Ph8253 Ece
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Unit I - Electrical Properties of Materials Question Bank PH8253-Physics for Electronics Engineering
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energy bands of solids.
2. Give the postulates/assumptions of classical free electron theory. (A.U Chennai June
2009)
The postulates/assumptions of classical free electron theory are
(i) The free electrons in the metal move freely, similar to the gas molecules moving in
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a vessel and it obeys the classical kinetic theory of gases.
(ii) These free electrons move in a constant potential field due to ions fixed in the
lattice.
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(iii) When field is applied the free electron moves in the direction opposite to that of
the field direction.
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(iv) Due to field applied, they acquire a velocity called drift velocity and the electron
velocities in the metal obey the Maxwell – Boltzmann statistics.
3. Define Drift velocity and give its formula.(A.U Chennai June 2010, A.U Chennai June
2009, A.U Chennai June 2014, A.U Chennai Dec 2016)
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Drift velocity is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electron in a
particular direction, due to the application of an electric field and is denoted by the letter v d.
Formula: 𝜐𝑑 = 𝜆 𝜏𝑐 (𝑚 𝑠) where, λ = mean free path
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The average distance travelled by the free electron between two successive collisions
is called mean free path. It is denoted by „λ‟. The average time taken by the free electron
between two successive collisions is called mean collision time. It is denoted by „τc‟
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5. Define electrical conductivity. (A.U Chennai June 2009, A.U Chennai April 2004)
The electrical conductivity is defined as the quantity of electricity (Q) flowing per
unit area (A) per unit time (t) maintained in unit electric field (E). Unit: Ω -1 m-1.
𝑄
𝜎=
𝑡𝐴𝐸
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electric field (E).
(i.e) µ = vd / E m2V-1s-1
8. Define Wiedemann – Franz law. (A.U Covai Dec 2010, A.U Covai June 2010, A.U
Chennai Dec 2009, A.U Tirunelveli May 2009, A.U Chennai June 2007, A.U Chennai
Nov 2015 R2008, A.U Chennai Dec 2016 )
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Wiedemann – Franz law is defined as, “the ratio between the thermal conductivity (K)
and the electrical conductivity (σ) of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature (T) of the metal”.
9. Distinguish between electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity. (A.U Chennai
June 2007)
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S.No Electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity
area per unit potential gradient. per unit time maintained at unit
temperature gradient.
3. Conduction of electricity takes place from Conduction of heat takes place from hot
higher potential end to the lower end. end to cold end.
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10. Get the microscopic form of Ohm’s law and state whether it is true for all
temperatures. (A.U Covai June 2009)
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(ii) It explains the electrical and thermal conductivity of metals.
(iii) It is used to derive Wiedemann – Franz law.
(iv) The optical properties of metals can be explained using this theory.
12. What are the drawbacks (or) demerits of classical free electron theory? (A.U Covai
Dec 2010, A.U Trichy Dec 2009, A.U Chennai June 2010, A.U Chennai June 2009, A.U
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Chennai June 2005, A.U Chennai June 2007, A.U Chennai Nov 2014, A.U Chennai
April 2015, A.U Chennai Nov 2015 R2008 )
The drawbacks (or) demerits of classical free electron theory are
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a) It is a macroscopic theory. Classical theory states that all free electrons will absorb
energy, but quantum theory states that only few electrons will absorb energy.
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b) This theory cannot explains the Compton effect, photo – electric effect, para and
ferromagnetism, etc.
c) The theoretical and experimental value of specific heat capacity is incorrect.
𝐾
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13. Define Fermi energy level and Fermi energy with its importance. (A.U Trichy June
2010, A.U Chennai June 2010, A.U Chennai June 2009, A.U Chennai Nov 2005, A.U
Chennai June 2007)
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Fermi energy level is defined as the highest reference energy level of a particle at
absolute zero temperature.
