY the confusion between job satisfaction and work

motivation. Often leaders only target job satisfaction
The major concern of this article and the underlying (e.g. by bonus systems), which has only a limited
research is the question how good leaders can be correlation with work performance.
developed. “Goodness” is defined as fulfilling the role Therefore this article recommends that leaders broaden
of a leader, which is to achieve the goals of an their focus towards leadership tasks that directly
organization and at the same time to create a high increase the performance of their employees. This is
degree of intrinsic motivation. assumed to have a double reciprocal positive effect. It
Looking at surveys about leadership performance it can directly increases productivity but at the same time also
be assumed that the current development activities, fulfills fundamental motivational needs of employees,
mostly some kind of group leadership training, have which then leads to an enhanced intrinsic motivation.
dramatically failed. One reason is the instant learning As intrinsic motivation is causing increased work effort,
approach, which wrongly assumes that a one-time- this effect leads to higher work productivity.
training leads to sustainable behavioral changes. The This specific kind of leadership performance is
other reason might be that the leadership concepts that described by the term Leadership Productivity.
are taught are too high level (What to do?) and do not Leadership Productivity means that a leader has the
give clear practical directions for productive leadership responsibility for the work productivity of his team and
performance (How to do it?). One common advice from causes changes of this productivity by his performance.
such trainings is to increase the work motivation of To increase work productivity leaders need to consider
employees in order to increase the overall productivity. their personal productivity as well as the productivity of
Even though this causal relationship is valid, it is still their team (Figure 1).
very difficult to implement directly. A major problem is
Desjardins, Leadership Productivity 21

Figure 1: Figure 2:
Leadership Productivity Leadership Productivity Model

Observing modern leaders we find a contradicting In contrast to these formalized processes, Goal
behavior. As a leader is a subject to constant pressure, Orientation is about the continuous leadership
she/he tries to optimize his own work productivity. This performance necessary to implement the strategic and
leads to a reduction of interaction time with her/his operative goals of an organization. It consists of the
subordinates as well as certain other types of behavior leadership tasks Goal Definition, Goal Clarification,
to reduce her/his personal workload like directly Process Acceptance and Result Acceptance.
delegating tasks that were ordered by higher ranks and
Goal Definition is about defining the characteristics of a
scheduling meetings according to his personal
goal as described in goal definition concepts like
timetable. By this modern leaders sacrifice the work
SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic,
productivity of their subordinates for the sake of their
Timed). Another aspect is that goals need to be
personal work productivity. The overall effect of this
documented as human memories tend to be not reliable,
behavior on the organizational goals is negative.
starting with selection of information that is considered
The option to develop productive leadership to be valuable for further processing.
performance is available for every modern leader. It is
As operative goals are subject to constant change if the
about relatively simple leadership tasks and not about
plan is effective, these changes need to be taken into
becoming an omnipotent charismatic leader or a type of
account, leading to goal alterations. The corresponding
transformational guru, which seems to be indicated by
task is described as Goal Clarification, which includes
the popular management literature.
the information and involvement of the subordinate into
Instead leaders need to focus on some basic leadership the goal changes.
tasks that have been defined in the Leadership
Another productivity barrier for goal-oriented
Productivity Model (Figure 2).
leadership is the fundamental lack of will or ability of
These basic leadership tasks have been categorized in many leaders to accept how an employee tries to
three leadership dimensions, which are defined as Goal achieve a goal as well as the final characteristics of a
Orientation, Support and Time Optimization. goal that has been achieved by a subordinate. An
Goal Orientation is a different concept to the common increasing difficulty with the pace of technological
goal definition processes that are conducted in change is the attitude of the leader as a superior subject
companies. In this all to common process, goals are matter expert. This leads not only to the denial of work
defined for an entire year and are not continuously results but also to a continuous interference with the
adapted which leads to them being neglected during the goal achievement process of an employee. The work
daily work. Their impact on the importance is therefore autonomy of a subordinate is reduced, which has a
low and their purpose is mostly to ensure that a certain direct negative effect on work productivity as well as on
expected bonus will be paid to the employee. the intrinsic motivation. Such a lack of Process

