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International Trumpet Guild Journal

to promote communications among trumpet players around the world and to improve the artistic level of performance, teaching,
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VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR

EMPIRICAL BRASS INSTRUMENT RESEARCH
BY MATTHIAS HEYNE AND DONALD DERRICK

June 2016 • Page 6

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 VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR
EMPIRICAL BRASS INSTRUMENT RESEARCH
BY MATTHIAS HEYNE AND DONALD DERRICK
This article was reviewed and approved for publication by the ITG Editorial Committee.

I t is likely that every brass teacher has, at some point, days, was applied to brass playing as soon as it became fea-
wished that he or she could directly observe what goes sible. A number of dissertations were completed using vari-
on inside a student’s mouth and throat. Unfortunately, ous developmental stages of the technique, involving still
the articulatory and/or sound-
producing movements involved
frames and moving images until the
discovery of the risks involved with
in brass playing are hidden from “It is likely that every brass teach- X-ray exposure rendered further re -
view inside the oral and pharyn- er has, at some point, wished search too dangerous. Unfortunately,
geal cavities of the player. Yet, the demise of that technique also
the exact nature of what is hap- that he or she could directly brought with it the end to a promising
pening has long been the sub- observe what goes on inside a string of early empirical research, and
ject of intuition and compari- its findings were, if not forgotten, at
son with other forms of human student’s mouth and throat.” least never seriously considered by the
behavior. At least since 1584,1 brass playing community.2 This article
speech syllables have been used in brass teaching to guide aims to change this situation by providing a summary of past
students on what they should do with their articulators to research and encouraging brass players to make use of con-
produce desirable sounds. temporary visualization techniques that have been used suc-
Given the historical desire to document the physical cessfully either to capture directly or to infer from measure-
changes involved in brass playing, it is not surprising that ments the articulatory and/or sound-producing movements
X-ray imaging, or radiography as it was called in its early involved in brass playing.