Importance: It is the reference energy level which separates the filled energy levels and
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𝐹 𝐸 = 1+𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝐸−𝐸𝑓 /𝑘𝑇
1 1
𝐹 𝐸 = = 1+2.718 = 0.269
1+𝑒𝑥𝑝 1
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June 2010, A.U Chennai June 2010, A.U Chennai June 2009, A.U Chennai Dec 2003) or
Define density of states and sketch the same for a metal. (A.U Chennai May 2008)
Definition: Density of states Z(E)dE is defined as the number of available energy
states per unit volume in an energy interval dE.
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Example: We can say the density of states of a cubical metal piece as
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𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 𝑖𝑛
𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒
𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒
Importance: It is used to calculate the number of charge carriers per unit volume of any
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solid.
18. What do you mean by carrier concentration in metal? (A.U Covai June 2009)
In metal the carrier concentration is the number of free electrons per unit volume in
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F(E) F(E)
EF E EF E
T>0K
T=0K
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The Bloch theorem states that the plane waves modulated by the function u k(x), which
has the same periodicity as the lattice.
Ψ x = e±ikx uk x
where, uk x = uk (x + a)
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24. What is an energy band?
A set of closely spaced energy levels is called an energy band
25. Recall the term effective mass of electron?
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The mass acquired by an electron when it is accelerated in a periodic potential is
called effective mass of an electron. It is denoted by „m‟.
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iv) They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
v) In semiconductors both the electron and holes are charge carriers and will take part
in conduction.
2. What happens when the temperature increases in the case of semiconductor and
conductor? (A.U. Tirunelveli June 2010, A.U Chennai April 2015)
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i) With increase of temperature, the conductivity of semiconductors increases and
hence resistivity decreases because more and more charge carriers are created by the
temperature.
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ii) In case of metals, there is no change in the concentration of the charge carriers by
the increase in temperature. The additional thermal energy induces the collisions of
electrons with the lattice ions and hence the resistivity increases and conductivity
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decreases.
3. What is meant by intrinsic semiconductor and extrinsic semiconductor? (or) What
are the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor? (A.U. Covai June
2009, A.U. Chennai June 2009, A.U. Chennai Nov 2003, A.U. Chennai Dec 2003, A.U
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3 They have low electrical conductivity. They have high electrical conductivity.
4 They have low operating temperature. They have high operating temperature.
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5 At 0K, the Fermi level exactly lies At 0K, Fermi level lies closer to conduction
between conduction band and valence band in “n” type and lies near valence band
in “p” type.
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band.
Examples: Si, Ge, etc. Examples: Si doped with Al, P
Acceptors: Acceptors are the trivalent impurity atoms like Ga, In, etc which can
easily accept an electron from the pure semiconductors like Ge (or) Si. These energy levels
are called acceptor energy level.
5. What is meant by energy band gap?
Energy band gap (Eg) is defined as the energy difference between the minimum
energy of conduction band ( Ec) and the maximum energy of the valence band (Ev).
6. Compare elemental and compound semiconductor. (or) What are the differences
between indirect band gap semiconductor and direct band gap semiconductor? (A.U.
Trichy June 2009, A.U. Chennai April 2002, A.U Chennai Nov 2014, A.U Chennai April
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2015)
S.No. Elemental Semiconductor Compound Semiconductor
1 Elemental Semiconductor are made of single Compound Semiconductor are made of
element compounds.
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E.g: Ge, Si, etc Eg: GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO etc.
2 They are called as indirect band gap They are called as direct band gap
semiconductors. i.e. electron – hole semiconductors. i.e., electron – hole
recombination takes place through traps, recombination takes place directly with each
present in the band gap.
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3. Here heat is produced due to recombination. Here photons are emitted during
recombination (this effect is in LED).
4 Life time of charge carriers is more due to Life time of charge carrier is less due to
indirect recombination. direct recombination.
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7. Compare n-type and p-type semiconductors.(A.U. Covai Dec 2010, A.U. Chennai Nov
2009, A.U. Chennai June 2010)
2 Here electrons are majority carriers and Here holes are majority carriers and electrons
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3 It has donor energy levels very close to It has acceptor energy levels very close to
conduction band. valence band.