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Acceptance and Result Acceptance leads to a high providing wrong feedback might lead to major
amount of non-productive re-work. productivity losses.
The clear Goal Orientation of a leader has a direct, Feedback is also part of the Coaching a leader should
substantial impact on the productivity of subordinates. provide to his team members. Coaching leads to higher
Further more, normal performance-oriented employees work productivity as clear instructions and relationship
will be highly motivated if they are enabled to support trigger an engaged self-learning process. It is
autonomously achieve their work objectives. This can needed if subordinates are working on a new and
be enhanced even more by aligning personal demanding task or have to operate in complex and
development through setting demanding, but realistic changing work environments. As it supports skill and
goals and by relating goals to individual values, knowledge acquisition processes it leads to higher skill
therefore creating purpose. levels of employees and therefore increased and higher
In most cases, it is no longer sufficient to empower quality outputs. Coaching also enhances intrinsic
employees by a goal-oriented leadership performance. motivation as it triggers various motivational sources
As motivating goals are defined as being above their within an individual like growth motivation,
current skill level and employees can not fully control performance motivation and acknowledgement.
their work environment, they need the support of their Besides a clear goal orientation and an ideal support of
leaders during the goal achievement process. Therefore subordinates, a leader can increase productivity by an
the second dimension of the Leadership Productivity optimization of their work time. Time Optimization
Model has been named Support. It consists of the means that a leader needs to be considerate about the
leadership tasks Interaction, Information, Feedback and impact of his performance on the work time allocation
Coaching. of his subordinates. The optimization process starts with
In many big international companies leaders personally the Workload Optimization. Here a leader needs to be
appear so rarely or infrequently in front of their clear about the actual time allocation of a team member
subordinates that they might be considered being on the when assigning a new task. Many leaders tend to drive
red list for threatened species. Reasons for this are the their priorities at the whim of their superiors which
growth of virtual and matrix organizations and the results in the unreflective delegation (dumping) of
growing work load of leaders in general. Therefore it is newly ordered tasks to their subordinates. Subordinates
not sufficient for leaders to implement an Open Door are then forced to interrupt their current tasks and to add
Policy as they are not found in their office anyway. a new task to their list. This causes productivity losses
Instead they need to ensure Interaction by creating due to the work interferences and the rescheduling of
regular face-to-face meetings with their direct reports in tasks as well as the enforced work overload that might
order to spend at least some quality time with them. occur. The long term results that must be taken into
Without a regular interaction time a leader is not account are the motivational deficits of such delegation
capable of supporting let alone engaging his schemes.
subordinates in a substantial manner. Scheduling refers to the fact that most leaders do plan
It might be possible to fulfill the fundamental meetings based on their availability, not on the
Information needs of employees in a virtual way by e- availability of their team members. This is done in order
mail or phone, but a crucial amount of information will to optimize their own work schedule. Doing so they risk
be lost compared to a face-to-face situation. the productivity of their subordinates by interfering with
This is especially true for the provision of Feedback. their planned work time allocation. This leads to
Feedback is not a question of good manners, but a core punctual productivity losses but also is the root cause of
element of an effective goal achievement process. a general productivity barrier, the low acceptance of
Without feedback people do not know if and how they part time work contracts. Part time workers, especially
have achieved a goal. Therefore positive as well as mothers, are found to be highly motivated and need to
constructive (negative) feedback is needed to guide organize their work time in the most efficient way in
current and future work performance. As especially order to get home in time to take care of their kids. This
negative feedback can elicit unproductive thoughts and makes them highly productive employees. Despite this,
reflections, the parameters of productive feedback need leaders are not very enthusiastic about employing part
to be known to leaders. Not providing feedback or timers. A main reason is their limited availability to the

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immediate information and delegation needs of increased motivation. Motivation will be increased
superiors. The need to take the time schedule of a part- based on the indirect effects of productive leadership
timer into account is perceived as reducing the performance on the drivers of intrinsic motivation.
individual productivity of a leader. As a consequence Interaction, feedback & coaching are perceived as
part-time contracts are avoided and a huge productivity acknowledgement of the individual. The information
potential for companies is left untapped. contained will create sense and the overall Coaching
In contrast to this Meeting Optimization is a widely approach elicits feelings of control and personal growth.
accepted driver for more productivity amongst leaders. The definition and clarification of goals are directly
Still it is only partly implemented but could add a increasing performance motivation.
significant increase to work productivity as a relevant
part of the weekly work time is spent in meetings.
Leaders need to be trained to increase the effectiveness 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
of a meeting e.g. by setting up a goal-oriented agenda or
by using facilitation methods.
The Leadership Productivity Model is a taxonomy of
effective leadership tasks, like defined by Fleishman
Implementing all three leadership dimensions of the (1991). It’s clear purpose is to describe leadership tasks
Leadership Productivity Model and its different that have a direct impact on the productivity of a
leadership tasks into the daily leadership performance leader’s subordinates. A clear causal relationship
should lead to significant increase of the work between the different factors and the productivity of the
productivity of employees. A large study by a employees is postulated. Also an empirical validation of
consulting company (Proudfoot, 2005) came up with a the model has been undertaken as shown in this article.
percentage of 13,5% productivity losses due to the Still there are some defining distinctions to the existing
leadership performance. This accounts to almost 30 leadership models and taxonomies.
work days per year that could be used productively.
First, the concepts of leadership styles are rejected. By
It is assumed that when measuring the productivity defining leadership in terms of styles (Fleishman, 1953;
losses using the Leadership Productivity Model, a Blake & Mouton, 1964), leadership performance gets
significant productivity potential can be discovered in the taste of being a subject to fashions or personal
many companies due to an inadequate and ineffective preferences. Also the distinction between styles seems
leadership performance of a high number of leaders. to be dysfunctional and leads to a conceptual distinction
This assumption has been checked in different studies of the basic leadership tasks, which are seen as
across various industries as can be seen in chapter 4. functionally inseparable.
However, the overall productivity potential of Leadership's prime responsibility is to achieve
leadership task performance is seen as much higher. organizational goals (Porter, Lawler & Hackman, 1975;
The productivity gains of leadership are defined as Rauch & Behling, 1984, Yukl, 2010) - therefore there
threefold: (1) Work Time Usage. A major effect of can’t be a people focus, which is not considering the
productive leadership is the avoidance of idle work time tasks that need to be fulfilled. The same is true for the
or the performance of unnecessary tasks. The task focus. As leadership is about tasks, which are
Leadership Productivity Survey that was used in the nothing else as the necessary process steps to achieve
described surveys is assessing the factors that inhibit organizational goals, it is always task-oriented, so task-
effective Work Time Usage and measuring the amount oriented leadership is a pleonasm.
of lost time. Another productivity gain through Tasks, logically, need to be conducted, mostly by
leadership is achieved by a more efficient (2) Task people being led. Consequentially all leadership
Performance. If employees are supported by feedback activities need to be worried about how to get people to
& coaching activities and are enabled and empowered to perform, means it is basically people-oriented
perform their tasks, the required time for performing a (Mastrangelo, Eddy & Lorenze, 2004).
task will be reduced or the overall output will be higher
While the Michigan studies (Katz, Maccoby & Morse,
and of greater quality. The third productivity potential is
1950; Katz & Kahn, 1952) did not define task-
(3) Task Effort. A higher task effort is triggered by an
orientation and people-orientation as complimentary