X-Ray Studies (1954 – 1975) only researcher to control for variation introduced by different
The earliest study using X-ray imaging to investigate brass instruments and to make objective measurements with an early
playing was Hall’s 1954 PhD dissertation.3 Although limited at “sonograph” of the sound quality produced.4 All of his partici-
the time to the capture of still frames, Hall’s thesis stands out pants played selected tones on a “control trumpet,”5 in addi-
from all other X-ray studies due to the fact that Hall was the tion to their own instruments, and “sonograms” of the notes
produced in all conditions were reprinted in the thesis.
Unfortunately, the scan quality of the digitized docu-
ment renders the extraction of his sonographic data
impossible and restricts the readability of his X-ray
findings to schematic tracings reproduced at small size.
The main findings of Hall’s study were that different
participants used unique individual positions of the
tongue and jaw while playing and that individuals
tended to be consistent in using “the same basic forma-
tion in every register,” indicating that modifications
while changing registers “were not large.”6 All of Hall’s
tongue tracings were taken in the mid-sagittal plane
(see Figure 1), and images taken during the spoken
production of the extreme vowels “ah” (/ɑ/),7 “oo” (/u/),
and “ee” (/i/) (see Figure 2 for vowel positions dis-
cussed this article) in three different pitch ranges 8
allowed him to compare these tongue positions to the
ones utilized while playing. The most “common for-
mation” used during playing “was that of ‘a’ (ah),” but
the author added, “Other players used the ‘u’ (oo) for-
mation or intermediate formations between these
extreme vowels.”9
Subsequent studies by Meidt (1967), 11 Haynie
(1969),12 Amstutz (1970),13 Frohrip (1972),14 and
DeYoung (1975)15 largely confirmed Hall’s findings, in
Figure 1. Image illustrating the orientation of the mid-sagittal plane addition to observing a wider range of playing condi-
6 ITG Journal / June 2016 © 2016 International Trumpet Guild
 and tonguing in brass instrument playing. 17 This researcher
VOWEL POSITIONS DISCUSSED IN THE TEXT asked participants to think prescribed syllables printed under-
neath the music while performing selected notes and found no
/i/ (“ee”), /ɑ/ (“ah”), & /u/ (“oo”) in American English evidence “that thinking a syllable during performance will
(AE) (Hall, 1954) tend to simulate the tongue position resulting from the enun-
/i~I/ (“Y” or “JÍ”), /a/ (“A”) in Czech (Šram & Svec, 2000) ciation of that syllable.”18 Similarly, significant differences were
/ʉ/ in Japanese (Kaburagi et al., 2011; Heyne & Derrick, found “between the tongue placement for performance of the
2015) various pitches and styles and placement for the enunciation of
/ʉ/ (food) in New Zealand English (NZE) the syllables” recorded separately, even for the players who
(Heyne & Derrick, 2015) claimed to use those specific syllables during playing. The
/u/ in Tongan (Heyne & Derrick, 2015) overall tendency was for the “tongue arch” to be placed higher
/ʊ/ (foot) in NZE (Heyne & Derrick, 2015) with the tongue tip “farther forward” in comparison with
recitation. 19
/o:/ (thought) in NZE (Heyne & Derrick, 2015)
/o/ in Japanese (Kaburagi et al., 2011) X-ray imaging was also used by Carter (1966)20 to observe
/o/ in Tongan & Japanese (Heyne & Derrick, 2015) the role of the larynx during brass playing. He found that dur-
/ə/ (lagoon) in NZE (Heyne & Derrick, 2015) ing brass playing, “the size of the glottis opening varies with
/ɐ/ in NZE (Heyne & Derrick, 2015) loudness level, being small for soft playing and large for loud
playing,” and that “there is no practical difference in glottis
opening from the high to the low reg-
ister, indicating that pitch control
within the normal playing register, can
be discarded as a possible function of the
variable glottis aperture [italics in the
original].” 21 Carter’s findings were
partially supported by a study for the
US Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare (1971)22 and initiated by
Fay Hanson, which represents an
early attempt at simultaneous meas-
urement of various parameters in -
volved in trumpet playing. They
found the “control movements of the
true vocal cord” to be “the most im-
portant mechanisms for the produc-
tion of sound interruption in trumpet
playing” with an opening “from 2 – 3
mm whenever a sound was pro-
duced.”23 While these studies suggest
conscious control of the vocal folds to
regulate airflow—Carter made explic-
it reference to a theory put forward by
Farkas 24 —later studies employing
Figure 2. Vowel chart showing the placement of different vowels mentioned in the text 10 lar yng o s c o p y h a ve s h ow n t h a t
changes in vocal fold position are
tions, which included changes in dynamics and tongue place- rather small and moreover “self-adjusting or involuntary.”25 It
ment for different types of articulations. Participants for some may be of further interest to brass players that a 1989 study
of these studies included players of various brass instruments, by Mukai26 found that professional players of wind instru-
while Frohrip (1972) and DeYoung (1975) observed trombone ments tend to keep their glottis almost totally closed or leav-
players exclusively. With all the individual variation observed ing only a small opening during playing—in contrast to ama-
in these studies, it is not surprising teur and beginning players, who
that Meidt (1967) reported a differ- “They found the ‘control move- kept the vocal cords open.27 Bai-
ence in results compared to Hall’s ley (1989) corroborated this
(1954) findings with respect to register ments of the true vocal cord’ to be finding, concluding from his
changes. Among Meidt’s participants, ‘the most important mechanisms data collected solely with trum-
some players displayed large changes pet players that, “While an ob-
in tongue position with “the variations for the production of sound inter- servable distinction can be made
in formation … usually approaching, ruption in trumpet playing.’” between a relatively larger or
if not actually reaching, the extreme smaller glottis during perform-
‘ah’ and ‘ee’ vowel formations.”16 ance, there are no instances where glottal dimensions
One other early study deserving of specific mention is approach a fully abducted position similar to that observed
Hiigel’s 1967 dissertation, The relationship of syllables to pitch during forced inhalation.”28