8. Why do we prefer silicon for transistors and GaAs or Germanium for laser diodes?
(A.U. Covai June 2009, A.U Chennai Dec 2016))
Silicon is an indirect band gap semiconductor for which the life time of the charge
carriers is more and the current amplification is also very high, hence it is preferable for using
it in transistors. GaAs or Ge is a direct band gap semiconductor, in which electrons and holes
recombine directly to produce photons and hence used in laser diodes.
9. Give the expression for carrier concentration of an intrinsic semiconductor. (A.U.
Covai June 2010)
Intrinsic Carrier concentration of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by
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2𝜋𝑘𝑇 3/2 ∗ ∗ 3/4
−𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 = 2 𝑚 𝑒 𝑚 ℎ 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ2 2𝑘𝑇
where 𝑚𝑒∗ , 𝑚ℎ∗ is the effective mass of electron and hole respectively
10. Discuss the variation of Fermi level with temperature for p and n type
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semiconductors.
p-type: When the temperature is increased for a p-type semiconductor, some of the
electrons in the valence band go to acceptor energy levels and hence the Fermi level is shifted
towards upward direction.
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n-type: When the temperature is increased for an n-type semiconductor, some
electrons are shifted from donor energy level to the conduction band and hence the Fermi
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energy level is shifted down.
11. What is meant by the terms Hall effect, Hall voltage and Hall coefficient? (A.U.
Chennai Nov 2009, A.U. Chennai June 2010, A.U. Trichy June 2010, A.U. Tirunelveli
May 2009)
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𝑅𝐻 = 𝑚 per Coulomb
𝐼𝐵
where VH = Hall Voltage, t = Thickness,
I = Current and B = Magnetic flux density.
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13. How can you distinguish p- type and n-type semiconductors using Hall Effect?
( A.U. Tirunelveli June 2010)
The n-type and p-type semiconductors can be distinguished by determining the Hall
coefficient using Hall Effect. (i.,e) If the RH is negative then we can ensure that the material
is an n-type semiconductor rather if the RH is positive, then we can say that the material is a
p-type semiconductor.
14. What is meant by the law of mass action in semiconductor? (A.U Chennai June
2014)
The law of mass action states that in the case of any semiconductors in thermal
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equilibrium, the product of number of holes and number of electrons is a constant. In intrinsic
semiconductor, the number of free electrons is equal to number of vacancy or holes.
i.e., n=p and np = constant.
15. Define diffusion current.
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The charge carriers move from the regions of higher concentration to the regions of
lower concentration. This process is known as diffusion. The current is known as diffusion
current.
16. What is Hall device?
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The device which uses the Hall Effect for its application is known as Hall device.
17. What are different types of Hall devices?
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There are three types of Hall devices. They are
(a) Gauss Meter
(b) Electronic Multiplier
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function than that of metal, then the junction formed is called the ohmic junction.
20. What is tunnel diode?
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A tunnel diode is a simple p-n junction in which both p and n sides are very heavily
doped with impuitrities.
21. What are the uses of Ohmic contact?
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The use of ohmic contacts is to connect one semiconductor device to another, an IC,
or to connect an IC to its external terminals.
22. What are the power transistors?
Transistors handle high voltage and high current ratings are known as power
transistors.
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23. What are the differences between Schottky diode and Ohmic contacts?
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a) It is used in logic memory storage device
b) It is used in microwave oscillator
c) It can be used in relaxation oscillator circuit
25. What are the applications of power transistors?
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The applications of power transistors are
a) It is used in power switching devices.
b) It is also used in power amplifiers.
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4𝜋𝑚
2. On the basis of spin how the materials are classified. (A.U. Covai June 2009)
On the basis of spin, the materials are classified into
(i) Diamagnetic materials do not have any unpaired electron.
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(ii) Paramagnetic materials have few unpaired electron spins of equal magnitudes.
(iii) Ferro magnetic materials have many unpaired electron spins with equal
magnitudes.
(iv) Anti Ferro magnetic materials have equal magnitude of spins but in anti parallel
manner.
