Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry
BIG Idea Mass relationships

in chemical reactions confirm the
law of conservation of mass.
11.1 Defining Stoichiometry

MAIN Idea The amount of each
reactant present at the start of a Carbon dioxide and water
chemical reaction determines how
much product can form.
11.2 Stoichiometric
Calculations
MAIN Idea The solution to every
stoichiometric problem requires a
balanced chemical equation.
11.3 Limiting Reactants

MAIN Idea A chemical reaction
stops when one of the reactants is
used up.
11.4 Percent Yield

MAIN Idea Percent yield is a
measure of the efficiency of a
chemical reaction.
ChemFacts
• Green plants make their own food Chloroplast
through photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis occurs within
structures called chloroplasts in the
cells of plants.
• The balanced chemical equation for
the photosynthesis is:
6CO 2 + 6H 2O → C 6H 12O 6 + 6O 2
• On a summer day, one acre of corn
produces enough oxygen (a product
of photosynthesis) to meet the
respiratory needs of 130 people.
366
©CLIVE SCHAUPMEYER/AGSTOCKUSA/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc.
Start-Up Activities
LAUNCH Lab Steps in Stoichiometric

Calculations Make the following
What evidence can you observe Foldable to help you summarize the
steps in solving a stoichiometric
that a reaction is taking place? problem.
During a chemical reaction, reactants are consumed as
new products are formed. Often, there are several telltale STEP 1 Fold a sheet
signs that a chemical reaction is taking place. of paper in half
lengthwise.
Procedure
1. Read and complete the lab safety form.
2. Use a 10-mL graduated cylinder to measure
out 5.0 mL 0.01M potassium permanganate
(KMnO 4). Add the solution to a 100-mL beaker. STEP 2 Fold in half
3. Clean and dry the graduated cylinder, and then use widthwise and then in half again.
it to measure 5.0 mL 0.01M sodium hydrogen
sulfite solution (NaHSO 3). Slowly add this solution
to the beaker while stirring with a stirring rod.
Record your observations. STEP 3 Unfold and
4. Repeat Step 3 until the KMnO 4 solution in the beaker cut along the folds of
turns colorless. Stop adding the NaHSO 3 solution as the top flap to make
soon as you obtain a colorless solution. Record your four tabs. 1.
observations.
2.
Analysis STEP 4 Label the tabs
3.
1. Identify the evidence you observed that a chemical with the steps in stoichiometric
reaction was occurring. calculations. 4.
2. Explain why slowly adding the NaHSO 3 solution while
stirring is a better experimental technique than adding &/,$!",%3 Use this Foldable with Section 11.2. As
5.0 mL of the solution all at once. you read this section, summarize each step on a tab and
Inquiry Would anything more have happened if you include an example of the step.
continued to add NaHSO 3 solution to the beaker? Explain.
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Stoichiometry
Chapter 11 • Stoichiometry 367

Section 11.1
1 1.1
Objectives
◗ Describe the types of relationships
Defining Stoichiometry
indicated by a balanced chemical MAIN Idea The amount of each reactant present at the start of a
equation. chemical reaction determines how much product can form.
◗ State the mole ratios from a
balanced chemical equation. Real-World Reading Link Have you ever watched a candle burning? You
might have watched the candle burn out as the last of the wax was used up.
Review Vocabulary Or, maybe you used a candle snuffer to put out the flame. Either way, when the
reactant: the starting substance in a candle stopped burning, the combustion reaction ended.
chemical reaction
Particle and Mole Relationships
New Vocabulary In doing the Launch Lab, were you surprised when the purple color of
stoichiometry potassium permanganate disappeared as you added sodium hydrogen
mole ratio sulfite? If you concluded that the potassium permanganate had been
used up and the reaction had stopped, you are right. Chemical reactions
stop when one of the reactants is used up. When planning the reaction
of potassium permanganate and sodium hydrogen sulfite, a chemist
might ask, “How many grams of potassium permanganate are needed to
react completely with a known mass of sodium hydrogen sulfite?” Or,
when analyzing a photosynthesis reaction, you might ask, “How much
oxygen and carbon dioxide are needed to form a known mass of sugar.”
Stoichiometry is the tool for answering these questions.
Stoichiometry The study of quantitative relationships between the
amounts of reactants used and amounts of products formed by a chemi-
cal reaction is called stoichiometry. Stoichiometry is based on the law
of conservation of mass. Recall from Chapter 3 that the law states that
matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. In any
chemical reaction, the amount of matter present at the end of the reac-
tion is the same as the amount of matter present at the beginning.
Therefore, the mass of the reactants equals the mass of the products.
Note the reaction of powdered iron (Fe) with oxygen (O 2) shown in
Figure 11.1. Although iron reacts with oxygen to form a new com-
pound, iron(III) oxide (Fe 2O 3), the total mass is unchanged.
■ Figure 11.1 The balanced chemi-

cal equation for this reaction between
iron and oxygen provides the relation-
ships between amounts of reactants
and products.
368 Chapter 11 • Stoichiometry

©Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Interactive Table Explore
Relationships balanced chemical equations
Table at glencoe.com.
Derived from a
11.1
Balanced Chemical Equation
4Fe(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Fe 2O 3(s)
iron + oxygen → iron(III) oxide
4 atoms Fe + 3 molecules O 2 → 2 formula units Fe 2O 3
4 mol Fe + 3 mol O 2 → 2 mol Fe 2O 3
223.4 g Fe + 96.00 g O 2 → 319.4 g Fe 2O 3
319.4 g reactants → 319.4 g products
The balanced chemical equation for the chemical reaction shown in

Figure 11.1 is as follows.
4Fe(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Fe 2O 3(s)

You can interpret this equation in terms of representative particles by
saying that four atoms of iron react with three molecules of oxygen to
produce two formula units of iron(III) oxide. Remember that coeffi-
cients in an equation represent not only numbers of individual particles
but also numbers of moles of particles. Therefore, you can also say that
four moles of iron react with three moles of oxygen to produce two
moles of iron(III) oxide.
The chemical equation does not directly tell you anything about the VOCABULARY
masses of the reactants and products. However, by converting the WORD ORIGIN
known mole quantities to mass, the mass relationships become obvious. Stoichiometry
Recall that moles are converted to mass by multiplying by the molar comes from the Greek words
mass. The masses of the reactants are as follows. stoikheion, which means element,
and metron, which means to
55.85 g Fe
4 mol Fe × _ = 223.4 g Fe measure
1 mol Fe
32.00 g O 2
3 mol O 2 × _ = 96.00 g O 2
1 mol O 2
The total mass of the reactants is: (223.4 g + 96.00 g) = 319.4 g
Similarly, the mass of the product is calculated as follows:
159.7 g Fe 2O 3
2 mol Fe 2O 3 × __ = 319.4 g
1 mol Fe 2O 3
Note that the mass of the reactants equals the mass of the product.
mass of reactants = mass of products
319.4 g = 319.4 g
As predicted by the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of the
reactants equals the mass of the product. The relationships that can be
determined from a balanced chemical equation are summarized in
Table 11.1.
Reading Check List the types of relationships that can be derived from
the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation.
Section 11.1 • Defining Stoichiometry 369

EXAMPLE Problem 11.1
Math Handbook
Interpreting Chemical Equations The combustion of propane (C 3H 8) provides Rounding
energy for heating homes, cooking food, and soldering metal parts. Interpret the page 952
equation for the combustion of propane in terms of representative particles,
moles, and mass. Show that the law of conservation of mass is observed.
1 Analyze the Problem

The coefficients in the balanced chemical equation shown below represent both moles
and representative particles, in this case molecules. Therefore, the equation can be
interpreted in terms of molecules and moles. The law of conservation of mass will be
verified if the masses of the reactants and products are equal.
Known
C 3H 8(g) + 5O 2(g) → 3CO 2(g) + 4H 2O(g)
Unknown
Equation interpreted in terms of molecules = ?
Equation interpreted in terms of moles = ?
Equation interpreted in terms of mass = ?
2 Solve for the Unknown

The coefficients in the chemical equation indicate the number of molecules.
1 molecule C 3H 8 + 5 molecules O 2 → 3 molecules CO 2 + 4 molecules H 2O
The coefficients in the chemical equation also indicate the number of moles.
1 mol C 3H 8 + 5 mol O 2 → 3 mol CO 2 + 4 mol H 2O
To verify that mass is conserved, first convert moles of reactant and product to mass
by multiplying by a conversion factor—the molar mass—that relates grams to moles.
grams reactant or product
moles of reactant or product × ___ = grams of reactant or product
1 mol reactant or product
44.09 g C 3H 8
1 mol C 3H 8 × __ = 44.09 g C 3H 8 Calculate the mass of the reactant C 3H 8.
1 mol C 3H 8
32.00 g O 2
5 mol O 2 × _ = 160.0 g O 2 Calculate the mass of the reactant O 2.
1 mol O 2
44.01 g CO 2
3 mol CO 2 × _ = 132.0 g CO 2 Calculate the mass of the product CO 2.
1 mol CO 2
18.02 g H 2O
4 mol H 2O × _ = 72.08 g H 2O Calculate the mass of the product H 2O
1 mol H 2O
44.09 g C 3H 8 + 160.0 g O 2 = 204.1 g reactants Add the masses of the reactants.
132.0 g CO 2 + 72.08 g H 2O = 204.1 g products Add the masses of the products.
204.1 g reactants = 204.1 g products The law of conservation of mass is observed.
3 Evaluate the Answer

The sums of the reactants and the products are correctly stated to the first decimal place
because each mass is accurate to the first decimal place. The mass of reactants equals
the mass of products, as predicted by the law of conservation of mass.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Pages 982–983 and glencoe.com
1. Interpret the following balanced chemical equations in terms of particles, moles, and
mass. Show that the law of conservation of mass is observed.
a. N 2(g) + 3H 2(g) → 2NH 3(g)
b. HCl(aq) + KOH(aq) → KCl(aq) + H 2O(l)
c. 2Mg(s) + O 2(g) → 2MgO(s)
2. Challenge For each of the following, balance the chemical equation; interpret the
equation in terms of particles, moles, and mass; and show that the law of conservation
of mass is observed.
a. ___Na(s) + ___H 2O(l) → ___NaOH(aq) + ___H 2(g)
b. ___Zn(s) + ___HNO 3(aq) → ___Zn(NO 3) 2(aq) + ___N 2O(g) + ___H 2O(l)
Mole ratios You have read that the coefficients in a chemical equa-
tion indicate the relationships between moles of reactants and products.
You can use the relationships between coefficients to derive conversion Personal Tutor For an online tutorial
factors called mole ratios. A mole ratio is a ratio between the numbers on ratios, visit glencoe.com.
of moles of any two of the substances in a balanced chemical equation.