© 2016 International Trumpet Guild June 2016 / ITG Journal 7

 Finally, advances in X-ray technology have reduced the though it does not image bone and teeth and has some other
amount of radiation exposure so that modern technologies serious limitations. MRI scanners use very strong magnetic
such as Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) can again fields and radio waves to compute images of the human body,
be used to measure features of the vocal tract during sustained and no ferromagnetic materials can be taken inside the
postures. Cilingir (2012)29 applied this technique to measure machine. This means that no real brass instruments can be
teeth malocclusion and oral and nasal cavity size in order to played inside an MRI scanner—though this would also be
investigate their effect on trumpet performance proficiency. problematic due to the small bore of the tunnel, which subjects
have to enter to ensure that the body part being imaged is at
Observations of brass players’ lips the absolute center of the scanner. Another drawback of the
The vibrating behavior of brass players’ lips was first investi- MRI technique is the fact that the most powerful machines with
gated by Martin (1942)30 in his seminal study using a specifical- the best resolution require subjects to be situated in supine
ly designed L-shaped mouthpiece and stroboscopic photogra- position (lying horizontally), which inevitably would intro-
phy with a resolution of 50 frames per second while observing duce small artifacts due to gravitational effects,44 compared to
cornet playing. Weast (1963)31 expanded on the upright position normally as -
Martin’s findings by including players of all “The most obvious applica- sumed during brass playing. Addi-
kinds of brass instruments, using an improved tionally, loud repetitive noises inside
experiment design with transparent plastic tion of MRI to brass re - the scanner arise from the need to
mouthpieces and a stroboscope disc to observe
the different phases of lip vibration. He found
search is real-time MRI, switch on and off its magnetic coils
rapidly, which could influence vocal
“overwhelming evidence of the upper lip being which allows the observa- and instrumental performance.45
the primary vibrating mechanism,”32 while While the potential exists to use
“the activity of the lower lip was highly errat- tion of the body in motion.” functional MRI (fMRI) to look at
ic.”33 Later studies34 have shown the possibility brain activation specific to brass
of the reverse pattern occurring for upstream-type players,35 and playing or shared with other forms of human behavior, such as
improved frame rates and image quality have enabled a more speech production, the most obvious application of MRI to
detailed description of brass players’ lips. Most recently, brass research is real-time MRI, which allows the observation of
researchers have used automated measurements of the lip open- the body in motion. Recent advances in the way MRI compos-
ing area and pressure within the mouthpiece throat and at the ite images are computed has increased the temporal resolution
instrument’s bell to investigate the different mechanisms used of the technique to being able to produce an image every 20 to
to effect lip slurring on brass instruments.36 Stroboscopic and 30 milliseconds with a spatial resolution of 1.5 to 2 millimeters
kymographic37 methods can also be employed to diagnose play- relative to the scanned plane.
ing problems such as embouchure dystonia.38 Kaburagi et al. (2011)46 used MRI to investigate the effect of
Lip vibration has also been studied with such indirect meth- a player’s vocal tract on trumpet sound, requiring the player to
ods of observation as using a water nanometer to measure maintain the same vocal tract configuration for at least 30 sec-
steady pressure in the player’s mouth— onds. The instrument used was
compared with airflow velocity in the
throat of the mouthpiece,39—or employ-
“By placing two contact electrodes aaccording plastic replica trumpet, built
to the specifications
ing a strain gauge40 to record lip move- made of tin-plated copper foil on of a Yamaha student mod el
ment in combination with a probe mic- (without any valves depressed)
rophone to estimate sound pressure with- the upper and lower rim of a plas- with an acrylic mouthpiece. In
in the mouthpiece.41 Recently, research- tic mouthpiece and sending a addition to detailed measure-
ers have also adapted the principle of ments of the vocal tract for
elec tro glottography, used to measure high-frequency modulated cur- three different pitches, the
vocal fold vibration in speech research, to rent through the lips, the contact paper also includes images of
brass playing.42 By placing two contact the vocal tract while producing
electrodes made of tin-plated copper foil quotient of the lips can be calcu- three different Japanese vowels.
on the upper and lower rim of a plastic lated in a way that is far less intru- The comparison of tongue pos-
mouthpiece and sending a high-frequen- itions used during playing with
cy modulated current through the lips, sive than the direct-observation those of the sustained vowels
the contact quotient of the lips can be indicated that “the tongue pos-
calculated in a way that is far less intru- methods used in early studies.” ture for the low and mid pitch-
sive than the direct-observation methods es was similar to that for the
used in early studies. Finally, ecographs (ultrasonographic back vowel /o/,” while “the tongue posture for the high-pitch
imaging of the lips at rest) can also be used to diagnose rup- trumpet sound was similar to that for the vowel /u/, but it was
tures in the ring musculature of the embouchure.43 located slightly posteriorly.”47
A larger number of subjects playing different instruments
Modern Visualization Techniques were examined at the Freiburger Institut für Musikermedizin
in Germany using real-time MRI. They produced a wonderful
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) non-technical DVD-ROM with the title “Physiological Insights
Magnetic Resonance Imaging is the only modern visualiza- for Players of Wind Instruments,” which features MRI videos
tion technique that surpasses the possibilities of X-ray imaging, explaining the tonguing and breathing movements involved in