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(v) Ferrimagnetic materials have spins in anti parallel manner but with unequal
magnitudes.
3. What are the properties of diamagnetic materials?
The properties of diamagnetic materials are
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b) When placed inside a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines of forces.
c) There is a small amount of resultant magnetic moment in each atom, even in the
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5. What do you understand by the term “magnetic domains” and “domain walls”?
Magnetic domains are the small regions in a ferromagnetic material which has a
group of atoms. These atoms can be completely magnetized by favorable exchange spin-spin
interaction. The walls of these small regions (or) domains are called domain walls.
6. What is Hysteresis?
The lagging of magnetic induction (B) behind the applied field strength is called
hysteresis.
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7. What is domain theory of Ferro magnetism? (A.U. Chennai Nov 2009, A.U Chennai
Nov 2015)
The domain theory of ferromagnetism is the explanation of the structure and
hysteresis property of ferromagnetic materials based on the concept of domains proposed by
Weiss. Domain is the small region completely magnetized in one direction.
Importance: It gives the maximum energy stored in the magnets which helps in
distinguishing a weak and strong magnet. Therefore for permanent magnets the value of
energy product should be very high.
8. What are the four types of energies involves in the growth of magnetic domains?
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(A.U. Trichy June 2009)
The four types of energies involved in the growth of magnetic domains are
a) Exchange energy (or) magneto static energy.
b) Anisotropy energy.
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c) Domain wall energy.
d) Magneto stricture energy.
9. Distinguish between soft and hard magnets. (A.U. Chennai June 2009 A.U. Trichy
June 2010)
S.No. Soft Magnets
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Soft Magnets can be easily magnetized Hard Magnets cannot be easily
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and demagnetized. magnetized (or) demagnetized.
Loop area is less and hence the The loop area is large and hence the
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irregularities like strain or impurities. impurities and lattice defects.
10. Explain the term retentivity and coercivity and its units.
Retentivity is the residual intensity of magnetization retained by the specimen even
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11. What do you mean by energy product? (A.U. Chennai Nov 2009, A.U. Covai June
2009)
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The product of retentivity (Br) and the coercivity (Hc) is known as energy product. It
represents the maximum amount energy stored in the specimen.
12. Classify Ferromagnetic materials based on their spin type. (A.U. Covai June 2010)
Ferro magnetic materials have many unpaired electron spins with equal magnitudes.
(i) Anti Ferro magnetic materials have equal spin magnitude but in anti parallel
manner.
(ii) Ferromagnetic materials have anti parallel spins with unequal magnitudes.
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13. What are the applications of ferrites? (A.U. Covai Dec 2010, A.U Chennai May
2015)
The applications of ferrites are
(i) They are used in digital computers and data processing circuits as magnetic
storage elements.
(ii) They are used in transformer cores for high frequencies upto microwaves.
(iii)They are used in switching circuits and parametric amplifiers.
(iv) They are used in two port devices such as gyrator, circulator and isolator.
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14. Define anti-ferromagnetism. Mention two materials that exhibit anti-
ferromagnetism. (A.U. Chennai June 2010, A.U Chennai Nov 2015 R2008)
In anti-ferromagnetism, electron spin of neighbouring atoms are align antiparallel.
Antiferromagnetic susceptibility is small and positive and it depends greatly on temperature.
Example: Manganese Oxide and Chromium Oxide.
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15. What are Ferrites? (A.U. Tirunelveli June 2010)
Ferrites are the modified structure of iron with no carbon in which the magnetic
moments are of unequal magnitudes. They are made by two(or) more different kinds of
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atoms. Its general formula is given by X2+Fe32+O4
where X2+ is a divalent metal ion such as Mg2+, Zn2+, Fe2+, etc.
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16. Give Curie-Weiss law and its importanc. ( A.U Chennai June 2014)
Curie-Weiss law is derived by introducing the concept of internal molecular field.
According to this law,
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𝐶
Susceptibility 𝜒 = 𝑇−𝜃
where, C is Curie constant and θ is the paramagnetic Curie
temperature. This law explains the relationship between para and
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ferromagnetism.