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leadership styles, this differentiation was introduced The issue was therefore mostly targeted by Management
based on these two factors of the Ohio Studies Consultants, which have to sell their services based on
(Fleishman, 1953) and later on applied and deepened in an increase of their client’s process efficiency. There are
the contingency models (Hersey and Blanchard, 1984). several studies (Proudfoot, 2005; Hay Group 2010)
The same logic was also used in the differentiation measuring the impact of leadership performance on the
between leadership and management or transactional productivity of the subordinates. These studies
and transformational leadership, where management is supported the personal observations of the author that
seen as a task-oriented role with limited considerations were derived from a series of informal, non-documented
of human issues, while leadership is defined as a interviews with subordinates from various industries.
relationship-oriented activity (e.g. Bass, 1990; Kotter, The result is the definition of precise leadership tasks
1988; Minzberg 1973). that directly influences leadership productivity. Aside
The Leadership Productivity Model sees these two from their practical face validity, the impact of these
leadership roles as holistic, which is supported by factors on leadership performance can also be
studies, which could not find a statistical difference theoretically derived from the literature on leadership
between Leadership and Management tasks research.
(Schoorman, Schechter, Moeller & Schneider, 1988).
The definition of leadership is that the task of a leader is
Leadership Productivity dimension: Goal Orientation
the achievement of organizational goals by interpersonal
interactions. Management is seen as directed towards As the definition of leadership is to accomplish
the organization of data and things (Schoorman et. al, organizational goals, the management of this goal
1988) and can therefore be conducted by people who do achievement, especially on the level of the single
not possess a role which includes the responsibility to employee, has been part of different leadership
lead subordinates. taxonomies (Bowers & Seashore, 1966; Yukl, 2010).
A second distinction to other models is the replacement A definition can be derived from the existing concepts
of the term leadership “behavior” by leadership in work psychology (Frese & Zapf, 1994; Locke, 1990).
“performance”. Instead leadership is seen as an Foremost the scope and the Key Performance Indicators
organizational role with specific tasks that need to be (e.g. the timeline) of the goal need to be precisely
consciously performed. These leadership tasks can be defined, if possible in a written Goal Definition
taught. A third differentiation is the replacement of the document. Changes of the goals need to be clarified
term leaderhip “effectivity” by the term “leadership with all parties involved, which would then be an agreed
productivity”. “Leadership effectiveness” like “task- and accepted Goal Clarification.
orientation” is again seen as pleonasm. If we speak An important factor of productive goal achievement is
about leadership we normally talk about leadership the autonomy of the performer, as self-perceived
performance that is supposed to be effective. Non- autonomy is a major driver of intrinsic motivation (Deci
effectiveness means that a leadership role has not been and Ryan, 1980) and also directly increases work
performed. The definition of leadership as performance performance, process efficiency and customer
of leadership tasks allows one to differentiate between satisfaction (Cohen & Ledford, 1993; Desjardins, 2002;
high performance and low performance. Herbst, 2009; Wall & Martin, 1987). Leaders need to
The idea that leadership should be concerned about the accept and develop the autonomy of their subordinates
productivity of the people being led (Dubin, 1965; as a prerequisite for productivity. This includes the
Witte, 1995) has received very limited attention in the Process Acceptance of how the goal achievement
scientific leadership literature so far. If addressed, the process is handled by the subordinate as well as the
issue of leadership as facilitator of productiveness Result Acceptance of the final specifications of the goal
compared to other facilitators was discussed in the framework of the existing KPIs. Limited result
(Schoorman et al., 1988). The issue overlooked, was the acceptance is a major barrier to productivity, as work
fact that leaders should obviously act as a facilitator for processes have to be repeated if results are rejected.
work productiveness, but instead quite often act as
inhibitors to the productivity of their direct reports.