8 ITG Journal / June 2016 © 2016 International Trumpet Guild

wind playing.48 A more detailed study by Schumacher et al.
(2013)49 conducted at the same institution observed the motor
functions in trumpet playing. The main findings of this
research were:
1. With increasing tone pitch in octave jumps and in
playing natural tones, there was an increase in total
free space of both the oral and pharyngeal cavity.
The increase of both to achieve the higher pitch
was greater in the pharynx than in the oral cavity.
2. The increase in areas of oral cavity and pharynx
are present also when switching from lower to
higher loudness and when performing crescendo
to decrescendo… However, no general difference
in change of oral and pharyngeal cavity can be
observed.50
The most recent research employing MRI for brass research is
an ongoing project by American kinesiologist and horn player
Peter Iltis in collaboration with researchers at the Max-Planck-
Institut in Göttingen, Germany. For a study comparing oral
cavity changes in performers of different brass instruments
(trumpet, horn, trombone, and tuba),51 they recorded one sub-
ject each performing an ascending pitch sequence over two
octaves on a B.E.R.P. practice device, meant to simulate the
aerodynamic resistance afforded by an actual brass instrument.
The real-time image acquisition rate was 30 Hz, which allowed
the analysis of double-tonguing, although no differences
between the different instruments could be observed. In terms
of the overall tongue movement patterns, however, an oppos-
ing pattern emerged for trumpet versus trombone and, to a
smaller extent, for French horn versus tuba players. The results
stated, “For the trumpet, the anterior area change … was char-
acterized by a forward and upward projection of the tongue at
both extremes of the register while for the trombone, a marked
forward and upward shift of the tongue occurred when moving
between the lowest … to [sic] the highest … notes.”52
In another study,53 the same research group recorded nine- Figure 3. Visualization techniques mentioned in this article
teen horn players, including ten elite players, using a custom-
built, MRI-compatible horn that consisted of a non-ferromag- The first application of UTI to wind playing, of which these
netic bell with graduated plastic tubing covering the distance authors are aware, was by Wein and colleagues (1989) at the
from just outside the scanner to the player’s mouth, which Radiological Hospital in Prague with data analysis carried out
renders playing conditions more realistic than in previous in Aachen, Germany.56 Regarding the use of the tongue during
MRI research. The recently published paper documents the trumpet and tuba playing, a summary of their research on
successful acquisition of real-time video at 100 fps, offering wind playing published in 200057 reports that the configura-
great promise for further MRI research on the dynamics of tion of the speech organs for tones played in the middle and
brass articulation. lower registers approaches a position similar to that when pro-
nouncing the vowel “A” … The position of the articulators
Ultrasound Imaging of the Tongue (UTI) when playing in the upper register approaches, however, the
Ultrasound imaging of the tongue is a noninvasive and rel- position of the vowel articulation “Y” or “JÍ”.58 Later in the
atively inexpensive method of imaging the tongue with text they elaborate on this, stating that the articulation of
almost no known bio-effects.54 It makes use of the same tech- sounds—vowels, consonants, and syllables—is only approxi-
nology employed in hospitals to observe babies in utero and mated and has individual variations on the interaction of the
was first used to image human tongues in the 1980s.55 An individual instruments and individual musicians.59 Another
ultrasound probe, or transducer, is held against the skin important function of the tongue mentioned in this publica-
underneath a person’s chin so that its ultra-high-frequency tion, but not reported in any of the earlier X-ray studies (pos-
sound waves can be channeled through soft tissues to the sur- sibly because it might be too obvious), is its use in helping to
face of the tongue, where they get reflected by the air bound- continuously moisten the lips, thus enabling their regular
ary above it. The most common mode of imaging is the mid- vibration. Lastly, the results of this study describe the vibrating
sagittal plane (see Figure 1), although the technique can also tip of the tongue as a significant factor for sound production
be used to acquire coronal (side-ways) images of the tongue. on brass instruments, especially the tuba, as well as the usage
See Figure 3 for a sample ultrasound image acquired during of rhythmic movements of the tongue base and the walls of the
trombone playing. larynx to affect vibrato.60