For example, consider the reaction shown in Figure 11.2. In this
reaction, potassium (K) reacts with bromine (Br 2) to form potassium
bromide (KBr). The product of the reaction, the ionic salt potassium
bromide, is prescribed by veterinarians as an antiepileptic medication
for dogs and cats.
2K(s) +Br 2(l) → 2KBr(s)
What mole ratios can be written for this reaction? Starting with the
reactant potassium, you can write a mole ratio that relates the moles of
potassium to each of the other two substances in the equation. Thus,
one mole ratio relates the moles of potassium used to the moles of bro-
mine used. The other mole ratio relates the moles of potassium used to
the moles of potassium bromide formed.
_
2 mol K
and _
2 mol K
1 mol Br 2 2 mol KBr
Two other mole ratios show how the moles of bromine relate to the ■ Figure 11.2 Potassium metal and
moles of the other two substances in the equation—potassium and liquid bromine react vigorously to form
potassium bromide. the ionic compound potassium bromide.
Bromine is one of the two elements that
1 mol Br 2
_ 1 mol Br 2 are liquids at room temperature (mercury
and _ is the other). Potassium is a highly reactive
2 mol K 2 mol KBr
metal.
Similarly, two ratios relate the moles of potassium bromide to the moles
of potassium and bromine.
_
2 mol KBr
and _
2 mol KBr
2 mol K 1 mol Br 2
These six ratios define all the mole relationships in this equation. Each
of the three substances in the equation forms a ratio with the two other
substances.
Reading Check Identify the source from which a chemical reaction’s
mole ratios are derived.
Section 11.1 • Defining Stoichiometry 371

©Division of Chemical Education, Inc., American Chemical Society
PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 983 and glencoe.com
3. Determine all possible mole ratios for the following balanced chemical
equations.
a. 4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Al 2O 3(s)
b. 3Fe(s) + 4H 2O(l) → Fe 3O 4(s) + 4H 2(g)
c. 2HgO(s) → 2Hg(l) + O 2(g)
4. Challenge Balance the following equations, and determine the
possible mole ratios.
a. ZnO(s) + HCl(aq) → ZnCl 2(aq) + H 2O(l)
b. butane (C 4H 10) + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
The decomposition of potassium chlorate (KClO 3) is sometimes

used to obtain small amounts of oxygen in the laboratory.
2KClO 3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O 2(g)
VOCABULARY The mole ratios that can be written for this reaction are as follows.
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY 2 mol KClO 3
_ 2 mol KClO
Derive and _3
2 mol KCl 3 mol O 2
to obtain from a specified source
The researcher was able to derive _
2 mol KCl
and _
2 mol KCl
the meaning of the illustration 2 mol KClO 3 3 mol O 2
from ancient texts. 3 mol O 2 3 mol O 2
_ and _
2 mol KClO 3 2 mol KCl
Note that the number of mole ratios you can write for a chemical
reaction involving a total of n substances is (n)(n–1). Thus, for reactions
involving four and five substances, you can write 12 and 20 moles ratios,
respectively.
Four substances: (4)(3) = 12 mole ratios
Five substances: (5)(4) = 20 mole ratios
Section 11.1 Assessment

Section Summary 5. MAIN Idea Compare the mass of the reactants and the mass of the products
◗ Balanced chemical equations can be in a chemical reaction, and explain how these masses are related.
interpreted in terms of moles, mass, 6. State how many mole ratios can be written for a chemical reaction involving
and representative particles (atoms, three substances.
molecules, formula units). 7. Categorize the ways in which a balanced chemical equation can be interpreted.
◗ The law of conservation of mass 8. Apply The general form of a chemical reaction is xA + y B → zAB. In the equa-
applies to all chemical reactions. tion, A and B are elements, and x, y, and z are coefficients. State the mole ratios
◗ Mole ratios are derived from the coef- for this reaction.
ficients of a balanced chemical equa- 9. Apply Hydrogen peroxide (H 2O 2) decomposes to produce water and oxygen.
tion. Each mole ratio relates the Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction, and determine the possible
number of moles of one reactant or mole ratios.
product to the number of moles of
10. Model Write the mole ratios for the reaction of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas,
another reactant or product in the
2H 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2H 2O. Make a sketch of six hydrogen molecules reacting with
chemical reaction.
the correct number of oxygen molecules. Show the water molecules produced.
372 Chapter 11 • Stoichiometry Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com

Section 11.2
Objectives
◗ List the sequence of steps used in
Stoichiometric Calculations
solving stoichiometric problems. MAIN Idea The solution to every stoichiometric problem requires a
◗ Solve stoichiometric problems. balanced chemical equation.
Review Vocabulary Real-World Reading Link Baking requires accurate measurements. That is
why it is necessary to follow a recipe when baking cookies from scratch. If you
chemical reaction: a process in
which the atoms of one or more need to make more cookies than a recipe yields, what must you do?
substances are rearranged to form
different substances Using Stoichiometry
What tools are needed to perform stoichiometric calculations? All stoi-
chiometric calculations begin with a balanced chemical equation. Mole
ratios based on the balanced chemical equation are needed, as well as
mass-to-mole conversions.
Stoichiometric mole-to-mole conversion The vigorous reac-
tion between potassium and water is shown in Figure 11.3. The balanced
chemical equation is as follows.
2K(s) + 2H 2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H 2(g)
&/,$!",%3 From the balanced equation, you know that two moles of potassium
Incorporate information yields one mole of hydrogen. But how much hydrogen is produced if
from this section into
your Foldable. only 0.0400 mol of potassium is used? To answer this question, identify
the given, or known, substance and the substance that you need to
determine. The given substance is 0.0400 mol of potassium. The
unknown is the number of moles of hydrogen. Because the given sub-
stance is in moles and the unknown substance to be determined is also
in moles, this problem involves a mole-to-mole conversion.
To solve the problem, you need to know how the unknown moles of
hydrogen are related to the known moles of potassium. In Section 11.1,
you learned to derive mole ratios from the balanced chemical equation.
Mole ratios are used as conversion factors to convert the known number
of moles of one substance to the unknown number of moles of another
substance in the same reaction. Several mole ratios can be written from
the equation, but how do you choose the correct one?
■ Figure 11.3 Potassium

metal reacts vigorously with
water, releasing so much heat
that the hydrogen gas formed
in the reaction catches fire.
Section 11.2 • Stoichiometric Calculations 373

©Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs, NYC
As shown below, the correct mole ratio, 1 mol H 2 to 2 mol K, has
moles of unknown in the numerator and moles of known in the denom-
inator. Using this mole ratio converts the moles of potassium to the
unknown number of moles of hydrogen.
moles of known × __
moles of unknown
= moles of unknown
moles of known
1 mol H
0.0400 mol K × _2 = 0.0200 mol H 2
2 mol K
The following Example Problems show mole-to-mole, mole-to-mass,
and mass-to-mass stoichiometry problems. The process used to solve
these problems is outlined in the Problem-Solving Strategy below.
Problem-Solving Strategy
Mastering Stoichiometry
The flowchart below outlines the steps used to solve mole-to-mole,
mole-to-mass, and mass-to-mass stoichiometric problems.
1. Complete Step 1 by writing the balanced chemical equation 3. The end point of the calculation depends on
for the reaction. the desired unit of the unknown substance.
2. To determine where to start your calculations, note the unit • If the answer must be in moles, stop after
of the given substance. completing Step 3.
• If mass (in grams) of the given substance is the starting • If the answer must be in grams, stop after
unit, begin your calculations with Step 2. completing Step 4.
• If amount (in moles) of the given substance is the
starting unit, skip Step 2 and begin your calculations
with Step 3.
Apply the Strategy
Apply the Problem-Solving Strategy to Example Problems 11.2, 11.3,
and 11.4.
Step 1
Start with a balanced equation.
Interpret the equation in terms of moles.
Mass of given substance no direct conversion Mass of unknown substance

number of grams
Step 4
number of grams
Step 2
1mol
Convert from grams Convert from

1mol
to moles of the moles of unknown

given substance. Use to grams of
the inverse of the unknown. Use the
molar mass as the moles of unknown molar mass as the
conversion factor. moles of given conversion factor.
Step 3
Convert from moles of the given substance
to moles of the unknown substance. Use the
appropriate mole ratio from the balanced
Moles of given substance chemical equation as the conversion factor. Moles of unknown substance

Mole-to-Mole Stoichiometry One disadvantage of burning
propane (C 3H 8) is that carbon dioxide (CO 2) is one of the products.
The released carbon dioxide increases the concentration of CO 2
in the atmosphere. How many moles of CO 2 is produced when
10.0 mol of C 3H 8 is burned in excess oxygen in a gas grill?
You are given moles of the reactant, C 3H 8 and must find the moles of
the product, CO 2. First write the balanced chemical equation, then
convert from moles of C 3H 8 to moles of CO 2. The correct mole ratio
has moles of unknown substance in the numerator and moles of Real-World Chemistry
known substance in the denominator. Outdoor Cooking
Known
moles C 3H 8 = 10.0 mol C 3H 8 Math Handbook
Unknown Ratios
page 964
moles CO 2 = ? mol CO 2

Write the balanced chemical equation for the combustion of C 3H 8.
Use the correct mole ratio to convert moles of known (C 3H 8) to
moles of unknown (CO 2).
10.0 mol ? mol
C 3H 8(g) + 5O 2(g) → 3CO 2(g) + 4H 2O(g)
3 mol CO 2
Mole ratio: _
1 mol C 3H 8
3 mol CO 2
10.0 mol C 3H 8 × _ = 30.0 mol CO 2
1 mol C 3H 8
Burning 10.0 moles of C 3H 8 produces 30.0 moles CO 2. Gas Grills Using outdoor grills is
a popular way to cook. Gas grills
burn either natural gas or propane
3 Evaluate the Answer that is mixed with air. The initial
Because the given number of moles has three significant figures, the spark is provided by a grill starter.
answer also has three figures. The balanced chemical equation indi- Propane is more commonly used
cates that 1 mol of C 3H 8 produces 3 mol of CO 2. Thus, 10.0 mol of C 3H 8 for fuel because it can be supplied
produces three times as many moles of CO 2, or 30.0 mol. in liquid form in a portable tank.
Combustion of liquid propane
also releases more energy than
PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 983 and glencoe.com natural gas.
11. Methane and sulfur react to produce carbon disulfide (CS 2), a liquid
often used in the production of cellophane.
___CH 4(g) + ___S 8(s) → ___CS 2(l) + ___H 2S(g)
a. Balance the equation.
b. Calculate the moles of CS 2 produced when 1.50 mol S 8 is used.
c. How many moles of H 2S is produced?
12. Challenge Sulfuric acid ( H 2SO 4) is formed when sulfur dioxide (SO 2)
reacts with oxygen and water.
a. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
b. How many moles of H 2SO 4 is produced from 12.5 moles of SO 2?
c. How many moles of O 2 are needed?

©Rhonda Peacher Photography
Stoichiometric mole-to-mass conversion Now, suppose you
know the number of moles of a reactant or product in a reaction and
you want to calculate the mass of another product or reactant. This is an
example of a mole-to-mass conversion.

Math Handbook
Mole-to-Mass Stoichiometry Determine the mass of sodium chloride (NaCl), Calculations with
commonly called table salt, produced when 1.25 mol of chlorine gas (Cl 2) reacts Significant Figures
vigorously with excess sodium. pages 952–953

You are given the moles of the reactant, Cl 2, and must determine the mass of the product,
NaCl. You must convert from moles of Cl 2 to moles of NaCl using the mole ratio from the
equation. Then, you need to convert moles of NaCl to grams of NaCl using the molar mass
as the conversion factor.
Known Unknown
moles of chlorine = 1.25 mol Cl 2 mass of sodium chloride = ? g NaCl

1.25 mol ?g
2Na(s) + Cl 2(g) → 2NaCl(s) Write the balanced chemical equation, and
identify the known and the unknown values.
Mole ratio: _
2 mol NaCl
1 mol Cl 2
1.25 mol Cl 2 × _ = 2.50 mol NaCl

2 mol NaCl
Multiply moles of Cl 2 by the mole ratio to get moles of NaCl.
1 mol Cl 2
58.44 g NaCl
2.50 mol NaCl × _ = 146 g NaCl Multiply moles of NaCl by the molar mass to get grams of NaCl.
1 mol NaCl

Because the given number of moles has three significant figures, the mass of NaCl also
has three. To quickly assess whether the calculated mass value for NaCl is correct,
perform the calculations in reverse: divide the mass of NaCl by the molar mass of NaCl,
and then divide the result by 2. You will obtain the given number of moles of Cl 2.
13. Sodium chloride is decomposed into the elements sodium and chlorine
by means of electrical energy. How much chlorine gas, in grams, is obtained Electric Na
from the process diagrammed at right? energy NaCl
2.50 mol Cl2 ? g
14. Challenge Titanium is a transition metal used in many alloys because
it is extremely strong and lightweight. Titanium tetrachloride ( TiCl 4) is
extracted from titanium oxide ( TiO 2) using chlorine and coke (carbon).
TiO 2(s) + C(s) + 2Cl 2(g) → TiCl 4(s) + CO 2(g)
a. What mass of Cl 2 gas is needed to react with 1.25 mol of TiO 2?
b. What mass of C is needed to react with 1.25 mol of TiO 2?
c. What is the mass of all of the products formed by reaction with 1.25 mol of TiO 2?