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Leadership Productivity dimension: Support That means negative feedback is only necessary in some
leadership incidents and should be avoided if possible,
A leadership task that is taken as granted in the
while positive feedback is a leadership task that is
leadership literature is to spend face-to-face time with
always mandatory for the productivity of subordinates.
one’s subordinates. Interaction is the fundament of any
If negative feedback has to be provided, it needs to be
leadership performance as leadership is communicated
combined with a statement how improved performance
through this interaction. However in many international
can be achieved and how it can lead to a positive
companies the availability of supervisors for their team
outcome, in order to increase productivity (DeNisi &
members is strictly limited. Reasons are high workloads
Sonesh, 2011).
on leadership levels as well as international matrix
organizations and virtual teams as work environments. Also continuous positive feedback should be not
Leaders who do not create regular, detailed and prompt confused with too much praise, which has been found as
communication in such work environments do create having little effect on performance (Meyer; Kay &
major obstacles for productivity (Kayworth & Leidner, French, 1965). The definition of positive feedback in the
2002). Leadership Productivity Model is the communication of
goal process achievement to a subordinate who is
Leaders need to transfer the majority of work related
performing a task.
information through personal interaction. A lack of
information as well as a decline of productivity will Ideally a performer is independent from external
occur if these interaction times are too limited or if the feedback and can recognize errors and correct his
leader does not share crucial information or provide data actions based on task feedback that is elicited from the
when needed. Information is therefore a leadership task task itself (Frese & Zapf, 1994), also based on the
that has been added to the majority of leadership earlier statement that subordinates are normally the
taxonomies (Fleishman 1991; Luthans and Lockwood, more qualified subject-matter experts than the leader.
1984; Minzberg, 1973). As human action is exclusively This kind of feedback is recognized as self-induced and
focused on the pursuit of goals (Frese & Zapf, 1994), therefore more easily accepted than external feedback.
Feedback is a crucial mechanism that allows the Self-discovery instead of external feedback also
adaptation of human behavior to an ever changing prevents that the cognitive effort for the task is reduced
environment. Without feedback mechanism, humans (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996).
won’t know that they have achieved a task (Galanter & A way of triggering self-discovery or self-actualization
Pribram, 1960). Task-related feedback also increases processes is to use Coaching as a leadership tool. It is
performance (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996), as it creates based on starting an action cycle in which an individual
clarity in Goal Orientation is assisted to set goals, develop plans, start actions,
Leaders therefore need to provide feedback regarding observe and measure the performance and adapt the
the achievement of work goals to their subordinates in work behavior to increase performance skill levels in
order to align the work results with the organizational order to achieve organizational goals (Graham et. al.,
goals. Without the information that a goal has been 1994). Coaching has been empirically proven to
sufficiently achieved, a performer would miss the increase work performance (Agarwal, Angst &
information, that no more effort is needed and would Massimo, 2009; Liu & Batt, 2010) or in other words,
put too much effort into a task, e.g. not complying to the productivity. It is a leadership tool, that is in high
pareto principle (Juran, 1994). In the sense of demand of subordinates (Ellinger, Ellinger & Keller,
productivity this kind of positive feedback is even more 2003), but that is not used in the daily leadership
crucial than negative feedback. Negative feedback only practice (Proudfoot, 2005), based on a lack of coaching
prevents false work behavior, but does not steer the skills or a lack of insight in its need or functionality
behavior towards organizational goals. But negative (Heslin, Vandevalle & Latham, 2006).
feedback easily elicits ego-involvement from the
receiver, which leads to a diversion of task attention and
Leadership Productivity dimension: Time Optimization.
therefore lower performance levels (Kluger & DeNisi,
1996). This effect can be reduced by offering skill Workload Optimization is important when assigning
development options or coaching by the supervisor. goals to subordinates. It is assumed, that leaders should
take the actual workload of an employee into

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consideration when assigning a new goal to them, but factor for efficient meetings (Lambing, 2008; Romano
regularly do not do so. Workloads are assigned based on & Nunamaker, 2001).
the perceived urgency of a goal, not due to the
consideration of the overall productivity of a
subordinate. That leads to work overload which is
3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS &
generally frustrating employees (Whingther,
METHODS
Cunningham, Wang & Burnfield, 2008). Too many
performance objectives also trigger conflicts between
In order to validate the theoretical assumptions of the
the different goals in setting priorities (Lewis, 1998).
Leadership Productivity Model, a specific survey has
One consequence is time pressure that leads to a
been developed. The first version (a second version is
minimization of cognitive task effort and by this to
being developed) of the Leadership Productivity Survey
more errors in problem solving processes (Svensson &
(LPS) consists of 12 Leadership Productivity
Maule, 1993).
performance items that are operationalizing the three
Scheduling refers to the scheduling of all kinds of
productivity dimensions (Goal Orientation, Support,
meetings and events (e.g. face-to-face meetings, team
Time Optimization) and ten of the eleven leadership
meetings, client meetings) by the supervisor. Many
tasks. 12 additional Leadership Productivity Loss items
scheduling decisions are taken without a consideration
are used to estimate the productivity impact of the
of the actual work schedule of an employee. That leads
corresponding leadership performance. Participants are
to a task interruption of the current tasks of their
asked to estimate their personal productivity loss in
subordinates. This is inhibiting work productivity as
minutes/hours per week as an outcome of the
interrupting complex tasks leads to increased error rates
performance of the relevant leadership task.
and longer time to complete tasks (Ratwani, Trafton &
The task of the empirical part is to validate the
Myers, 2007). If there is a high goal motivation,
Leadership Productivity Model that has been measured
interruptions also impact the performance of subsequent
by the LPS. In order to achieve this objective, six
tasks (Freeman & Muraven, 2010). Therefore work
hypotheses have been formulated.
interruptions should be avoided if possible.
Involving subordinates in the scheduling has an
additional productivity impact as the negative effect of a Hypothesis 1:
high workload on mental fatigue can be reduced when Productive leadership performance is a holistic
employees are enabled to execute personal control over behavioral factor that consists of different dimensions
the scheduling process (Hockey & Earle, 2006). as has been specified in the Leadership Productivity
Meeting Optimization considers that a leader should be Model.
concerned about the efficient usage of work time by his Hypothesis 2:
subordinates. As subordinates should conduct most The different dimensions of a productive leadership
works steps autonomously, this means focusing of the performance that have been specified in the Leadership
efficient organization of the shared work time, of which Productivity Model are seen by subordinates as relevant
the major part is spent in meetings. An average for their work productivity.
employee spends about six hours a week in scheduled Hypothesis 3:
meetings (Rogelberg, Cliff & Kello, 2007). A large part
The productive leadership performance of actual
of meeting time is found as adding no value (Garcia,
leaders has a substantial development potential.
Kunz & Fischer, 2003). Meeting productivity was
estimated by leaders across industries to range between Hypothesis 4:
33% - 47% (Romano & Nunamaker, 2001). Productive leadership performance is individual as well
Factors causing this effect are e.g. a non-effective as situational and differentiates the behavior of leaders.
agenda that include up to 30% agenda topics that focus Hypothesis 5:
on sharing information, which could be also Productive leadership performance correlates positively
communicated asynchronously (Garcia et al., 2003). with the work productivity of subordinates.
Leaders need to set up effective agendas and can also
facilitate meetings, which has been identified as another