© 2016 International Trumpet Guild June 2016 / ITG Journal 9

 Another application of UTI to brass playing was in a study by words thought (/oː/), food (/u~ʉ/) or foot (/ʊ/).70 Speakers of
Zielke (2010)61 at the university hospital in Düsseldorf, Ger- languages such as Japanese and Tongan that employ only five
many. Tongue and motor activity of the neck and face were different vowels, however, do not seem to have the option of
observed for players of different wind instruments, with the using a central position and can only assume the position far-
intent of quantifying and describing these behaviors for the ther back in the mouth during playing.71 To watch ultrasound
purposes of music medicine. videos of trombone playing, see
The author found that
“tongue amplitudes” (meaning
“The author found that ‘tongue ampli- http://www.languageandmusic.info
or Matthias Heyne’s YouTube channel
the displacement of the tudes’ were larger for players of brass (search for “ultrasound trombone”).
tongue during certain move- The latest high-speed ultrasound
ments) were larger for players instruments than flutists, for loud ver- machines can record up to 121 frames
of brass instruments than sus soft playing, and for attacked per second, and three-dimensional
flutists, for loud versus soft ultrasound has recently seen its first
playing, and for attacked notes versus slurred articulation.” application to tongue imaging.72 At
notes versus slurred articula- the same time, methods for head sta-
tion. Professor Angerstein, supervisor of Zielke’s dissertation, is bilization have improved,73 and we have recently been able to
a phoniatrician and audiologist who runs a weekly consulta- collect ultrasound data concurrently with electromagnetic
tion hour for wind players with tonguing issues, using UTI as a articulography.74
diagnostic and therapeutic tool.62
While we could find no information on how Wein et al. kept Electromagnetic Articulography (EMA)
the ultrasound transducer in place underneath the participants’ Electromagnetic articulography uses alternating-current
chins, Zielke reports that one of the investigators held the magnetic fields and electromagnetic detection to track the
transducer under the chin of the participants while two other positions of small metal transceiver coils attached to the artic-
investigators performed the ultrasound and video recordings.63 ulators (see Figure 3). Modern equipment can track the posi-
Although this might be sufficient for measurements of dis- tion of the sensors in three-dimensional space and can factor
placement, fixing the ultrasound transducer in place under the out head movement by attaching some of sensors to anatomi-
participant’s chin becomes a necessity if different tongue posi- cal landmarks such as the mastoid processes. EMA offers excel-
tions are to be compared. This problem is related to the fact lent spatial (amount of detail) and temporal resolution (num-
that ultrasound does not image any hard structures such as ber of measurements per second), but can be sensitive to
teeth or bones; therefore, there is no reference point on which changes in temperature, air movement, and local magnetic
to base measurements. Naturally, this impedes inter-subject fields. Additionally, applying the sensors is time consuming
comparisons, but head rotation must also be taken into and invasive, and they may come loose during data collection.
account. Several solutions to this problem, such as motion The only documented application of this technique to brass
tracking64 and a helmet that rigidly fixes the transducer under- playing thus far is Bertsch & Hoole (2014),75 which was a pilot
neath the jaw,65 have been explored, study with a single participant to
although both options do not seem to
be particularly well suited for observ-
“All participants assume a tongue technology demonstrate the usefulness of the
for brass research. Inter-
ing musicians without restricting their position during sustained notes estingly, playing a regular brass trum-
natural movements. To address this pet did not seem to impair the mag-
issue, we have adapted a non-metal that at is at least loosely pat- netic field required for the data col-
jaw brace developed at our university terned on one of the vowels in lection.76 The mouthpiece used by
to allow the application of ultrasound the participant was a replica of his
together with electromagnetic articu- their native language.” regular mouthpiece. We also just re-
lography (see the following section), corded a trombone player using a
which stabilizes the ultrasound probe against the jaw and thus different EMA system75 and synchronized UTI in our lab. Al-
ties probe motion to jaw motion.66 though we asked our participant to play a plastic trombone
Our own research on the influence of native language on with a plastic mouthpiece for the main part of the experiment,
brass playing (observing trombonists exclusively) has con- at the end we switched to a brass trombone with a brass
firmed many of the findings of the early X-ray applications.67 mouthpiece. Our preliminary analysis suggests that the brass
With the exception of the most proficient trombonist68 in our had but a small impact, increasing the standard deviation of
current sample of nine players, none of the participants the residual recorded motion of the head motion tracking sen-
changed their tongue position more than the difference sors by about 0.13 mm (from 0.43 to 0.56 mm) compared to
between two closely placed vowels in their native language.69 that from the same piece played with the plastic trombone.
All participants, aside from the highly proficient player men- Nevertheless, it is important to note that these sensors were
tioned above, assume a tongue position during sustained notes located several centimeters away from the brass mouthpiece;
that at is at least loosely patterned on one of the vowels in their metal may cause more variation in the tongue sensors, as they
native language. Furthermore, players who speak native lan- are closer to the brass.
guages that include a centralized vowel position such as schwa
(/ə/) in English lagoon seem to have the option of using a Miscellaneous and Acoustic Analysis
tongue position close to that centralized vowel or a different In his PhD thesis on factors influencing sound generation
one farther back in the mouth, as employed in the English on the trumpet, Bertsch included a study on trumpet warmup