Stoichiometric mass-to-mass conversion If you were prepar-
ing to carry out a chemical reaction in the laboratory, you would need
to know how much of each reactant to use in order to produce the mass
of product you required. Example Problem 11.4 demonstrates how you
can use a measured mass of the known substance, the balanced chemi-
cal equation, and mole ratios from the equation to find the mass of the
unknown substance. The ChemLab at the end of this chapter will pro-
vide you with laboratory experience in determining a mole ratio.

Math Handbook
Mass-to-Mass Stoichiometry Ammonium nitrate (NH 4NO 3), an important Dimensional Analysis
fertilizer, produces dinitrogen oxide (N 2O) gas and H 2O when it decomposes. page 956
Determine the mass of H 2O produced from the decomposition of 25.0 g of
solid NH 4NO 3.

You are given a description of the chemical reaction and the mass of the reactant.
You need to write the balanced chemical equation and convert the known mass of the
reactant to moles of the reactant. Then, use a mole ratio to relate moles of the reactant to
moles of the product. Finally, use the molar mass to convert from moles of the product to
the mass of the product.
Known Unknown
mass of ammonium nitrate = 25.0 g NH 4NO 3 mass of water = ? g H 2O

25.0 g ?g
NH 4NO 3(s) → N 2O(g) + 2H 2O(g) Write the balanced chemical equation, and
identify the known and unknown values.
1 mol NH 4NO 3
25.0 g NH 4NO 3 × __ = 0.312 mol NH 4NO 3
Multiply grams of NH 4NO 3 by the inverse of
80.04 g NH 4NO 3 molar mass to get moles of NH 4NO 3.
Mole ratio: __
2 mol H2O
1 mol NH 4NO 3
2 mol H 2
0.312 mol NH 4NO 3 × __
Multiply moles of NH 4NO 3 by the mole ratio
= 0.624 mol H 2O to get moles of H 2O.
1 mol NH 4NO 3
18.02 g H 2O Multiply moles of H 2O by the molar mass to
0.624 mol H 2O × _ = 11.2 g H 2O get grams of H 2O.
1 mol H 2O

The number of significant figures in the answer, three, is determined by the given moles of
NH 4NO 3. To verify that the mass of H 2O is correct, perform the calculations in reverse.
15. One of the reactions used to inflate automobile air bags involves
N2 gas
sodium azide (NaN 3): 2NaN 3(s) → 2Na(s) + 3N 2(g). Determine the
mass of N 2 produced from the decomposition of NaN 3 shown at right.
16. Challenge In the formation of acid rain, sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) reacts with
oxygen and water in the air to form sulfuric acid ( H 2SO 4). Write the
balanced chemical equation for the reaction. If 2.50 g of SO 2 reacts with
excess oxygen and water, how much H 2SO 4, in grams, is produced? 100.0 g NaN3 → ? g N2(g)

Apply Stoichiometry 5. Set up a ring stand with a ring and clay triangle
for heating the crucible.
How much sodium carbonate (Na 2CO 3) is pro- 6. Heat the crucible with a Bunsen burner, slowly
duced when baking soda decomposes? Baking at first and then with a stronger flame, for
soda is used in many baking recipes because it 7–8 min. Record your observations during the
makes batter rise, which results in a light and fluffy heating.
texture. This occurs because baking soda, sodium
hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO 3), decomposes upon
7. Turn off the burner, and use crucible tongs to
remove the hot crucible.
heating to form carbon dioxide gas according to
the following equation. WARNING: Do not touch the hot crucible with your
hands.
2NaHCO 3 → Na 2CO 3 + CO 2 + H 2O 8. Allow the crucible to cool, and then measure
the mass of the crucible and NaHCO 3.
Procedure Analysis
1. Read and complete the lab safety form. 1. Describe what you observed during the heating
2. Create a data table to record your experimental of the baking soda.
data and observation. 2. Compare your calculated mass of NaHCO 3
3. Use a balance to measure the mass of a clean, with the actual mass you obtained from the
dry crucible. Add about 3.0 g of sodium hydro- experiment.
gen carbonate (NaHCO 3), and measure the 3. Calculate Assume that the mass of Na 2HCO 3
combined mass of the crucible and NaHCO 3. that you calculated in Step 4 is the accepted
Record both masses in your data table, and value for the mass of product that will form.
calculate the mass of the NaHCO 3. Calculate the error and percent error associated
4. Use this starting mass of NaHCO 3 and the bal- with the experimentally measured mass.
anced chemical equation to calculate the mass 4. Identify sources of error in the procedure that
of NaHCO 3 that will be produced. led to errors calculated in Question 3.
Section 11.2 Assessment

Section Summary 17. MAIN Idea Explain why a balanced chemical equation is needed to solve a
◗ Chemists use stoichiometric calcula- stoichiometric problem.

tions to predict the amounts of 18. List the four steps used in solving stoichiometric problems.
reactants used and products formed 19. Describe how a mole ratio is correctly expressed when it is used to solve a
in specific reactions. stoichiometric problem.
◗ The first step in solving stoichiometric 20. Apply How can you determine the mass of liquid bromine (Br 2) needed to react
problems is writing the balanced completely with a given mass of magnesium?
chemical equation.
21. Calculate Hydrogen reacts with excess nitrogen as follows:
◗ Mole ratios derived from the
balanced chemical equation are N 2(g) + 3H 2(g) → 2NH 3(g)
used in stoichiometric calculations. If 2.70 g of H 2 reacts, how many grams of NH 3 is formed?
◗ Stoichiometric problems make use of 22. Design a concept map for the following reaction.
mole ratios to convert between mass
CaCO 3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl 2(aq) + H 2O(l) + CO 2(g)
and moles.
The concept map should explain how to determine the mass of CaCl 2 produced
from a given mass of HCl.

Section 11.3
1 1.3
Objectives
◗ Identify the limiting reactant in a
Limiting Reactants
chemical equation. MAIN Idea A chemical reaction stops when one of the reactants
◗ Identify the excess reactant, and is used up.
calculate the amount remaining after
the reaction is complete. Real-World Reading Link If there are more boys than girls at a school dance,
some boys will be left without dance partners. The situation is much the same for
◗ Calculate the mass of a product
when the amounts of more than one the reactants in a chemical reaction—excess reactants cannot participate.
reactant are given.
Why do reactions stop?
Review Vocabulary Rarely in nature are the reactants present in the exact ratios specified by
molar mass: the mass in grams of the balanced chemical equation. Generally, one or more reactants are in
one mole of any pure substance excess and the reaction proceeds until all of one reactant is used up.
When a reaction is carried out in the laboratory, the same principle
New Vocabulary applies. Usually, one or more of the reactants are in excess, while one is
limiting reactant limited. The amount of product depends on the reactant that is limited.
excess reactant
Limiting and excess reactants Recall the reaction from the
Launch Lab. After the colorless solution formed, adding more sodium
hydrogen sulfite had no effect because there was no more potassium
permanganate available to react with it. Potassium permanganate was a
limiting reactant. As the name implies, the limiting reactant limits the
extent of the reaction and, thereby, determines the amount of product
formed. A portion of all the other reactants remains after the reaction
stops. Reactants leftover when a reaction stops are excess reactants.
To help you understand limiting and excess reactants, consider the
analogy in Figure 11.4. From the available tools, four complete sets
consisting of a pair of pliers, a hammer, and two screwdrivers can be
assembled. The number of sets is limited by the number of available
hammers. Pliers and screwdrivers remain in excess.
■ Figure 11.4 Each tool set must have one hammer, so only four sets can be assembled.
Interpret How many more hammers are required to complete a fifth set?
Available tools
Sets of tools
Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 Set 4
Extra tools
Section 11.3 • Limiting Reactants 379

Aaron Haupt
Before Reaction After Reaction
+ +
Three nitrogen molecules Three hydrogen molecules Two ammonia molecules Two nitrogen molecules
(six nitrogen atoms) (six hydrogen atoms) (two nitrogen atoms, six hydrogen atoms) (four nitrogen atoms)
■ Figure 11.5 If you check all the atoms present before and after the reaction, you will find that
some of the nitrogen molecules are unchanged. These nitrogen molecules are the excess reactant.
Interactive Figure To see an animation

of limiting reactants, visit glencoe.com.
Determining the limiting reactant The calculations you did in
the previous section were based on having the reactants present in the
ratio described by the balanced chemical equation. When this is not the
case, the first thing you must do is determine which reactant is limiting.
Consider the reaction shown in Figure 11.5, in which three mole-
cules of nitrogen (N 2) and three molecules of hydrogen (H 2) react to
form ammonia (NH 3). In the first step of the reaction, all the nitrogen
molecules and hydrogen molecules are separated into individual atoms.
These atoms are available for reassembling into ammonia molecules,
just as the tools in Figure 11.4 are available to be assembled into tool
kits. How many molecules of ammonia can be produced from the avail-
able atoms? Two ammonia molecules can be assembled from the hydro-
gen atoms and nitrogen atoms because only six hydrogen atoms are
available—three for each ammonia molecule. When the hydrogen is
gone, two unreacted molecules of nitrogen remain. Thus, hydrogen is
the limiting reactant and nitrogen is the excess reactant. It is important
to know which reactant is the limiting reactant because, as you have just
■ Figure 11.6 Natural rubber, which read, the amount of product formed depends on this reactant.
is soft and very sticky, is hardened in
a chemical process called vulcanization.
Reading Check Extend How many more hydrogen molecules would
During vulcanization, molecules become be needed to completely react with the excess nitrogen molecules
linked together, forming a durable material shown in Figure 11.5?
that is harder, smoother, and less sticky.
These properties make vulcanized rubber Calculating the Product
ideal for many products, such as this caster.
when a Reactant Is Limiting
How can you calculate the amount of product formed when one of the
reactants is limiting? Consider the formation of disulfur dichloride
(S 2Cl 2), which is used to vulcanize rubber. As shown in Figure 11.6, the
properties of vulcanized rubber make it useful for many products. In
the production of disulfur dichloride, molten sulfur reacts with chlorine
gas according to the following equation.
S 8(l) + 4Cl 2(g) → 4S 2Cl 2(l)
If 200.0 g of sulfur reacts with 100.0 g of chlorine, what mass of disulfur
dichloride is produced?
Calculating the limiting reactant The masses of both reactants
are given. First, determine which one is the limiting reactant, because the
reaction stops producing product when the limiting reactant is used up.