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Four studies with a total of 206 participants have been items has been increased from 10 to 12 items in the last
conducted using the LPS as a bottom-up evaluation tool study. This has been taken into account for the different
for leadership performance. The LPS uses a 5-point analytical steps.
Likert scale (Scale values: 1=never; 2=seldom;
3=sometimes; 4=more often; 5=regular).
Study 1 (n=64) was done in a machinery company 4. DETAILED EMPIRICAL RESULTS
throughout a variety of technical, sales and
administrative departments (Meggle, 2008). 6 of the 20
evaluated leaders were engineers or had another The theoretical conceptualization of the Leadership
technical background. Study 2 (n1=31; n2=31) was Productivity Model is that of a one-factor model.
performed in a production site for technical component Productive leadership performance is seen as a factor
and was focusing on the leadership performance of 4 that consists of multiple dimensions that impact the
team leaders with a non-academic, technical overall productivity of a leader (Hypothesis 1). This
background (Kozuch, 2009). The third study (n=64) was concept was analyzed by a statistical factor analysis
focusing on a total of 18 leaders from as many (Table 1) using a principle component analysis that led
companies and various industries, mostly academics, to the extraction of three factors. As all measured
with an engineering, IT or administrative background dimensions load on one single factor, which explains
(Rech 2011). In a fourth study (n=16) that was 43,5% of the total variance (factor 2: 10,2%; factor 3:
specifically done for this article, part-time MBA 8,7%), the theoretical concept of a one factor productive
students from different industries and companies were leadership performance has been supported.
asked to evaluate their supervisors.
To check the construct validity of the Leadership
In all four studies, the interaction time of leaders has
Productivity Model, the 64 participants of the first study
been assessed on a different scale than the other
have been asked if the different leadership tasks are
leadership tasks. For reasons of comparisons it was
relevant for their work productivity (Hypothesis 2).
excluded from this data analysis even though a
Table 2 shows that on a scale from 1 to 5 (high) all 11
corresponding Leadership Productivity loss item was
items reflecting the ten leadership tasks of the
used. The impact of this is seen as negligible as based
Leadership Productivity Model are rated with values
on the existing results the additional data should have
above 3, which means that all ten were evaluated as
led to an even stronger support of the hypotheses.
having a medium to high impact on the individual work
During the four studies, the LPS has been slightly
productivity.
altered. The number of Leadership Productivity Loss

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Table 1:
Factor loadings and communalities based on a principle components analysis for the 12 Leadership Productivity
performance items of the Leadership Productivity Survey (n = 206)

Components
1 2 3 Com.
Define work goals ,712 -,268 ,311 ,676
Define timelines ,453 -,279 ,669 ,731
Clarify & adjust goals ,618 -,180 -,096 ,424
Empower autonomous goal ,512 ,500 -,269 ,584
achievement
Accept level of goal achievement ,59 ,318 -,218 ,498
Provide information ,724 -,118 -,098 ,547
Provide constructive feedback ,647 -,374 -,426 ,740
Provide positive feedback ,720 -,107 -,118 ,543
Coaching ,665 -,406 -,241 ,665
Schedule meetings based on availability ,727 ,247 ,105 ,601
Schedule task based on work load ,691 ,521 ,223 ,799
Conduct efficient meetings ,774 ,154 ,21 0,667

Table 2:
Relevance of Leadership Productivity performance items based on the results of Study 1(n=64)

*Scale values: 1=never; 2=seldom; 3=sometimes;4=more often; 5=regular

The next table (Table 3) shows the occurrence of the and 4, this Hypothesis can be supported by the data,
Leadership Productivity performance items in the which can also be seen in Table 4 where the computed
different studies, expressed by their means. The means of all four studies are displayed. Only the items
assumption was (Hypothesis 3), that the leadership Empower autonomous goal achievement and Accept
performance of leaders has a substantial development level of goal achievement have scores that are clearly
potential, which would be shown by means below a above a scale value of 4.
scale value of 4. As most means have values between 3

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Table 3:
Group means of the LPS items (n1=64; n2=62; n3=64; n5=16)