17. What is meant by hysteresis loop and what do you infer from it?
(A.U Chennai May 2003, A.U Chennai June 2014)
The hysteresis loop of ferromagnetic materials refers to the lag of
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material.
ii) If hysteresis curve is sharp and has a small area, the hysteresis loss is small and is
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DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
1. What are the dielectrics?
Dielectrics are insulating materials, in which all the electrons are bound to their parent
molecules and there are no free charges. Even with normal voltage or thermal energy
electrons are not released.
2. List the characteristics of a good dielectric material. (A.U. Covai June 2009, A.U.
Tirunelveli June 2010, A.U Chennai June 2014)
The characteristics of a good dielectric material are
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a) They are non-metallic.
b) They have high specific resistance.
c) They have negative temperature coefficient.
d) The energy gap should be more 3eV.
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e) They have high dielectric constant.
3. Compare active and passive dielectrics. (or) Mention any two active and passive
dielectrics with their applications. (A.U. Chennai May 2007, A.U. Covai June 2009, A.U.
Trichy Nov 2009)
2 They exhibit gain and directional They exhibit no gain and no directional
properties. properties.
4. Define Dielectric Constant. (A.U. Covai June 2010, A.U. Trichy June 2010, A.U.
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ratio between the absolute permittivity and the permittivity of the free space.
i.e., εr = ε/εo
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5. What is Ionic polarization? (A.U. Chennai June 2006, A.U. Chennai Nov 2009, A.U.
Chennai June 2010, A.U. Covai Dec 2010)
The process of displacement of cations and anions in the opposite direction, of a
dielectric material kept in external electric field (E) is called ionic polarization.
Ionic Polarizability is given by
𝑒2 1 1
𝛼𝑖 = 2 +
𝜔0 𝑀 𝑚
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Polarization.
8. What are the differences between polar and non polar molecules?
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moments even in the absence of an permanent dipole moments.
applied field.
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highly temperature dependent
u independent of temperature.
9. How polarization varies with temperature? (A.U. Covai June 2009, A.U. Tirunelveli
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heat energy. This loss in energy in the form of heat is called dielectric loss.
The power loss PL α tan δ where tan δ is called loss tangent and is called loss angle.
This dielectric loss mainly occurs due to the imaginary part of complex dielectric constant.
11. What is meant by dielectric breakdown and dielectric strength? (A.U. Trichy June
2010, A.U Chennai Nov 2014, A.U Chennai Dec 2016)
When external field applied to a dielectric material is greater than the critical field, the
dielectric losses its insulating property and becomes conducting. Therefore a large current
flows through the material. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown.
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Dielectric strength is the minimum strength required per unit thickness of the
dielectric material to produce dielectric breakdown.
12. Define local field in a dielectric material. (A.U. Chennai June 2010)
The force experienced by a dipole inside a dielectric is known as internal field or
Lorentz local field. This field is due to the external field as well as other dipoles surrounding
the central dipole in the dielectric medium.
13. Mention the various dielectric breakdown mechanisms. (A.U. Chennai June 2009)
The various dielectric breakdown mechanisms are
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(i) Intrinsic breakdown.
(ii) Thermal breakdown.
(iii) Discharge breakdown.
(iv) Electro chemical breakdown.
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(v) Defect breakdown.
14. What is discharge breakdown and defect breakdown? (A.U. Chennai Nov 2009)
Discharge Breakdown: When dielectric is placed in an external electric field the
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occluded gas bubbles present in the material will easily ionize and produces large ionization
current. This phenomenon is known as discharge breakdown.
Defect Breakdown: The breakdown occurs due to the defect such as pores, cracks
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etc, in the dielectric are known as defect breakdown.
15. What are the various sources by which the power loss occurs in a dielectric? (A.U.
Tirunelveli June 2010)
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Rochelle salt.
17. What is high-k dielectric?
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The term high-k dielectric refers to a material with a high dielectric constant (k) High-
k dielectrics are used in semiconductors manufacturing processes where they are usually
used to replace a silicon dioxide range dielectric or another dielectric layer of a device.