©Chris McElcheran/Masterfile
Moles of reactants Identifying the limiting reactant involves find-
ing the number of moles of each reactant. You can do this by converting
the masses of chlorine and sulfur to moles. Multiply each mass by a con-
version factor that relates moles and mass—the inverse of molar mass.
1 mol Cl
100.0 g Cl 2 × _2
= 1.410 mol Cl 2
70.91 g Cl 2
1 mol S
200.0 g S 8 × _8
= 0.7797 mol S 8
256.5 g S 8 Careers In chemistry
Using mole ratios The next step involves determining whether the Pharmacist Knowledge of drug
two reactants are in the correct mole ratio, as given in the balanced composition, modes of action, and
chemical equation. The coefficients in the balanced chemical equation possible harmful interactions with
indicate that 4 mol of chlorine is needed to react with 1 mol of sulfur. other substances allows a pharma-
This 4:1 ratio from the equation must be compared with the actual ratio cist to counsel patients on their care.
of the moles of available reactants just calculated above. To determine Pharmacists also mix chemicals to
the actual ratio of moles, divide the number of available moles of chlo- form powders, tablets, ointments,
and solutions. For more information
rine by the number of available moles of sulfur.
on chemistry careers, visit
1.410 mol Cl 2 available
__ 1.808 mol Cl 2 available glencoe.com.
= __
0.7797 mol S 8 available 1 mol S 8 available
Only 1.808 mol of chlorine is available for every 1 mol of sulfur, instead
of the 4 mol of chlorine required by the balanced chemical equation.
Therefore, chlorine is the limiting reactant.
Calculating the amount of product formed After determin-
ing the limiting reactant, the amount of product in moles can be calcu-
lated by multiplying the given number of moles of the limiting reactant
(1.410 mol Cl 2) by the mole ratio relating disulfur dichloride and chlo-
rine. Then, moles of S 2Cl 2 is converted to grams of S 2Cl 2 by multiplying
by the molar mass. These calculations can be combined as shown.
4 mol S Cl 135.0 g S 2Cl 2
1.410 mol Cl 2 × _2 2
× _ = 190.4 g S 2Cl 2
4 mol Cl 2 1 mol S 2Cl 2
Thus, 190.4 g S 2Cl 2 forms when 1.410 mol Cl 2 reacts with excess S 8.
Analyzing the excess reactant Now that you have determined VOCABULARY
the limiting reactant and the amount of product formed, what about the SCIENCE USAGE V. COMMON USAGE
excess reactant, sulfur? How much of it reacted? Product
Science usage: a new substance
Moles reacted You need to make a mole-to-mass calculation to
formed during a chemical reaction
determine the mass of sulfur needed to react completely with 1.410 mol The sole reaction product was a
of chlorine. First, obtain the number of moles of sulfur by multiplying colorless gas.
the moles of chlorine by the S 8-to-Cl 2 mole ratio.
1 mol S Common usage: something produced
1.410 mol Cl 2 × _8
= 0.3525 mol S 8 The cosmetics counter in the depart-
4 mol Cl 2
ment store had hundreds of products
Mass reacted Next, to obtain the mass of sulfur needed, multiply from which to choose.
0.3525 mol of S 8 by its molar mass.
265.5 g S 8
0.3525 mol S 8 × _ = 90.42 g S 8 needed
1 mol S 8
Excess remaining Knowing that 200.0 g of sulfur is available and
that only 90.42 g of sulfur is needed, you can calculate the amount of
sulfur left unreacted when the reaction ends.
200.0 g S 8 available - 90.42 g S 8 needed = 109.6 g S 8 in excess

Math Handbook
Determining the Limiting Reactant The reaction between solid white Dimensional Analysis
phosphorus (P 4) and oxygen produces solid tetraphosphorus decoxide (P 4O 10). page 956
This compound is often called diphosphorus pentoxide because its empirical
formula is P 2O 5.
a. Determine the mass of P 4O 10 formed if 25.0 g of P 4 and 50.0 g of oxygen
are combined.
b. How much of the excess reactant remains after the reaction stops?

You are given the masses of both reactants, so you must identify the limiting reactant and
use it to find the mass of the product. From moles of the limiting reactant, the moles of
the excess reactant used in the reaction can be determined. The number of moles of the
excess reactant that reacted can be converted to mass and subtracted from the given
mass to find the amount in excess.
Known Unknown
mass of phosphorus = 25.0 g P 4 mass of tetraphosphorus decoxide = ? g P 4O 10
mass of oxygen = 50.0 g O 2 mass of excess reactant = ? g excess reactant

Determine the limiting reactant.
25.0 g 50.0 g ?g Write the balanced chemical equation, and
P 4(s) + 5O 2(g) → P 4O 10(s) identify the known and the unknown.
Determine the number of moles of the reactants by multiplying each mass by the
conversion factor that relates moles and mass—the inverse of molar mass.
1 mol P 4
25.0 g P 4 × _ = 0.202 mol P 4 Calculate the moles of P 4.
123.9 g P 4
1 mol O 2
50.0 g O 2 × _ = 1.56 mol O 2 Calculate the moles of O 2.
32.00 g O 2
Calculate the actual ratio of available moles of O 2 and available moles of P 4.
1.56 mol O 2
_ 7.72 mol O
= _2
Calculate the ratio of moles of O 2 to moles of P 4.
0.202 mol P 4 1 mol P 4
Determine the mole ratio of the two reactants from the balanced chemical equation.
5 mol O
Mole ratio: _2
mol P 4
Because 7.72 mol of O 2 is available but only 5 mol is needed to react with 1 mol of P 4, O 2
is in excess and P 4 is the limiting reactant. Use the moles of P 4 to determine the moles of
P 4O 10 that will be produced. Multiply the number of moles of P 4 by the mole ratio of P 4O 10
(the unknown) to P 4 (the known).
1 mol P 4O 10
0.202 mol P 4 × _ = 0.202 mol P 4O 10 Calculate the moles of product (P 4O 10) formed.
1 mol P 4
To calculate the mass of P 4O 10, multiply moles of P 4O 10 by the conversion factor that
relates mass and moles—molar mass.
283.9 g P 4O 10
0.202 mol P 4O 10 × __ = 57.3 g P 4O 10 Calculate the mass of the product P 4O 10.
1 mol P 4O 10

Because O 2 is in excess, only part of the available O 2 is consumed. Use the limiting
reactant, P 4, to determine the moles and mass of O 2 used.
5 mol O
0.202 mol P 4 × _2 = 1.01 mol O 2
Multiply the moles of limiting reactant by the mole
1 mol P 4 ratio to determine moles of excess reactant needed.
Convert moles of O 2 consumed to mass of O 2 consumed.

32.00 g O 2
1.01 mol O 2 × _ = 32.3 g O 2 Multiply the moles of O 2 by the molar mass.
1 mol O 2
Calculate the amount of excess O 2.

50.0 g O 2 available - 32.3 g O 2 consumed = 17.7 g O 2 in excess Subtract the mass of O 2 used
from the mass available.

All values have a minimum of three significant figures, so the mass of P 4O 10 is correctly
stated with three digits. The mass of excess O 2 (17.7 g) is found by subtracting two
numbers that are accurate to the first decimal place. Therefore, the mass of excess O 2
correctly shows one decimal place. The sum of the O 2 that was consumed (32.3 g) and
the given mass of P 4 (25.0 g) is 57.3 g, the calculated mass of the product P 4O 10.
23. The reaction between solid sodium and iron(III) oxide is one in a series of reactions that
inflates an automobile airbag: 6Na(s) + Fe 2O 3(s) → 3Na 2O(s) + 2Fe(s). If 100.0 g of Na
and 100.0 g of Fe 2O 3 are used in this reaction, determine the following.
a. limiting reactant
b. reactant in excess
c. mass of solid iron produced
d. mass of excess reactant that remains after the reaction is complete
24. Challenge Photosynthesis reactions in green plants use carbon dioxide and water
to produce glucose (C 6H 12O 6) and oxygen. A plant has 88.0 g of carbon dioxide and
64.0 g of water available for photosynthesis.
b. Determine the limiting reactant.
c. Determine the excess reactant.
d. Determine the mass in excess.
e. Determine the mass of glucose produced.
Connection Biology Your body needs vitamins, minerals, and ele-

ments in small amounts to facilitate normal metabolic reactions. A lack
of these substances can lead to abnormalities in growth, development,
and the functioning of your body’s cells. Phosphorus, for example, is an
essential element in living systems; phosphate groups occur regularly in
strands of DNA. Potassium is needed for proper nerve function, muscle
control, and blood pressure. A diet low in potassium and high in sodi-
um might be a factor in high blood pressure. Another example is vita-
min B-12. Without adequate vitamin B-12, the body is unable to
synthesize DNA properly, affecting the production of red blood cells.

■ Figure 11.7 With insufficient
oxygen, the burner on the left burns
with a yellow, sooty flame. The burner
on the right burns hot and clean
because an excess of oxygen is
available to react completely with
the methane gas.
Why use an excess of a reactant? Many reactions stop while

portions of the reactants are still present in the reaction mixture.
Because this is inefficient and wasteful, chemists have found that by
using an excess of one reactant—often the least expensive one—reac-
tions can be driven to continue until all of the limiting reactant is used
up. Using an excess of one reactant can also speed up a reaction.
Figure 11.7 shows an example of how controlling the amount of a
reactant can increase efficiency. Your lab likely uses the type of Bunsen
burner shown in the figure. If so, you know that this type of burner has
a control that lets you adjust the amount of air that mixes with the
methane gas. How efficiently the burner operates depends on the ratio
of oxygen to methane gas in the fuel mixture. When the air is limited,
the resulting flame is yellow because of glowing bits of unburned fuel.
This unburned fuel leaves soot (carbon) deposits on glassware. Fuel is
wasted because the amount of energy released is less than the amount
that could have been produced if enough oxygen were available. When
sufficient oxygen is present in the combustion mixture, the burner pro-
duces a hot, intense blue flame. No soot is deposited because the fuel is
completely converted to carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Section 1 1.3 Assessment

Section Summary 25. MAIN Idea Describe the reason why a reaction between two substances
◗ The limiting reactant is the reactant comes to an end.

that is completely consumed during 26. Identify the limiting and the excess reactant in each reaction.
a chemical reaction. Reactants that a. Wood burns in a campfire.
remain after the reaction stops are b. Airborne sulfur reacts with the silver plating on a teapot to produce tarnish
called excess reactants. (silver sulfide).
◗ To determine the limiting reactant, c. Baking powder in batter decomposes to produce carbon dioxide.
the actual mole ratio of the available
27. Analyze Tetraphosphorus trisulphide (P 4S 3) is used in the match heads of some
reactants must be compared with the
matches. It is produced in the reaction 8P 4 + 3S 8 → 8P 4S 3. Determine which of
ratio of the reactants obtained from
the following statements are incorrect, and rewrite the incorrect statements to
the coefficients in the balanced
make them correct.
chemical equation.
a. 4 mol P 4 reacts with 1.5 mol S 8 to form 4 mol P 4S 3.
◗ Stoichiometric calculations must be b. Sulfur is the limiting reactant when 4 mol P 4 and 4 mol S 8 react.
based on the limiting reactant.
c. 6 mol P 4 reacts with 6 mol S 8, forming 1320 g P 4S 3.

Matt Meadows
Section 11.4
1 1.4
Objectives
◗ Calculate the theoretical yield of
Percent Yield
a chemical reaction from data. MAIN Idea Percent yield is a measure of the efficiency of a
◗ Determine the percent yield for chemical reaction.
a chemical reaction.
Real-World Reading Link Imagine that you are practicing free throws and
Review Vocabulary you take 100 practice shots. Theoretically, you could make all 100 shots. In
process: a series of actions actuality, however, you know you will not make all of the shots. Chemical
or operations reactions also have theoretical and actual outcomes.
New Vocabulary How much product?

theoretical yield While solving stoichiometric problems in this chapter, you might have
actual yield concluded that chemical reactions always proceed in the laboratory
percent yield according to the balanced equation and produce the calculated amount
of product. This, however, is not the case. Just as you are unlikely to
make 100 out of 100 free throws during basketball practice, most reac-
tions never succeed in producing the predicted amount of product.
Reactions do not go to completion or yield as expected for a variety of
reasons. Liquid reactants and products might adhere to the surfaces of
their containers or evaporate. In some instances, products other than
the intended ones might be formed by competing reactions, thus reduc-
ing the yield of the desired product. Or, as shown in Figure 11.8, some
amount of any solid product is usually left behind on filter paper or lost
in the purification process. Because of these problems, chemists need to
know how to gauge the yield of a chemical reaction.
Theoretical and Actual Yields In many of the stoichiometric cal-
culations you have performed, you have calculated the amount of prod-
uct produced from a given amount of reactant. The answer you
obtained is the theoretical yield of the reaction. The theoretical yield is
the maximum amount of product that can be produced from a given
amount of reactant.
A chemical reaction rarely produces the theoretical yield of
product. A chemist determines the actual yield of a reaction through
a careful experiment in which the mass of the product is measured.
The actual yield is the amount of product produced when the chemical
reaction is carried out in an experiment.
■ Figure 11.8 Silver

chromate is formed when
potassium chromate is added
to silver nitrate. Note that
some of the precipitate is left
behind on filter paper. Still
more of the precipitate is lost
because it adheres to the
sides of the beaker.
Section 11.4 • Percent Yield 385

Matt Meadows
Percent yield Chemists need to know how efficient a reaction is
in producing the desired product. One way of measuring efficiency is
by means of percent yield. Percent yield of product is the ratio of the
actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as a percent.
Percent Yield
actual yield
percent yield = __ × 100
theoretical yield
The actual yield divided by the theoretical yield multiplied by 100 is the percent yield.