Mean Mean Mean Mean

n1 n2 n3 n4
Define work goals 3,77 3,48 4,05 2,93
Define timelines 3,34 3,42 3,55 3,31
Clarify & adjust goals 3,95 3,26 4,20 3,44
Empower autonomous goal achievement 4,59 4,19 4,63 4,20
Accept level of goal achievement 4,44 - 4,36 4,06
Provide information 4,08 3,40 4,20 3,69
Provide constructive feedback 4,06 2,98 3,94 3,19
Provide positive feedback 3,65 1,98 3,75 2,94
Coaching 3,14 2,63 3,14 2,88
Schedule meetings based on availability 3,79 3,06 4,08 3,06
Schedule task based on work load 3,74 - 3,81 3,06
Conduct efficient meetings 4,13 - 4,06 2,81
Scale values: 1 (seldom) – 5 (regular)

Table 4:
Means and Standard Deviations of the Leadership Productivity performance items

N Mean SD
Define work goals 202 3,71 1,01
Define timelines 204 3,43 1,02
Clarify & adjust goals 205 3,78 1,16
Empower autonomous goal
205 4,45 ,64
achievement
Accept level of goal achievement 142 4,36 ,75
Provide information 205 3,88 ,97
Provide constructive feedback 204 3,63 1,18
Provide positive feedback 205 3,12 1,3
Coaching 205 2,97 1,2
Schedule meetings based on availability 205 3,60 1,2
Schedule task based on work load 141 3,70 ,95
Conduct efficient meetings 143 3,95 1,08
Scale values: 1 (seldom) – 5 (regular)

A methodical question is, if the difference between the The large Standard Deviations for the sample across all
group means of the various samples are statistically four studies in Table 4 indicate strong differences
significant from each other. This needs to be the case as between the groups. Further more Table 5 shows an
the assumption of the Leadership Productivity Model is, Oneway Anova analysis which implies that the
that productive leadership performance is individual as differences between the group means are indeed
well as situational and differentiates leadership behavior significant with the exception of two items of the LPS.
(Hypothesis 4).

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Table 5:
Oneway Anova of the four studies of the Leadership Productivity Survey (N=206)

m of Squares df MS F Sig.
Between Groups 19,7 3 6,6
Define work goals Within Groups 184,1 198 ,9 7,1 ,000***
Total 203,8 201
Between Groups 1,6 3 ,5
Define timelines Within Groups 210,3 200 1,0 ,5 ,674
Total 211,9 203
Between Groups 32,1 3 10,7
Clarify & adjust goals Within Groups 243,0 201 1,2 8,8 ,000***
Total 275,1 204
Between Groups 8,3 3 2,8
Empower autonomous goal achievement Within Groups 74,5 201 ,34 7,5 ,000***
Total 82,8 204
Between Groups 1,8 2 ,9
Accept level of goal achievement Within Groups 76,9 139 ,5 1,6 ,206
Total 78,7 141
Between Groups 23,9 3 8,0
Provide information Within Groups 169,3 201 ,8 9,4 ,000***
Total 193,2 204
Between Groups 46,8 3 15,6
Provide constructive feedback Within Groups 236,9 200 1,2 13,2 ,000***
Total 283,7 203
Between Groups 19,7 3 41,2
Provide positive feedback Within Groups 184,1 201 1,1 36,6 ,000***
Total 203,8 204
Between Groups 1,6 3 3,7
Coaching Within Groups 210,3 201 1,2 3,1 ,030*
Total 211,9 204
Between Groups 32,1 3 13,1
Schedule meetings based on availability Within Groups 243,0 201 1,3 10,4 ,000*
Total 32,1 204
Between Groups 32,1 2 3,7
Schedule task based on work load Within Groups 32,1 138 ,9 4,3 ,015*
Total 82,8 140
Between Groups 1,8 2 11,7
Conduct efficient meetings Within Groups 78,7 140 1,0 11,6 ,000**
Total 78,7 142
*p < .0,05 **p < 0,01 ***p < 0,001

When interpreting the means from Table 3 it needs to be Study 4 (non-voluntary) was excluded from the analysis
taken into account that the participants of the studies 1 based on its small sample size. The comparison of
and 4 are a positively self-selected group. The leaders means in Table 6 partially shows large significant
that have been evaluated volunteered to participate in differences for the different items, especially for
the studies and selected and informed their employees Provide constructive feedback (M1 = 4.06, M2 = 2,98, p
about it. Therefore it can be assumed, that the sample < .001) and Provide positive feedback (M1 = 4.06, M2
consists of leaders which have an above average = 2,98, p < .001). With the exclusion of the first two
leadership performance on the dimensions of the items, all means of the non-voluntary group are below
Leadership Productivity Model. That means that a non- the means of the voluntary group. Same is true for the
voluntary group of leaders should show significantly comparison of means between study 2 and study 3
lower values than a voluntary one. This was supported (Table 7). Provide constructive feedback (M2 = 2,98,
by a t-test between the means of study 1 (voluntary M3 = 3,94, p < .001) and Provide positive
group) and study 2 (non-voluntary) (Table 6) as well as
between study 2 and study 3 (voluntary) (Table 7).