18. State the properties of Ferroelectric Material. (A.U. Chennai June 2010)
The properties of ferroelectric material are
a) They are polarized even in the absence of electric field.
b) They have hysteresis effect.
c) They have very high dielectric constant.
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d) They have domain structure. The domain wall is of the order of few lattice
constants.
19. Write the applications of ferroelectric material. (A.U. Tirunelveli May 2009)
The applications of ferroelectric material are
a) They are used as memory cores in computers.
b) Ferroelectric ceramics are used as capacitors to store electrical energy.
c) They are very good infra-red detectors.
d) Electrets are also useful for bonding fractured bones in our body.
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20. Compare Lorentz force and Coulomb force in dielectrics (A.U. Chennai June 2010)
(i) Lorentz and Coulomb forces are opposite in nature in dielectric materials.
(ii) Lorentz force is the repulsive force between the nucleus and the electrons in a
dielectric material when kept in external electric field.
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(iii) Coulomb force is the attractive force between electrons and nucleus in the
dielectric material.
21. What are the uses of dielectric materials? (A.U Chennai April 2015, A.U Chennai
Nov 2015)
The uses of dielectric materials are
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a) It is used as a dielectric medium in capacitors.
b) It is used as insulating materials in transformers.
c) It is used in industries as gas lighters, microphones and phonographs.
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Due to the excess of heat, the temperature inside the dielectric increases and may
produce local melting in the dielectric material.
This type of breakdown is known as thermal breakdown.
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iii) Highly conformal coatings for micro fluidic and MEMS application.
iv) Coating of nano-porous structures.
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iii) Opaque.
3. Define scattering of light.
Scattering of light is a process by which the intensity of the waves attenuates as it
travels through a medium.
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4. Define carrier generation and recombination.
The carrier generation is the process whereby electrons and holes are created.
The recombination is the process whereby electrons and holes are annihilated.
5. What are the types of carrier generation?
There are types of carrier generation. They are
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i) Photo generation.
ii) Phonon generation.
iii) Impact ionization.
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b) Shockley-Read-Head Recombination.
c) Auger Recombination.
7. What is exciton?
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The combination of an electron in an excited stage (below conduction band) and the
associated hole in valence band (electron – hole pair) is known as an exciton.
8. What are types of excitons?
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electrical energy
13. What is photo detector?
Photo detector is a semiconductor device which is used to detect the presence of
photons. This device is known as photo detector. It converts optical signals into electrical
signals.
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14. Specify the types of photo detector?
The types of photo detector are
a) Photo emissive.
b) Photo conductive.
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c) Photo voltaic.
15. List out the types of photo-votaic devices?
The types of photo-votaic devices are
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LED is a p-n junction diode which emits light when it is forward biased.
17. What are the disadvantages of LEDs?
The disadvantages of LEDs are
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When bulk material is reduced in its size, at least one of its dimensions, in the order of
few nanometers, then the structure is known as quantum structure.
4. Define Zener-Bloch oscillation.
Zener-Bloch oscillation denotes the oscillation of a particle confined in a periodic
potential when a constant force is acting on it.
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5. What is resonant tunneling diode?
Resonant tunneling diode refers to tunneling in which the electron transmission
coefficient through a structure is sharply peaked about certain energies.
6. Define quantum interference?
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When two or more particles that are space and time independent have an interaction,
construction or destructing their wave function is known quantum interference.
7. Recall the term Bloch oscillations?
A particle in a periodic potential with an additional constant force performs
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oscillation.
9. Define Mesoscopic.
Mesoscopic means intermediate between the macroscopic and microscopic scales.
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electronic structures, including quantum dots and single electron transistors is called coulomb
blockade.
11. What is single electron phenomena?
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A transistor made from a quantum dot that controls the current from source to drain
one electron at a time is called single electron transistor.
12. What are magnetic semiconductors?
Magnetic semiconductors are semiconducting materials that exhibit both
ferromagnetism and semiconductor properties.
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