Math Handbook
Percent Yield Solid silver chromate (Ag 2CrO 4) forms when potassium chromate Percents
(K 2CrO 4) is added to a solution containing 0.500 g of silver nitrate (AgNO 3). page 965
Determine the theoretical yield of Ag 2CrO 4. Calculate the percent yield if the
reaction yields 0.455 g of Ag 2CrO 4.

You know the mass of a reactant and the actual yield of the product. Write the balanced
chemical equation, and calculate theoretical yield by converting grams of AgNO 3 to
moles of AgNO 3, moles of AgNO 3 to moles of Ag 2CrO 4, and moles of Ag 2CrO 4 to grams
of Ag 2CrO 4. Calculate the percent yield from the actual yield and the theoretical yield.
Known Unknown
mass of silver nitrate = 0.500 g AgNO 3 theoretical yield = ? g Ag 2CrO 4
actual yield = 0.455 g Ag 2CrO 4 percent yield = ? % Ag 2CrO 4

0.500 g ?g
Write the balanced chemical equation,
2AgNO 3(aq) + K 2CrO 4(aq) → Ag 2CrO 4(s) + 2KNO 3(aq) and identify the known and the unknown.
1 mol AgNO 3
0.500 g AgNO 3 × __ = 2.94 × 10 -3 mol AgNO 3 Use molar mass to convert grams
169.9 g AgNO 3 of AgNO 3 to moles of AgNO 3.
1 mol Ag 2CrO 4
2.94 × 10 -3 mol AgNO 3 × __ = 1.47 × 10 -3 mol Ag 2CrO 4 Use the mole ratio to convert moles of
2 mol AgNO 3 AgNO 3 to moles of Ag 2CrO 4.
331.7 g Ag 2CrO 4
1.47 × 10 -3 mol Ag 2CrO 4 × __ = 0.488 g Ag 2CrO 4 Calculate the theoretical yield.
1 mol Ag 2CrO 4
0.455 g Ag 2CrO 4
__ × 100 = 93.2% Ag 2CrO 4 Calculate the percent yield.
0.488 g Ag CrO
2 4

The quantity with the fewest significant figures has three, so the percent is correctly stated
with three digits. The molar mass of Ag 2CrO 4 is about twice the molar mass of AgNO 3, and
the ratio of moles of AgNO 3 to moles of Ag 2CrO 4 in the equation is 2:1. Therefore, 0.500 g
of AgNO 3 should produce about the same mass of Ag 2CrO 4. The actual yield of Ag 2CrO 4
is close to 0.500 g, so a percent yield of 93.2% is reasonable.

28. Aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH) 3) is often present in antacids to

neutralize stomach acid (HCl). The reaction occurs as follows:
Al(OH) 3(s) + 3HCl(aq) → AlCl 3(aq) + 3H 2O(l). If 14.0 g of Al(OH) 3
is present in an antacid tablet, determine the theoretical yield of
AlCl 3 produced when the tablet reacts with HCl.
29. Zinc reacts with iodine in a synthesis reaction: Zn + I 2 → ZnI 2.
a. Determine the theoretical yield if 1.912 mol of zinc is used.
b. Determine the percent yield if 515.6 g of product is recovered.
30. Challenge When copper wire is placed into a silver nitrate solution
(AgNO 3), silver crystals and copper(II) nitrate (Cu(NO 3) 2) solution
form.
b. If a 20.0-g sample of copper is used, determine the theoretical yield
of silver.
c. If 60.0 g of silver is recovered from the reaction, determine the
percent yield of the reaction.
Data Analysis lab

Based on Real Data 1, 2
Analyze and Conclude
Can rocks on the Moon provide an effective Data and Observations
oxygen source for future lunar missions?
Although the Moon has no atmosphere and thus Moon-Rock Data 1
no oxygen, its surface is covered with rocks and Oxide % Weight of Soil
soil made from oxides. Scientists, looking for an
oxygen source for future long-duration lunar SiO 2 47.3%
missions, are researching ways to extract oxygen Al 2O 3 17.8%
from lunar soil and rock. Analysis of samples col-
lected during previous lunar missions provided CaO 11.4%
scientists with the data shown in the table. The FeO 10.5%
table identifies the oxides in lunar soil as well as
MgO 9.6%
each oxide’s percent-by-weight of the soil.
TiO 2 1.6%
Think Critically
Na 2O 0.7%
1. Calculate For each of the oxides listed in the
table, determine the mass (in grams) that K 2O 0.6%
would exist in 1.00 kg of lunar soil. Cr 2O 3 0.2%
2. Apply Scientists want to release the oxygen
MnO 0.1%
from its metal oxide using a decomposition
reaction: metal oxide → metal + oxygen. To
1
Data obtained from: McKay, et al. 1994. JSC-1: A new lunar soil stimulant.
assess the viability of this idea, determine the Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space IV: 857–866, American Society
amount of oxygen per kilogram contained in of Civil Engineers.
2
Data obtained from: Berggren, et al. 2005. Carbon monoxide silicate reduction
each of the oxides found in lunar soil. system. Space Resources Roundtable VII.
3. Identify What oxide would yield the most
oxygen per kilogram? The least? 5. Calculate Using methods currently available,
4. Determine the theoretical yield of oxygen scientists can produce 15 kg of oxygen from
from the oxides present in a 1.00-kg sample 100 kg of lunar soil. What is the percent yield
of lunar soil. of the process.
Section 11.4 • Percent Yield 387

Percent Yield in the Marketplace
Percent yield is important in the cost effectiveness of many industrial
manufacturing processes. For example, the sulfur shown in Figure 11.9
is used to make sulfuric acid (H 2SO 4). Sulfuric acid is an important
chemical because it is a raw material used to make products such as
fertilizers, detergents, pigments, and textiles. The cost of sulfuric acid
affects the cost of many of the consumer items you use every day. The
first two steps in the manufacturing process are shown below.
Step 1 S 8(s) + 8O 2(g) → 8SO 2(g)
Step 2 2SO 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2SO 3(g)
In the final step, SO 3 combines with water to produce H 2SO 4.
■ Figure 11.9 Sulfur, such as these Step 3 SO 3(g) + H 2O(l) → H 2SO 4(aq)
piles at Vancouver Harbor, can be extract-
ed from petroleum products by a chemical The first step, the combustion of sulfur, produces an almost 100% yield.
process. Sulfur is also mined by forcing hot The second step also produces a high yield if a catalyst is used at the
water into underground deposits and relatively low temperature of 400°C. A catalyst is a substance that speeds
pumping the liquid sulfur to the surface. a reaction but does not appear in the chemical equation. Under these
conditions, the reaction is slow. Raising the temperature increases the
reaction rate but decreases the yield.
To maximize yield and minimize time in the second step, engineers
have devised a system in which the reactants, O 2 and SO 2, are passed
over a catalyst at 400°C. Because the reaction releases a great deal of
heat, the temperature gradually increases with an accompanying
decrease in yield. Thus, when the temperature reaches approximately
600°C, the mixture is cooled and then passed over the catalyst again.
A total of four passes over the catalyst with cooling between passes
results in a yield greater than 98%.
Section 1 1.4 Assessment

Section Summary 31. MAIN Idea Identify which type of yield—theoretical yield, actual yield, or
◗ The theoretical yield of a chemical percent yield—is a measure of the efficiency of a chemical reaction.
reaction is the maximum amount of 32. List several reasons why the actual yield from a chemical reaction is not usually
product that can be produced from a equal to the theoretical yield.
given amount of reactant. Theoretical 33. Explain how percent yield is calculated.
yield is calculated from the balanced
chemical equation. 34. Apply In an experiment, you combine 83.77 g of iron with an excess of sulfur
and then heat the mixture to obtain iron(III) sulfide.
◗ The actual yield is the amount of
product produced. Actual yield must 2Fe(s) + 3S(s) → Fe 2S 3(s)
be obtained through experimentation. What is the theoretical yield, in grams, of iron(III) sulfide?
◗ Percent yield is the ratio of actual 35. Calculate the percent yield of the reaction of magnesium with excess oxygen:
yield to theoretical yield expressed as 2Mg(s) + O 2(g) → 2MgO(s)
a percent. High percent yield is impor-
tant in reducing the cost of every Reaction Data
product produced through chemical Mass of empty crucible 35.67 g
processes.
Mass of crucible and Mg 38.06 g
Mass of crucible and MgO (after heating) 39.15 g

©Gunter Marx Photography/CORBIS
Battling
Resistant Strains Infectious Virus
Virus Capsid protein
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the budding out shield for
virus that causes AIDS, has proven to be among Normal viral RNA
the most incurable foes ever faced by modern RNA core
medical science. One reason for this is the virus’s
remarkable ability to adapt. Resistant strains of “Dead” Virus
the virus appear quickly, rendering obsolete the Protein shield
newest and most powerful AIDS drugs. Now Infected destroyed
human cell
some researchers are using the virus’s Defective
adaptability as a way to fight it. With PA-457 RNA core
Selecting resistance PA-457 is a promising Figure 2 When treated with PA-457, the HIV capsid becomes
new anti-HIV drug synthesized from betulinic misshapen and collapses, resulting in the death of the virus.
acid, an organic compound derived from some
plants, including the bark of birch trees. To find Surprise attack This finding was surprising,
out just what PA-457 does to HIV, known as the because it showed that, unlike most drugs,
drug’s mechanism of action, researchers took PA-457 attacks the HIV structure, rather than
what might seem a strange step: they the enzymes that help HIV reproduce, as
encouraged samples of HIV to develop illustrated in Figure 2. This makes PA-457
resistance to PA-457. among the first of a new class of HIV drugs
Researchers subjected HIV samples to small known as maturation inhibitors—drugs that can
doses of PA-457. Using a low dose made it more prevent the virus from maturing during the late
likely that some of the virus would survive the stages in its development.
treatment and possibly develop resistance.
Those viruses that survived exposure were Slowing evolution The hope is that because
collected, and their genetic sequences were PA-457 and other maturation inhibitors attack
examined. The surviving viruses were found to the HIV structure, resistance will be slower to
have a mutation in the genes that control how develop. Even so, maturation inhibitors will
the virus builds a structure called a capsid, likely be prescribed in combination with other
shown in Figure 1. AIDS drugs that attack HIV at different stages of
its life cycle.
This practice, called multidrug therapy,
makes it harder for HIV to develop resistance
because any surviving virus would need to have
multiple mutations—at least one for each anti-
HIV drug. These mutations are less likely to
occur at the same time.
Chemistry
Research how scientists determine the safe dos-
ing level for an experimental drug. Discuss how a
drug’s effectiveness must be balanced with its
potential toxicity and side effects. For more infor-
Figure 1 In a normal HIV virus, the capsid forms a protective mation on how a therapeutic dose is determined,
coating around the genetic material. visit glencoe.com.
Chapter 11 • Chemistry and Health 389

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Probeware Alternate CBL instructions can
be found at glencoe.com.
DETERMINE THE MOLE RATIO
Background: Iron reacts with copper(II) sulfate