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Table 6:
Comparison of means (t-test for independent samples) of the LPS items between groups 1 and 2

Mean Study 1 Mean Study 2 Sig.

t
(voluntary) (non-voluntary) (2-tailed)
Define work goals 3,77 3,48 1,59 ,11
Define timelines 3,34 3,42 -,46 ,647
Clarify & adjust goals 3,95 3,26 3,20 ,002**
Empower autonomous goal achievement 4,59 4,19 3,50 ,001**
Accept level of goal achievement NA
Provide information 4,08 3,40 4,0 ,000***
Provide constructive feedback 4,06 2,98 5,64 ,000***
Provide positive feedback 3,65 1,98 8,46 ,010*
Coaching 3,14 2,63 2,62 ,001**
Schedule meetings based on availability 3,79 3,06 3,51 ,000***
Schedule task based on work load NA
Conduct efficient meetings NA
*p < .0,05 **p < 0,01 ***p < 0,001. NA (Not Applicable) means that the items have not been evaluated in the second study.

feedback (M2 = 2,98, M3 = 3.75, p < .001) expose a should correlate with high LPS values. The LPS
large difference between the performance of the measures the productivity loss that is caused by the
different leaders. Here, also the first item Define work different leadership dimensions. A certain percentage of
goals (M2 = 3,48, M3 = 4,05, p < .01) shows a reported work time loss would indicate that there is a
significant difference between study 2 and study 3. link between the leadership performance and the
Overall the executed t-tests show that supervisors can productivity loss. Indicated in the literature is a number
be differentiated based on their leadership productivity of about 14 % as lost work time due to leader’s
performance and that leaders with an openness for performance (Proudfoot, 2005). Based on the figures in
leadership issues, indicated by a voluntary participation Table 8, the mean for all four studies is 26% (624,45
in a bottom-up evaluation of their leadership minutes productivity loss per week divided per 40 work
performance, are more productive leaders than leaders hrs per week) Deducting the items Conduct efficient
without such an awareness, therefore supporting meetings and Schedule task based on work load, which
Hypothesis 4 as well as Hypothesis 3. have been only estimated in the fourth study, the figure
Finally, the predictive validity of the Leadership is 17%. It needs to be seen if the reported productivity
Productivity Model needs to be tested. The assumption loss for future studies will generally increase based on
is that a leader that scores high on the items of the LPS, the estimation of two more items like in study 4. At the
will cause a higher productivity of his subordinates. The moment it can be stated, that the reported productivity
LPS measures productivity in terms of work time lost loss based on 10 items are above or are consistent with
due to the leader’s performance. Therefore a low loss the expected value of 14%.

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Table 7:
Comparison of means (t-test for independent samples) of the LPS items between groups 2 and 3

Mean Study 2 Mean Study 3 Sig.

t
(non-voluntary) (voluntary) (2-tailed)
Define work goals 3,48 4,05 -3,41 ,001**
Define timelines 3,42 3,55 -,65 ,515
Clarify & adjust goals 3,26 4,20 -4,88 ,000***
Empower autonomous goal achievement 4,19 4,63 -4,03 ,000***
Accept level of goal achievement NA
Provide information 3,40 4,20 -4,92 ,000***
Provide constructive feedback 2,98 3,94 -4,95 ,000***
Provide positive feedback 1,98 3,75 10,03 ,000***
Coaching 2,63 3,14 -2,74 ,007**
Schedule meetings based on availability 3,06 4,08 -5,23 ,000***
Schedule task based on work load NA
Conduct efficient meetings NA
*p < .0,05 **p < 0,01. ***p < 0,001. NA (Not Applicable) means that the items have not been evaluated in study 2.

Table 8:
Means and Standard Deviations of the productivity loss items of the LPS

Items N Min Max Mean SD

Availability of leaders 200 0 240 46,90 65,59
Define work goals 199 0 360 46,70 68,20
Define timelines 80 0 240,0 25,75 51,18
Clarify & adjust goals 80 0 480,0 34,63 69,5
Empower autonomous goal achievement 132 0 360,0 40,76 73,2
Accept level of goal achievement 80 0 480 37,38 68,78
Provide information 200 0 360 49,80 71,71
Provide constructive and positive feedback 200 0 360 47,60 76,6
Coaching 143 0 480,0 39,58 72,3
Schedule meetings based on availability 200 0 360 42,84 64,52
Schedule task based on work load 16 0 180,0 75,63 52,78
Conduct efficient meetings 16 30,0 480,0 136,88 122,46
Overall sum I1 – I10 411,94
Overall sum I1 – I12 624,45

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Table 9:
Group means of the LPS productivity loss items (n1=64; n2=62; n3=64; n5=15)

Mean Mean Mean Mean

n1 n2 n3 n4
Availability of leaders 73,97 46,13 20,63 56,88
Define work goals 76,91 36,13 18,44 93,13
Define timelines - - 14,06 72,5
Clarify & adjust goals - - 24,84 73,75
Empower autonomous goal achievement 67,5 - 14,06 60,63
Accept level of goal achievement - - 29,22 70,00
Provide information 82,4 34,84 17,81 117,50
Provide constructive and positive feedback 82,6 35,16 20,0 79,38
Coaching 120,0 41,61 16,56 118,75
Schedule meetings based on availability 61,38 28,2 25,0 103,75
Schedule task based on work load - - - 75,63
Conduct efficient meetings - - - 136,88
Overall sum I1 – I10 911,1 361,9 278,0 1.265,7
Overall sum I1 – I12 1.690,7

The means for the different groups (Table 9) show large In order to calculate the correlations, an overall mean
differences, which are tested to be statistically for all leadership items was calculated. This is due to
significant in a Oneway Anova (Table 10). The data the insight, that the LPS leadership items all load on one
also supports Hypothesis 5 as it shows, that different factor (Table 2). As it can be seen in the factor analysis
leadership performance leads to different productivity displayed in Table 11, the same is true for the
levels of subordinates. Still it needs to be shown, if the Leadership Productivity loss items. All but one of the
LPS leadership items correlate with the LPS dimensions (Clarify and adjust goals) load on one
productivity loss items. The statistical correlation single factor, which explains 52,7% of the total variance
should be negative as higher leadership scores should (factor 2: 15,6%; factor 3: 10,2%).
lead to lower productivity loss values.