10 ITG Journal / June 2016 © 2016 International Trumpet Guild

using thermal imaging.78 Temperature changes were measured teaching on empirical facts, rather than introspection.
for selected areas of the face close to the attachment points of Although applying these techniques to brass research will, in
important facial muscles, and the main finding was that most cases, require someone with specialist training to assist
changes in blood circulation caused the measured tempera- with data collection, we certainly believe that (based on our
tures to rise most significantly towards own experience) most institutions
the middle of the face. This increase with access to such technology would
was correlated with playing proficien- “Advanced players seemed to be happy to cooperate with brass
cy; beginning players showed larger rely more on the muscles sur- players who choose to engage in this
increases than more experienced play- kind of research.
ers did. rounding the lips, while begin- This review also shows, however,
Activation of facial muscles during ning players showed similar that there is still a lot of research yet to
brass playing has also been measured be done; it is our hope that this article
using electromyography, which de- activation in the lips and sur- will encourage more people to do so.
tects the electrical potential generated Not only do different studies suggest
by electrically or neurologically acti-
rounding musculature.” that there may be different mecha-
vated muscle cells. White (1972) 79 nisms at work for different brass
was among the first to apply this technology to brass play- instruments (e.g., regarding the tongue arch), but groups of
ing80 and found that muscle activity was higher for high vs. players of different proficiency levels or even individuals might
low and loud vs. soft playing. Additionally, he noted a few use opposing strategies to reach the same performance goals.
important differences between beginning and advanced Figuring out, for example, the relationship between the vibrat-
trumpet players. He found that advanced players showed ing lips and the arching of the tongue (and adjustments in the
equal muscle activity between the upper and lower lips, while pharyngeal cavity) would require the simultaneous observation
beginning players showed more activation in the upper lip. of the lips and the employment of a technique such as UTI or
He also found that advanced players seemed to rely more on MRI, all while a sufficiently large number of participants would
the muscles surrounding the lips, while beginning players have to perform on an identical instrument and mouthpiece.86
showed similar activation in the We have thus refrained from pro-
lips and surrounding musculature. viding any suggestions on how the
More recently, Iltis & Givens “We have no illusions that scientific findings from the cited research
(2005)81 and Kim et al. (2007)82 investigation is the only way to could be used to inform brass
applied this technique to study teaching, though there certainly
em bou chure dystonia in a horn advance brass playing, and it should may be some benefit of doing so
and tuba player, respectively. not be carried out for its own sake. on an individual basis.
Another interesting technique Finally, we offer a short clarifi-
for indirect observation was used On the contrary, we believe that cation to those readers who might
by Fréour as part of his PhD making beautiful music should be be critical of an overly scientific
research. 8 3 In order to obtain approach to music making. We
detailed data on the respiratory the primary motivation for engaging have no illusions that scientific
processes involved in trombone investigation is the only way to
playing, he used opto-electronic in this kind of research.” advance brass playing, and it
plethysmography (OEP), an optical should not be carried out for its
tracking system with markers on the upper body to document own sake. On the contrary, we believe that making beautiful
rib cage expansion, and balloon-catheter systems with a gastric music should be the primary motivation for engaging in this
balloon to measure pleural (lung), gastric (stomach), and kind of research.
abdominal pressures.
Finally, the acoustic signal produced during brass playing The authors would like to thank the University of Canterbury
can, of course, also be used for scientific investigation. Library staff for their excellent work procuring the majority of
Researchers should be aware, however, of the multitude of fac- sources cited via interloans and Jennifer Hay and the ITG Edito-
tors that can influence brass instrument sound and keep them rial Committee for helpful comments on the manuscript.
constant. These include the instrument (material, bore,
mouthpiece shape), room acoustics, distance/angle to and About the authors: Matthias Heyne is a PhD candidate in lin-
transfer functions of microphones, less intuitive factors such as guistics at the University of Canterbury (UC) in Christchurch,
temperature and atmospheric pressure (which affect the speed New Zealand, working on the influence of native language on
of sound), and probably also the vocal tract morphology of brass playing. His background is in orchestral music (bass
individual players.84 Several programs for audio analysis are trombone), jazz, high school teaching (music and English),
available, some of which allow automation of measurements.85 and interdisciplinary research relating language and music.
Donald Derrick is Matthias’s senior thesis supervisor and a
Conclusion full-time researcher at the New Zealand Institute of Language,
This review of previous empirical research on brass play- Brain and Behaviour at the same university. He specializes in
ing using various visualization techniques shows that there articulatory movements of speech production and has recently
are currently a number of promising techniques available to co-authored a textbook on the topic of articulatory phonetics
pedagogues and researchers who would like to base their with Bryan Gick and Ian Wilson.87