(CuSO 4). By measuring the mass of iron that reacts
and the mass of copper metal produced, you can
calculate the experimental mole ratio.
Question: How does the experimental mole ratio
compare with the theoretical mole ratio?
Materials
copper(II) sulfate penta- hot plate
hydrate (CuSO 4·5H 2O) beaker tongs
iron metal filings (20 mesh) balance
distilled water stirring rod
150-mL beaker 400-mL beaker
100-mL graduated cylinder weighing paper
12. After the copper is dry, use tongs to remove the
beaker from the hot plate and allow it to cool.
Safety Precautions
13. Measure the mass of the beaker and the copper.
WARNING: Hot plates can cause burns. Turn off hot
plates when not in use. Use only GFCI-protected circuits. 14. Cleanup and Disposal The dry copper can be
placed in a waste container. Moisten any residue that
Procedure sticks to the beaker, and wipe it out using a paper
1. Read and complete the lab safety form. towel. Pour the unreacted copper(II) sulfate and
iron(II) sulfate solutions into a large beaker. Return
2. Measure the mass of a clean, dry 150-mL beaker.
all lab equipment to its proper place.
Record all measurements in a data table.
3. Place approximately 12 g CuSO 4·5H 2O into the Analyze and Conclude
150-mL beaker, and measure the combined mass. 1. Apply Write a balanced chemical equation for the
4. Add 50 mL of distilled water to the CuSO 4·5H 2O. reaction and calculate the mass of copper (Cu) that
Place the mixture on a hot plate set at medium, and should have formed from the sample of iron (Fe)
stir until all of the solid dissolves (do not boil). used. This mass is the theoretical yield.
Using tongs, remove the beaker from the hot plate. 2. Interpret Data Using your data, determine the
5. Measure about 2 g of iron filings onto a piece of mass and the moles of copper produced. Calculate
weighing paper. Measure the mass of the filings. the moles of iron used, and determine the whole-
6. While stirring, slowly add the iron filings to the hot number iron-to-copper mole ratio and percent yield.
copper(II) sulfate solution. Be careful not to splash 3. Compare and Contrast Compare the theoretical
the hot solution. iron-to-copper mole ratio to the mole ratio you cal-
7. Allow the reaction mixture to sit for 5 min. culated using the experimental data.
4. Error Analysis Identify sources of the error that
8. Use the stirring rod to decant (pour off) the liquid
resulted in deviation from the mole ratio given in
into a 400-mL beaker. Be careful to decant only the
the balanced chemical equation.
liquid—leave the solid copper metal behind.
9. Add 15 mL of distilled water to the copper solid, and
carefully swirl the beaker to wash the copper. Decant
the liquid into the 400-mL beaker. INQUIRY EXTENSION
Compare your results with those of several other
10. Repeat Step 9 two more times.
lab teams. Create a hypothesis to explain any
11. Place the beaker containing the wet copper on the differences.
hot plate. Use low heat to dry the copper.

Matt Meadows
Download quizzes, key
terms, and flash cards
from glencoe.com.
BIG Idea Mass relationships in chemical reactions confirm the law of conservation of mass.
Section 11.1 Defining Stoichiometry

MAIN Idea The amount of each Key Concepts
reactant present at the start of a • Balanced chemical equations can be interpreted in terms of moles, mass, and
chemical reaction determines how representative particles (atoms, molecules, formula units).
much product can form.
• The law of conservation of mass applies to all chemical reactions.
Vocabulary • Mole ratios are derived from the coefficients of a balanced chemical equation.
• mole ratio (p. 371) Each mole ratio relates the number of moles of one reactant or product to the
• stoichiometry (p. 368) number of moles of another reactant or product in the chemical reaction.
Section 11.2 Stoichiometric Calculations

MAIN Idea The solution to every Key Concepts
stoichiometric problem requires a • Chemists use stoichiometric calculations to predict the amounts of reactants
balanced chemical equation. used and products formed in specific reactions.
• The first step in solving stoichiometric problems is writing the balanced
chemical equation.
• Mole ratios derived from the balanced chemical equation are used in
stoichiometric calculations.
• Stoichiometric problems make use of mole ratios to convert between mass
and moles.
Section 11.3 Limiting Reactants

MAIN Idea A chemical reaction Key Concepts
stops when one of the reactants • The limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely consumed during a
is used up. chemical reaction. Reactants that remain after the reaction stops are called
excess reactants.
Vocabulary
• excess reactant (p. 379) • To determine the limiting reactant, the actual mole ratio of the available reactants
• limiting reactant (p. 379) must be compared with the ratio of the reactants obtained from the coefficients
in the balanced chemical equation.
• Stoichiometric calculations must be based on the limiting reactant.
Section 11.4 Percent Yield

MAIN Idea Percent yield is a Key Concepts
measure of the efficiency of • The theoretical yield of a chemical reaction is the maximum amount of product
a chemical reaction. that can be produced from a given amount of reactant. Theoretical yield is
calculated from the balanced chemical equation.
Vocabulary
• actual yield (p. 385) • The actual yield is the amount of product produced. Actual yield must be obtained
• percent yield (p. 386) through experimentation.
• theoretical yield (p. 385) • Percent yield is the ratio of actual yield to theoretical yield expressed as a percent.
High percent yield is important in reducing the cost of every product produced
through chemical processes.
actual yield
Percent yield = __ × 100
theoretical yield
Vocabulary PuzzleMaker glencoe.com Chapter 11 • Study Guide 391

Section 11.1 47. When hydrochloric acid solution reacts with lead(II)
nitrate solution, lead(II) chloride precipitates and a
Mastering Concepts solution of nitric acid is produced.
36. Why must a chemical equation be balanced before you a. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
can determine mole ratios? b. Interpret the equation in terms of molecules and
formula units, moles, and mass.
37. What relationships can be determined from a balanced
chemical equation? 48. When aluminum is mixed with iron(III) oxide, iron
metal and aluminum oxide are produced, along with a
38. Explain why mole ratios are central to stoichiometric
large quantity of heat. What mole ratio would you use
calculations.
to determine moles of Fe if moles of Fe 2O 3 is known?
39. What is the mole ratio that can convert from moles of A
Fe 2O 3(s) + 2Al(s) → 2Fe(s) + Al 2O 3(s) + heat
to moles of B?
40. Why are coefficients used in mole ratios instead of 49. Solid silicon dioxide, often called silica, reacts with
subscripts? hydrofluoric acid (HF) solution to produce the gas
silicon tetrafluoride and water.
41. Explain how the conservation of mass allows you to a. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
interpret a balanced chemical equation in terms of mass. b. List three mole ratios, and explain how you would use
42. When heated by a flame, ammonium dichromate them in stoichiometric calculations.
decomposes, producing nitrogen gas, solid
50. Chrome The most important commercial ore of chro-
chromium(III) oxide, and water vapor.
mium is chromite (FeCr 2O 4). One of the steps in the
(NH 4)2Cr 2O 7 → N 2 + Cr 2O 3 + 4H 2O process used to extract chromium from the ore is the
Write the mole ratios for this reaction that relate ammo- reaction of chromite with coke (carbon) to produce
nium dichromate to the products. ferrochrome (FeCr 2).
2C(s) + FeCr 2O 4(s) → FeCr 2(s) + 2CO 2(g)
What mole ratio would you use to convert from moles
of chromite to moles of ferrochrome?
51. Air Pollution The pollutant SO 2 is removed from the
air by in a reaction that also involves calcium carbonate
and oxygen. The products of this reaction are calcium
■ Figure 11.10
sulfate and carbon dioxide. Determine the mole ratio you
43. Figure 11.10 depicts an equation with squares repre- would use to convert moles of SO 2 to moles of CaSO 4.
senting Element M and circles representing Element N. 52. Two substances, W and X, react to form the products Y
Write a balanced equation to represent the picture and Z. Table 11.2 shows the moles of the reactants and
shown, using smallest whole-number ratios. Write mole products involved when the reaction was carried out.
ratios for this equation. Use the data to determine the coefficients that will bal-
ance the equation W + X → Y + Z.
Mastering Problems
44. Interpret the following equation in terms of particles, Table 11.2 Reaction Data
moles, and mass. Moles of Reactants Moles of Products
4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Al 2O 3(s) W X Y Z
45. Smelting When tin(IV) oxide is heated with carbon 0.90 0.30 0.60 1.20
in a process called smelting, the element tin can be
extracted. 53. Antacids Magnesium hydroxide is an ingredient in
SnO 2(s) + 2C(s) → Sn(l) + 2CO(g) some antacids. Antacids react with excess hydrochloric
Interpret the chemical equation in terms of particles, acid in the stomach to relieve indigestion.
moles, and mass. ___Mg(OH) 2 + ___HCl → ___ MgCl 2 + ___H 2O
46. When solid copper is added to nitric acid, copper(II) a. Balance the reaction of Mg(OH) 2 with HCl.
nitrate, nitrogen dioxide, and water are produced. b. Write the mole ratio that would be used to determine
Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction. the number of moles of MgCl 2 produced when HCl
List six mole ratios for the reaction. reacts with Mg(OH) 2.
392 Chapter 11 • Stoichiometry Chapter Test glencoe.com

Section 11.2 63. Esterification The process in which an organic acid
and an alcohol react to form an ester and water is known
Mastering Concepts as esterification. Ethyl butanoate (C 3H 7COOC 2H 5), an
54. What is the first step in all stoichiometric calculations? ester, is formed when the alcohol ethanol (C 2H 5OH)
and butanoic acid (C 3H 7COOH) and are heated in the
55. What information does a balanced equation provide?
presence of sulfuric acid.
56. On what law is stoichometry based, and how do the
C 2H 5OH(l) + C 3H 7COOH(l) →
calculations support this law?
C 3H 7COOC 2H 5(l) + H 2O(l)
57. How is molar mass used in some stoichiometric
calculations? Determine the mass of ethyl butanoate produced if
4.50 mol of ethanol is used.
58. What information must you have in order to calculate
the mass of product formed in a chemical reaction? 64. Greenhouse Gas Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas
that is linked to global warming. It is released into the
atmosphere through the combustion of octane (C 8H 18)
in gasoline. Write the balanced chemical equation for
+ the combustion of octane and calculate the mass of
octane needed to release 5.00 mol of CO 2.
65. A solution of potassium chromate reacts with a solution
■ Figure 11.11 of lead(II) nitrate to produce a yellow precipitate of
lead(II) chromate and a solution of potassium nitrate.
59. Each box in Figure 11.11 represents the contents of a
a. Write the balanced chemical equation.
flask. One flask contains hydrogen sulfide, and the other
b. Starting with 0.250 mol of potassium chromate,
contains oxygen. When the contents of the flasks are
determine the mass of lead chromate formed.
mixed, a reaction occurs and water vapor and sulfur are
produced. In the figure, the red circles represent oxygen, 66. Rocket Fuel The exothermic reaction between liquid
the yellow circles represent sulfur, and blue circles repre- hydrazine (N 2H 2) and liquid hydrogen peroxide (H 2O 2)
sent hydrogen. is used to fuel rockets. The products of this reaction are
a. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction. nitrogen gas and water.
b. Using the same color code, sketch a representation of a. Write the balanced chemical equation.
the flask after the reaction occurs. b. How much hydrazine, in grams, is needed to produce
10.0 mol of nitrogen gas?
Mastering Problems 67. Chloroform (CHCl 3), an important solvent, is produced
60. Ethanol (C 2H 5OH), also known as grain alcohol, can by a reaction between methane and chlorine.
be made from the fermentation of sugar (C 6H 12O 6). CH 4(g) + 3Cl 2(g) → CHCl 3(g) + 3HCl(g)
The unbalanced chemical equation for the reaction is
How much CH 4, in grams, is needed to produce
shown below.
50.0 grams of CHCl 3?
___C 6H 12O 6 → ___C 2H 5OH + ___CO 2
68. Oxygen Production The Russian Space Agency uses
Balance the chemical equation and determine the mass potassium superoxide (KO 2) for the chemical oxygen
of C 2H 5OH produced from 750 g of C 6H 12O 6. generators in their space suits.
61. Welding If 5.50 mol of calcium carbide (CaC 2) reacts 4KO 2 + 2H 2O + 4CO 2 → 4KHCO 3 + 3O 2
with an excess of water, how many moles of acetylene Complete Table 11.3.
(C 2H 2), a gas used in welding, will be produced?
CaC 2(s) + 2H 2O(l) → Ca(OH) 2(aq) + C 2H 2(g) Table 11.3 Oxygen Generation Reaction Data
62. Antacid Fizz When an antacid tablet dissolves in water, Mass Mass Mass Mass Mass
the fizz is due to a reaction between sodium hydrogen KO 2 H 2O CO 2 KHCO 3 O2
carbonate (NaHCO 3), also called sodium bicarbonate, 380 g
and citric acid (H 3C 6H 5O 7).
3NaHCO 3(aq) + H 3C 6H 5O 7(aq) → 69. Gasohol is a mixture of ethanol and gasoline. Balance
3CO 2(g) + 3H 2O(l) + Na 3C 6H 5O 7(aq) the equation, and determine the mass of CO 2 produced
How many moles of Na 3C 6H 5O 7 can be produced if one from the combustion of 100.0 g of ethanol.
tablet containing 0.0119 mol of NaHCO 3 is dissolved? C 2H 5OH(l) + O 2(g) → CO 2(g) + H 2O(g)
Chapter Test glencoe.com Chapter 11 • Assessment 393