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Table 10:
Oneway Anova of the Leadership Productivity loss items of the four studies of the Leadership Productivity Survey (N =
205)

m of Squares df MS F Sig.
Between Groups 88300,4 3 29433,5
Availability of leaders Within Groups 767977,6 196 3918,2 7,5 ,000***
Total 856278 199
Between Groups 144562,5 3 48187,5
Define work goals Within Groups 776371 195 3981,4 12,1 ,000***
Total 920933,6 198
Between Groups 43711,3 1 43711,3
Define timelines Within Groups 163243,8 78 2092,9 20,89 ,000***
Total 206955 79
Between Groups 30615,3 1 30615,3
Clarify & adjust goals Within Groups 350973,4 78 4499,7 6,8 ,010*
Total 381588,750 79
Between Groups 89111,742 2 44555,9
Empower autonomous goal
Within Groups 612812,500 129 4750,5 9,38 ,000***
achievement
Total 701924,242 131
Between Groups 21287,813 1 21287,8
Accept level of goal achievement 4,71 ,030*
Within Groups 352460,938 78 4518,7
Total 373748,750 79
Between Groups 214387,794 3 71462,6
Provide information Within Groups 809004,206 196 4127,6 17,31 ,000***
Total 1023392 199
Between Groups 145493,8 3 48497
Provide constructive & positive
Within Groups 1022154,2 196 5215,1 9,3 ,000***
feedback
Total 1167648 199
Between Groups 140917,4 3 46972,4
Coaching Within Groups 601257,5 139 4325,6 10,86 ,000***
Total 742174,9 142
Between Groups 112964,6 3 37654,8
Schedule meetings based on
Within Groups 715374,3 196 3649,9 10,32 ,000***
availability
Total 828338,9 199
*p < .0,05 **p < 0,01 ***p < 0,001

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Table 11:
Factor loadings and communalities based on a principle components analysis for the 12 Productivity Loss items of the
Leadership Productivity Survey (n = 205)

Components
1 2 3 Com.
Availability of leaders ,811 -,159 ,153 ,707
Define work goals ,708 ,385 ,280 ,728
Define timelines ,856 -,235 ,03 ,789
Clarify & adjust goals 0,07 ,481 ,820 ,910

Empower autonomous goal achievement ,659 ,584 -,344 ,894

Accept level of goal achievement ,679 ,404 -,480 ,856

Provide information ,777 ,383 -,146 ,772

Provide constructive and positive feedback ,924 -,09 ,06 ,864

Coaching ,606 -,491 ,06 ,612

Schedule meetings based on availability ,895 -,172 -,03 ,831

Schedule tassk based on work load ,674 ,09 ,273 ,537

Conduct efficient meetings ,669 -,687 ,02 ,920

The overall mean of Leadership Productivity is generally supported by the data. Why the first study
Performance items is therefore correlated with the shows no correlation (the fourth study only contains a
overall mean for all Leadership productivity loss items small sample size), remains unclear. It might be
of the LPS. In Table 12 the results for all four studies assumed, that the impact of leadership performance on
are shown. Two of the studies show no significant the subordinates productivity depends on the actual
correlations, while the two other studies show the work environment and situation, e.g. the actual task.
expected negative correlation, which is also in both Therefore, in certain situations, a better leadership
cases statistically highly significant. Therefore the performance might not increase the productivity or a
assumption, that productive leadership performance bad performance has only a slight impact.
leads to a higher employee productivity (Hypothesis 5)

Table 12:
Correlations between Leadership Productivity performance items and Leadership Productivity loss (n = 205)

Leadership Leadership Leadership Leadership

Productivity loss n1 Productivity loss n2 Productivity loss n3 Productivity loss n4
Leadership Productivity
Performance n1 -,102
Leadership Productivity
-,337**
Performance n2
Leadership Productivity
-0,352**
Performance n3
Leadership Productivity
0,008
Performance n4
*p < .0,05 **p < 0,01

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5. CONCLUSIONS and market researcher.

From 1994 to 2003, Christoph worked as a HRM and
The article presented a theoretical model that defined Change Management consultant and manager for the
leadership productivity as criteria for evaluating the consulting company Accenture. During this time he also
performance of leaders. An important aspect of the obtained his Ph.D. degree from the Johann-Wolfgang
Leadership Productivity Model is to broaden the focus Goethe University Frankfurt.
of leadership research from the behavior of a leader His research focus is on leadership performance as well
towards the impact of a leader’s performance on the as emotional intelligence and work motivation.
goal achievement success of his subordinates. Dr. Christoph Desjardins is the MBA program director
Based on the existing literature it can be stated that the at Kempten University. Since 2010 he is also the head
leadership performance dimensions and the leadership of the Professional School for Business & Technology
tasks that have been defined in the Leadership at the University.
Productivity Model have a clear impact on the work
productivity of a leader’s subordinates.
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