© 2016 International Trumpet Guild June 2016 / ITG Journal 11

 Endnotes For Czech: Š. Šimáčková, V.J. Podlipský, and
1 Girolamo Dalla Casa, Il vero modo di diminuir, con tutte le K. Chládková, “Czech spoken in Bohemia and
sorti di stromenti: Di fiato, & corda, & di voce humana Moravia,” Journal of the International Phonetic Asso-
(Venice: Angelo Gardano, 1584). See also Edward H. Tarr ciation 42, no. 2 (2012): 225 – 232.
and Bruce Dickey, Articulation in early wind music: A For Japanese: A. Nogita, N. Yamane, and S. Bird.
source book with commentary (Winterthur: Amadeus, The Japanese unrounded back vowel /ɯ/ is, in fact,
2007). Even earlier, Agricola (1545, but not in the first rounded central/front [ʉ-ʏ]. Ultrafest VI (Edinburgh,
edition of 1529) included the syllables “dede” and Scotland: Queen Margaret University, 2013);
“diridiride” in his general remarks about tonguing on wind H. Okada, “Japanese,” in Handbook of the Interna-
instruments in Martinus Agricola, Musica instrumētalis tional Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the
deudsch ynn welcher begriffen ist / wie man nach dem gesange International Phonetic Alphabet (Cambridge: Cam-
auff mancherley Pfeiffen lernen sol / Auch wie auff die Orgel / bridge University Press, 1999), 117 – 119.
Harffen / Lauten / Geigen / und allerley Instrument und Sey- For NZE: J. Hay, M. Maclagan, and E. Gordon,
tenspiel / nach der rechtgegründten Tabelthur sez abzusetzen New Zealand English (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Uni-
(Wittenberg: Rhaw, 1545), 33. versity Press, 2008).
2 G. Irvine, “Spotlight on brass: Lessons learned (and ig- For Tongan: M. Garellek and J. White, “Phonet-
nored) from the past,” Canadian Winds: The Journal of the ics of Tongan stress,” Journal of the International
Canadian Band Association 2, no. 1 (2003): 17 – 19. Phonetic Association 45, no. 1 (2015): 13 – 34.
3 J.C. Hall, “A radiographic, spectrographic, and photo- 11 J.A. Meidt, “A cinefluorographic investigation of oral
graphic study of the non-labial physical changes which adjustments for various aspects of brass instrument per-
occur in the transition from middle to low and middle to formance” (Ph.D. diss., The University of Iowa, 1967).
high registers during trumpet performance” (Ph.D. diss., 12 J.J. Haynie, A videofluorographic presentation of the physio-
Indiana University, 1954). logical phenomena influencing trumpet performance, unpub-
4 This technique was previously applied by Gibson in his lished manuscript (Denton: North Texas State University,
study, which was on acoustic data only. D.J. Gibson, 1969). See also: J.J. Haynie and Anne F. Hardin, Inside
“Recordings of differentiations in tone color produced by John Haynie’s studio: A master teacher’s lessons on trumpet and
vowel sounds on the trumpet” (MA diss., University of life (Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2007).
Minnesota, 1942). 13 Keith Amstutz, “A videofluorographic study of the teeth
5 Hall, 267. This was a “Rafael Méndez model” with a aperture instrument pivot and tongue arch and their influ-
“Méndez mouthpiece” manufactured by a “well-known ence on trumpet performance” (Ph.D. diss., University of
manufacturer,” not used habitually by any of the partici- Oklahoma, 1970). See also: Keith Amstutz, “A videofluo-
pants and “available locally.” rographic study of the teeth aperture, instrument pivot
6 Ibid., 246 – 247. “In nearly all cases, the changes were not and tongue arch and their influence on trumpet perform-
as great as the changes between extreme vowels.” ance,” ITG Journal 2, no. 1 (October 1977): 25 – 26.
7 Note that Budde incorrectly states that the vowels pro- 14 K.R. Frohrip, “A videofluorographic analysis of certain
duced by Hall’s participants were sung; instead, Hall’s dis- physiological factors involved in performance of selected
sertation reads, “with the instrument at his lips” each “sub- exercises for trombone” (Ph.D. diss., University of Min-
ject said the following extreme vowels, prolonging each nesota, 1972).
sound for three seconds to permit obtaining of the data” 15 D.D. De Young, “A videofluorographic analysis of the
(p. 27). Also note that “ah” and “oo” were incorrectly tran- pharyngeal opening during performance of selected exer-
scribed as “A” and “O” in Zsaitsits’s MA thesis, but were cises for trombone” (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota,
correctly transcribed as /ɑ/ as in American English “pod” 1975).
and /u/ as in “booed” by Budde (p. 81). Paul J. Budde, 16 Meidt, 66.
“An analysis of methods for teaching middle school band 17 L.E. Hiigel, “The relationship of syllables to pitch and
students to articulate” (Ph.D. diss., University of Min- tonguing in brass instrument playing” (Ph.D. diss., Uni-
nesota, 2011). Mario Zsaitsits, “Zur Zunge beim Spiel versity of California at Los Angeles, 1967).
von Blechblasinstrumenten” (MA diss., Universität für 18 Ibid., 108.
Musik und darstellende Kunst Wien, 2012). 19 Ibid., 107. See also the sections on MRI and ultrasound.
8 Hall, 27. 20 W. A. Carter, “The role of the glottis in brass playing,” in
9 Ibid., 246 – 247. Brass Anthology: A compendium of articles from the Instru-
10 Adapted from the chart of the International Phonetic mentalist on playing the brass instruments (Evanston: The
Association, drawing on the following sources: Instrumentalist Co., 1966/1969), 425 – 428.
IPA Chart, http://tinyurl.com/itg1606c, avail- 21 Ibid., 427.
able under a Creative Commons Attribution- 22 R.L. Nichols and others, “The improvement of brass
Sharealike 3.0 Unported License. Copyright instrument teaching through the use of profile of the
© 2005 International Phonetic Association. physical aspects involved: A method for the establishment
For AE: P. Ladefoged, “American English,” in of physical parameters in trumpet playing (Ogden: Weber
Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: State College, 1971).
A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic 23 Ibid., 37. This applies to the intermediate and advanced
Alphabet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, players in their sample; a beginning player displayed “defi-
1999), 41 – 44. cient and unpredictable laryngeal movement.”