70. Car Battery Car batteries use lead, lead(IV) oxide, and Mastering Problems
a sulfuric acid solution to produce an electric current.
The products of the reaction are lead(II) sulfate in solu-
tion and water.
+ → +
a. Write the balanced equation for the reaction.
b. Determine the mass of lead(II) sulfate produced
when 25.0 g of lead reacts with an excess of lead(IV)
Ethyne Hydrogen Ethane Ethyne
oxide and sulfuric acid.
71. To extract gold from its ore, the ore is treated with sodium ■ Figure 11.13
cyanide solution in the presence of oxygen and water.
76. The reaction between ethyne (C 2H 2) and hydrogen (H 2)
4Au(s) + 8NaCN(aq) + O 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) →
is illustrated in Figure 11.13. The product is ethane
4NaAu(CN) 2(aq) + 4NaOH(aq) (C 2H 6). Which is the limiting reactant? Which is the
a. Determine the mass of gold that can be extracted if excess reactant? Explain.
25.0 g of sodium cyanide is used.
b. If the mass of the ore from which the gold was 77. Nickel-Iron Battery In 1901, Thomas Edison invented
extracted is 150.0 g, what percentage of the ore is gold? the nickel-iron battery. The following reaction takes
place in the battery.
72. Film Photographic film contains silver bromide in gela-
tin. Once exposed, some of the silver bromide decom-
Fe(s) + 2NiO(OH)(s) + 2H 2O(l) →
poses, producing fine grains of silver. The unexposed Fe(OH) 2(s) + 2Ni(OH) 2(aq)
silver bromide is removed by treating the film with How many mol of Fe(OH) 2 is produced when 5.00 mol
sodium thiosulfate. Soluble sodium silver thiosulfate of Fe and 8.00 mol of NiO(OH) react?
(Na 3Ag(S 2O 3) 2) is produced. 78. One of the few xenon compounds that form is cesium
AgBr(s) + 2Na 2S 2O 3(aq) → xenon heptafluoride (CsXeF 7). How many moles of
Na 3Ag(S 2O 3) 2(aq) + NaBr(aq) CsXeF 7 can be produced from the reaction of 12.5 mol
Determine the mass of Na 3Ag(S 2O 3) 2 produced if of cesium fluoride with 10.0 mol of xenon hexafluoride?
0.275 g of AgBr is removed. CsF(s) + XeF 6(s) → CsXeF 7(s)
79. Iron Production Iron is obtained commercially by the
reaction of hematite (Fe 2O 3) with carbon monoxide.
Section 11.3 How many grams of iron is produced when 25.0 mol
Mastering Concepts of hematite reacts with 30.0 mol of carbon monoxide?
73. How is a mole ratio used to find the limiting reactant? Fe 2O 3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO 2(g)
74. Explain why the statement, “The limiting reactant is the 80. The reaction of chlorine gas with solid phosphorus (P 4)
reactant with the lowest mass” is incorrect. produces solid phosphorus pentachloride. When 16.0 g
of chlorine reacts with 23.0 g of P 4, which reactant is
limiting? Which reactant is in excess?
81. Alkaline Battery An alkaline battery produces electrical
energy according to this equation.
Zn(s) + 2MnO 2(s) + H 2O(l) →
Zn(OH) 2(s) + Mn 2O 3(s)
■ Figure 11.12
a. Determine the limiting reactant if 25.0 g of Zn and
75. Figure 11.12 uses squares to represent Element M and 30.0 g of MnO 2 are used.
circles to represent Element N. b. Determine the mass of Zn(OH) 2 produced.
a. Write the balanced equation for the reaction. 82. Lithium reacts spontaneously with bromine to produce
b. If each square represents 1 mol of M and each circle lithium bromide. Write the balanced chemical equation
represents 1 mol of N, how many moles of M and N for the reaction. If 25.0 g of lithium and 25.0 g of bromine
were present at the start of the reaction? are present at the beginning of the reaction, determine
c. How many moles of product form? How many moles a. the limiting reactant.
of Element M and Element N are unreacted? b. the mass of lithium bromide produced.
d. Identify the limiting reactant and the excess reactant. c. the excess reactant and the excess mass.

Section 11.4 93. Hydrofluoric acid solutions cannot be stored in glass
containers because HF reacts readily with silica dioxide
Mastering Concepts in glass to produce hexafluorosilicic acid (H 2SiF 6).
83. What is the difference between actual yield and theoreti- SiO 2(s) + 6HF(aq) → H 2SiF 6(aq) + 2H 2O(l)
cal yield?
40.0 g SiO 2 and 40.0 g HF react to yield 45.8 g H 2SiF 6.
84. How are actual yield and theoretical yield determined? a. What is the limiting reactant?
85. Can the percent yield of a chemical reaction be more b. What is the mass of the excess reactant?
than 100%? Explain your answer. c. What is the theoretical yield of H 2SiF 6?
86. What relationship is used to determine the percent yield d. What is the percent yield?
of a chemical reaction? 94. Van Arkel Process Pure zirconium is obtained using
87. What experimental information do you need in order to the two-step Van Arkel process. In the first step, impure
calculate both the theoretical and the percent yield of zirconium and iodine are heated to produce zirconium
any chemical reaction? iodide (ZrI 4). In the second step, ZrI 4 is decomposed to
produce pure zirconium.
88. A metal oxide reacts with water to produce a metal
hydroxide. What additional information would you ZrI 4(s) → Zr(s) + 2I 2(g)
need to determine the percent yield of metal hydroxide Determine the percent yield of zirconium if 45.0 g of
from this reaction? ZrI 4 is decomposed and 5.00 g of pure Zr is obtained.
95. Methanol, wood alcohol, is produced when carbon
monoxide reacts with hydrogen gas.
Element A CO + 2H 2 → CH 3OH
Element B
When 8.50 g of carbon monoxide reacts with an excess
of hydrogen, 8.52 g of methanol is collected. Complete
Table 11.4, and calculate the percent yield.
■ Figure 11.14
Table 11.4 Methanol Reaction Data
89. Examine the reaction represented in Figure 11.14.
CO(g) CH 3OH(l)
Determine if the reaction went to completion. Explain
your answer, and calculate the percent yield of the Mass 8.52 g
reaction. Molar mass 28.01 g/mol 32.05 g/mol
Mastering Problems Moles
90. Ethanol (C 2H 5OH) is produced from the fermentation
of sucrose (C 12H 22O 11) in the presence of enzymes. 96. Phosphorus (P 4) is commercially prepared by heating a
mixture of calcium phosphate (CaSiO 3), sand (SiO 2),
C 12H 22O 11(aq) + H 2O(g) → 4C 2H 5OH(l) + 4CO 2(g)
and coke (C) in an electric furnace. The process involves
Determine the theoretical yield and the percent yield of two reactions.
ethanol if 684 g of sucrose undergoes fermentation and
2Ca 3(PO 4) 2(s) + 6SiO 2(s) → 6CaSiO 3(l) + P 4O 10(g)
349 g of ethanol is obtained.
P 4O 10(g) + 10C(s) → P 4(g) + 10CO(g)
91. Lead(II) oxide is obtained by roasting galena, lead(II)
sulfide, in air. The unbalanced equation is: The P 4O 10 produced in the first reaction reacts with an
excess of coke (C) in the second reaction. Determine
PbS(s) + O 2(g) → PbO(s) + SO 2(g) the theoretical yield of P 4 if 250.0 g of Ca 3(PO 4) 2 and
a. Balance the equation, and determine the theoretical 400.0 g of SiO 2 are heated. If the actual yield of P 4 is
yield of PbO if 200.0 g of PbS is heated. 45.0 g, determine the percent yield of P 4.
b. What is the percent yield if 170.0 g of PbO is obtained?
97. Chlorine forms from the reaction of hydrochloric acid
92. Upon heating, calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) decomposes with manganese(IV) oxide. The balanced equation is:
to calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide (CO 2).
a. Determine the theoretical yield of CO 2 if 235.0 g of
MnO 2 + 4HCl → MnCl 2 + Cl 2 + 2H 2O
CaCO 3 is heated. Calculate the theoretical yield and the percent yield of
b. What is the percent yield of CO 2 if 97.5 g of CO 2 is chlorine if 86.0 g of MnO 2 and 50.0 g of HCl react. The
collected? actual yield of Cl 2 is 20.0 g.

Mixed Review Think Critically
98. Ammonium sulfide reacts with copper(II) nitrate in a 104. Analyze and Conclude In an experiment, you obtain a
double replacement reaction. What mole ratio would percent yield of product of 108%. Is such a percent yield
you use to determine the moles of NH 4NO 3 produced possible? Explain. Assuming that your calculation is
if the moles of CuS are known? correct, what reasons might explain such a result?
99. Fertilizer The compound calcium cyanamide 105. Observe and Infer Determine whether each reaction
(CaNCN) is used as a nitrogen source for crops. To depends on a limiting reactant. Explain why or why not,
obtain this compound, calcium carbide is reacted with and identify the limiting reactant.
nitrogen at high temperatures. a. Potassium chlorate decomposes to form potassium
CaC 2(s) + N 2(g) → CaNCN(s) + C(s) chloride and oxygen.
b. Silver nitrate and hydrochloric acid react to produce
What mass of CaNCN can be produced if 7.50 mol of silver chloride and nitric acid.
CaC 2 reacts with 5.00 mol of N 2?
106. Design an Experiment Design an experiment that can
100. When copper(II) oxide is heated in the presence of
be used to determine the percent yield of anhydrous
hydrogen gas, elemental copper and water are produced. copper(II) sulfate when copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate
What mass of copper can be obtained if 32.0 g of is heated to remove water.
copper(II) oxide is used?
107. Apply When a campfire begins to die down and
101. Air Pollution Nitrogen oxide, which is present in
smolder, you can rekindle the flame by fanning the fire.
urban air pollution, immediately converts to nitrogen
Explain, in terms of stoichiometry, why the fire again
dioxide as it reacts with oxygen.
begins to flare up when fanned.
a. Write the balanced chemical equation for the forma-
tion of nitrogen dioxide from nitrogen oxide. 108. Apply Students conducted a lab to investigate limiting
b. What mole ratio would you use to convert from and excess reactants. The students added different
moles of nitrogen oxide to moles of nitrogen dioxide? volumes of sodium phosphate solution (Na 3PO 4) to a
beaker. They then added a constant volume of cobalt(II)
102. Electrolysis Determine the theoretical and percent
nitrate solution (Co(NO 3) 2), stirred the contents, and
yield of hydrogen gas if 36.0 g of water undergoes elec-
allowed the beakers to sit overnight. The next day, each
trolysis to produce hydrogen and oxygen and 3.80 g of
beaker had a purple precipitate at the bottom. The stu-
hydrogen is collected.
dents decanted the supernatant from each beaker, divid-
ed it into two samples, and added one drop of sodium
Mass of Fe2O3 Formed From Burning Fe
phosphate solution to one sample and one drop of
cobalt(II) nitrate solution to the second sample. Their
Mass of Fe2O3 (g)
30 results are shown in Table 11.5.

a. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
20 b. Based on the results, identify the limiting reactant
and the excess reactant for each trial.
10
Table 11.5 Reaction Data for Co(NO 3) 2 and Na 3PO 4
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Reaction Reaction
Volume Volume
Mass of Fe (g) Trial with Drop of with Drop
Na 3PO 4 Co(NO 3) 2
■ Figure 11.15
Na 3PO 4 of Co(NO 3) 2
purple
103. Iron reacts with oxygen as shown. 1 5.0 mL 10.0 mL no reaction
precipitate
4Fe(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Fe 2O 3(s)
purple
Different amounts of iron were burned in a fixed 2 10.0 mL 10.0 mL no reaction
precipitate
amount of oxygen. For each mass of iron burned, the
mass of iron(II) oxide formed was plotted on the graph purple
3 15.0 mL 10.0 mL no reaction
shown in Figure 11.15. Why does the graph level off precipitate
after 25.0 g of iron is burned? How many moles of purple
oxygen are present in the fixed amount? 4 20.0 mL 10.0 mL no reaction
precipitate

Challenge Problem
109. When 9.59 g of a certain vanadium oxide is heated in Additional Assessment
the presence of hydrogen, water and a new oxide of
vanadium are formed. This new vanadium oxide has a Chemistry
mass of 8.76 g. When the second vanadium oxide
116. Air Pollution Research the air pollutants produced
undergoes additional heating in the presence of hydro-
by combustion of gasoline in internal combustion
gen, 5.38 g of vanadium metal forms.
engines. Discuss the common pollutants and the
a. Determine the empirical formulas for the two
reaction that produces them. Show, through the use
vanadium oxides.
of stoichiometry, how each pollutant could be
b. Write balanced equations for the steps of the reaction.
reduced if more people used mass transit.
c. Determine the mass of hydrogen needed to complete
the steps of this reaction. 117. Haber Process The percent yield of ammonia pro-
duced when hydrogen and nitrogen are combined
under ordinary conditions is extremely small.
However, the Haber Process combines the two gases
Cumulative Review under a set of conditions designed to maximize yield.
110. You observe that sugar dissolves more quickly in hot tea Research the conditions used in the Haber Process,
than in iced tea. You state that higher temperatures and find out why the development of the process was
increase the rate at which sugar dissolves in water. Is this of great importance.
statement a hypothesis or a theory? Why? (Chapter 1)
111. Write the electron configuration for each of the follow- Document-Based Question
ing atoms. (Chapter 5) Chemical Defense Many insects secrete hydrogen peroxide
a. fluorine c. titanium (H 2O 2) and hydroquinone C 6H 4(OH) 2. Bombardier beetles
b. aluminum d. radon take this a step further by mixing these chemicals with a cat-
112. Explain why the gaseous nonmetals exist as diatomic alyst. The result is an exothermic chemical reaction and a
molecules, but other gaseous elements exist as single spray of hot, irritating chemicals for any would-be predator.
atoms. (Chapter 8) Researchers hope to use a similar method to reignite aircraft
113. Write a balanced equation for the reaction of potassium turbine engines.
with oxygen. (Chapter 9) Figure 11.17 below shows the unbalanced chemical reaction
114. What is the molecular mass of UF 6? What is the molar that results in the bombardier beetle’s defensive spray.
mass of UF 6? (Chapter 10) Data obtained from: Becker, Bob. April 2006. ChemMatters. 24: no. 2.
Percent Composition of OH O
Some Organic Compounds
52.2 %C 53.3 54.5 54.5
+ H2O2 + H2O + O2 + Energy
50 %H
Catalyst
Percent by mass
%O 40.0
40
34.8 36.4 36.4 OH O
30
C6H4(OH)2 C6H4O2
20
13.0 Hydroquinone Benzoquinone
9.1 9.1
10 6.7
■ Figure 11.17
0
Ethanol Formaldehyde Acetaldehyde Butanoic acid 118. Balance the equation in Figure 11.17. If the
Compound name bombardier beetle stores 100.0 mg of hydroquinone
■ Figure 11.16 (C 6H 4(OH) 2) along with 50.0 mg of hydrogen perox-
ide (H 2O 2), what is the limiting reactant?
115. Figure 11.16 gives percent composition data for several
organic compounds. (Chapter 10) 119. What is the excess reactant and how many milligrams
a. How are the molecular and empirical formulas of are in excess?
acetaldehyde and butanoic acid related? 120. How many milligrams of benzoquinone will be
b. What is the empirical formula of butanoic acid? produced?

Cumulative
Standardized Test Practice

Multiple Choice
1. Stoichiometry is based on the law of 5. Sodium dihydrogen pyrophosphate (Na 2H 2P 2O 7),
A. constant mole ratios. more commonly known as baking powder, is
B. Avogadro’s constant. manufactured by heating NaH 2PO 4 to a high
C. conservation of energy. temperature.
D. conservation of mass.
2NaH 2PO 4(s) → Na 2H 2P 2O 7(s) + H 2O(g)
Use the graph below to answer Questions 2 to 5. If 444.0 g of Na 2H 2P 2O 7 is needed, how much more
Supply of Various Chemicals NaH 2PO 4 will Dr. Raitano have to buy to make
in Dr. Raitano’s Laboratory enough Na 2H 2P 2O 7?
A. 0.00 g
B. 94.0 g
Na2CO3
NaCl C. 130.0 g
500.0 g
700.0 g
D. 480 g
Ca(OH)2
300.0 g 6. Red mercury(II) oxide decomposes at high
KClO3 NaH2PO4
temperatures to form mercury metal and oxygen gas.
AgNO3 200.0 g 350.0 g
100.0 g 2HgO(s) → 2Hg(l) + O 2(g)
If 3.55 mol of HgO decomposes to form 1.54 mol
2. Pure silver metal can be made using the reaction of O 2 and 618 g of Hg, what is the percent yield of
shown below. this reaction?
A. 13.2%
Cu(s) + 2AgNO 3(aq) → 2Ag(s) + Cu(NO 3) 2(aq)
B. 42.5%
How many grams of copper metal will be needed to C. 56.6%
use up all of the AgNO 3 in Dr. Raitano’s laboratory? D. 86.8%
A. 18.70 g C. 74.7 g
B. 37.3 g D. 100 g Use the diagram below to answer Questions 7 and 8.
PERIODIC TABLE
3. The LeBlanc process is the traditional method of
1 18
manufacturing sodium hydroxide. The equation for Y 2 13 14 15 16 17 Y
this process is as follows. Y Y W W W W W W
Y Y 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 W W W W W W
Na2CO 3(aq) + Ca(OH) 2(aq) → 2NaOH(aq) + CaCO 3(s) Y Y Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z W W W W W W
Y Y Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z W W W W W W
Using the amounts of chemicals available in Y Y Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z W W W W W W
Dr. Raitano’s lab, what is the maximum number Y Y Z Z Z
of moles of NaOH that can be produced?
A. 4.05 mol C. 8.097 mol X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
B. 4.72 mol D. 9.43 mol
4. Pure O 2 gas can be generated from the decomposi- 7. Which elements tend to have the largest atomic
tion of potassium chlorate (KClO 3): radius in their periods?
A. W C. Y
2KClO 3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O 2(g)
B. X D. Z
If half of the KClO 3 in the lab is used and 12.8 g of
oxygen gas is produced, what is the percent yield of 8. Elements labeled W have their valence electrons in
this reaction? which sublevel?
A. 12.8% C. 65.6% A. s C. d
B. 32.7% D. 98.0% B. p D. f
398 Chapter 11 • Assessment Standardized Test Practice glencoe.com

Short Answer SAT Subject Test: Chemistry
9. Dimethyl hydrazine (CH 3) 2N 2H 2 ignites on 12. How much cobalt(III) titanate (CO 2TiO 4), in
contact with dinitrogen tetroxide (N 2O 4). moles, is in 7.13 g of the compound?
A. 2.39 × 10 1 mol
(CH 3) 2N 2H 2(l) + 2N 2O 4(l) →
B. 3.10 × 10 -2 mol
3N 2(g) + 4H 2O(g) + 2CO 2(g)
C. 3.22 × 10 1 mol
Because this reaction produces an enormous D. 4.17 × 10 -2 mol
E. 2.28 × 10 -2 mol
amount of energy from a small amount of reactants,
it was used to drive the rockets on the Lunar
Use the pictures below to answer Questions 13 to 17.
Excursion Modules (LEMs) of the Apollo space
program. If 18.0 mol of dinitrogen tetroxide is con- A. D.
sumed in this reaction, how many moles of nitrogen
gas will be released?
Extended Response
Use the table below to answer Questions 10 and 11. B. E.
First Ionization Energy of Period 3 Elements

1st Ionization
Element Atomic Number
Energy, kJ/mol
Sodium 11 496
Magnesium 12 736
Aluminum 13 578 C.
Silicon 14 787
Phosphorus 15 1012
Selenium 16 1000
Chlorine 17 1251 13. Hydrogen sulfide displays this molecular shape.
Argon 18 1521
14. Molecules with this shape have four shared pairs of
10. Plot the data from this data table. Place atomic electrons and no lone pairs of electrons.
numbers on the x-axis.
15. This molecular shape is known as trigonal planar.
11. Summarize the general trend in ionization energy.
How does ionization energy relate to the number of 16. Carbon dioxide displays this molecular shape.
valence electrons in an element?
17. This molecular shape undergoes sp 2 hybridization.
NEED EXTRA HELP?
If You Missed
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Question . . .
Review Section . . . 11.1 11.2 11.2 11.4 11.3 11.4 6.3 5.3 11.2 6.3 6.3 10.3 8.4 8.4 8.4 8.4 8.4
Standardized Test Practice glencoe.com Chapter 11 • Assessment 399

Stoichiometry

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What evidence can you observe that a reaction is taking place?

What evidence can you observe that a reaction is taking place?

What are the steps involved in solving a stoichiometric problem?

What are the steps involved in solving a stoichiometric problem?

Stoichiometry

BIG Idea Mass relationships

11.1 Defining Stoichiometry

11.3 Limiting Reactants

11.4 Percent Yield

LAUNCH Lab Steps in Stoichiometric

Visit glencoe.com to:

Chapter 11 • Stoichiometry 367

■ Figure 11.1 The balanced chemi-

368 Chapter 11 • Stoichiometry

iron + oxygen → iron(III) oxide

4 atoms Fe + 3 molecules O 2 → 2 formula units Fe 2O 3

4 mol Fe + 3 mol O 2 → 2 mol Fe 2O 3

223.4 g Fe + 96.00 g O 2 → 319.4 g Fe 2O 3

319.4 g reactants → 319.4 g products

The balanced chemical equation for the chemical reaction shown in

4Fe(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Fe 2O 3(s)

Section 11.1 • Defining Stoichiometry 369

1 Analyze the Problem

2 Solve for the Unknown

44.09 g C 3H 8 + 160.0 g O 2 = 204.1 g reactants Add the masses of the reactants.

132.0 g CO 2 + 72.08 g H 2O = 204.1 g products Add the masses of the products.

204.1 g reactants = 204.1 g products The law of conservation of mass is observed.

3 Evaluate the Answer

370 Chapter 11 • Stoichiometry

of moles of any two of the substances in a balanced chemical equation.

Section 11.1 • Defining Stoichiometry 371

The decomposition of potassium chlorate (KClO 3) is sometimes

Section 11.1 Assessment

372 Chapter 11 • Stoichiometry Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com

■ Figure 11.3 Potassium

Section 11.2 • Stoichiometric Calculations 373

Mass of given substance no direct conversion Mass of unknown substance

Convert from grams Convert from

to moles of the moles of unknown

374 Chapter 11 • Stoichiometry

2 Solve for the Unknown

Section 11.2 • Stoichiometric Calculations 375

EXAMPLE Problem 11.3

1 Analyze the Problem

2 Solve for the Unknown

1.25 mol Cl 2 × _ = 2.50 mol NaCl

3 Evaluate the Answer

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 983 and glencoe.com

376 Chapter 11 • Stoichiometry

EXAMPLE Problem 11.4

1 Analyze the Problem

2 Solve for the Unknown

3 Evaluate the Answer

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 983 and glencoe.com

Section 11.2 • Stoichiometric Calculations 377

Section 11.2 Assessment

◗ Chemists use stoichiometric calcula- stoichiometric problem.

378 Chapter 11 • Stoichiometry Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com

Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 Set 4

Section 11.3 • Limiting Reactants 379