12 ITG Journal / June 2016 © 2016 International Trumpet Guild

24 Philip Farkas, The Art of French Horn Playing (Chicago: “New Tools for the Assessment of Embouchure Biome-
Clayton F. Summy, 1956). chanics,” ITG Journal 29, no. 3 (March 2005): 51 – 53, 81.
25 R.E. Bailey, “An investigation of the laryngeal activity of 41 S. Yoshikawa, “Acoustical behavior of brass players’ lips,”
trumpet players during the performance of selected exer- Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 97, no. 3
cises” (Ph.D. diss., University of North Texas, 1989), 105. (1995): 1929.
26 S. Mukai, “Laryngeal movements during wind instru- 42 V. Fréour and G. Scavone, “Development of an electro-
ments play,” Nihon Jibiinkoka Gakkaikaiho 92, no. 2 labiograph embedded in a trombone mouthpiece for the
(1989): 260 – 270. study of lip oscillation mechanisms in brass instrument
27 S. Yoshikawa, “Vibration labiale et contrôle du souffle performance,” Canadian Acoustics 39, no. 3 (2011): 130 –
chez les joueurs de cuivres” (Lip vibration and breath con- 131. This technology was applied in Fréour’s Ph.D. thesis
trol in players of brass instruments), Médecine des Arts 26 (2013) and a paper by Boutin et al. (2013): V. Fréour,
(1998): 25. “Acoustic and respiratory pressure control in brass instru-
28 Bailey, 108. ment performance” (Ph.D. diss., McGill University,
29 H.Z. Cilingir, “The relationship of oral anatomy and 2013). H. Boutin and others, “Lip motion, the playing
trumpet performance: Prediction of physical talent,” frequency of the trombone and the upstream and down-
(Ph.D. diss., University of Cincinnati, 2012). See also: stream impedances,” in Proceedings of the Stockholm Music
K. Kula and others, “The association of malocclusion and Acoustics Conference (Stockholm: SMAC, 2013).
trumpet performance,” The Angle Orthodontist (2015). 43 Llobet, 2005.
30 D.W. Martin, “Lip vibrations in a cornet mouthpiece,” 44 See also: L. Traser and others, “The effect of supine and
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 13, no.3 (1942): upright position on vocal tract configurations during
305 – 308. singing—a comparative study in professional tenors,”
31 R.D. Weast, “A stroboscopic analysis of lip function,” The Journal of Voice 27, no. 2 (2013): 141 – 148. This study
Instrumentalist 23 (1963): 44 – 48. used a less powerful rotating MRI scanner to compare
32 Ibid., 223. singing in supine and upright positions.
33 Ibid., 222. 45 The so-called Lombard effect, or Lombard reflex, has been
34 H.L. Leno, “Lip vibration characteristics of selected trom- demonstrated to affect the vocal production in noise not
bone performers” (Ph.D. diss., University of Arizona, only for humans, but also for nonhuman animals.
1970). D.C. Copley and W.J. Strong, “A stroboscopic E. Lombard, “Le signe de l’elevation de la voix,” Ann.
study of lip vibrations in a trombone,” Journal of the Maladies Oreille, Larynx, Nez, Pharynx 37, no. 101 – 119
Acoustical Society of America 99, no. 2 (1996): 1219. (1911): 25.
S. Bromage, M. Campbell, and J. Gilbert, “Open areas of 46 T. Kaburagi and others, “A methodological and prelimi-
vibrating lips in trombone playing,” Acta Acustica united nary study on the acoustic effect of a trumpet player’s
with Acustica 96 no. 4 (2010): 603 – 613. vocal tract,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 130,
35 See also: D.S. Reinhardt, Pivot system for trombone no. 1 (2011): 536 – 545.
(Philadelphia: Elkan-Vogel, Inc., 1942). 47 Ibid., 538. Note that the vowel /u/ (more correctly tran-
36 S. Logie and others, “Upward and downward slurred tran- scribed as /ʉ/) is thought to be more central than the com-
sients on brass instruments: Why is one not simply the parable vowel in American English.
inverse of the other?” (Lyon: 10ème Congrès Français d’A- 48 C. Spahn and others, Physiological insights for players of
coustique, 2010). V. Hruška, M. Švejda, and M. Guštar, wind instruments, DVD (Innsbruck: Helbling, 2013).
“Transients of the trumpet tone: Basic links between per- 49 M. Schumacher and others, “Motor functions in trumpet
ception and measurements of lips opening area and pres- playing: A real-time MRI analysis,” Neuroradiology 55,
sure in player’s mouth,” in Proceedings of the Third Vienna no. 9 (2013): 1171 – 1181.
Talk on Music Acoustics (Vienna: University of Music and 50 Ibid., 1177.
Performing Arts Vienna, 2015), 4 – 7. 51 P. W. Iltis and others, “Real-time MRI comparisons of brass
37 J. G. Švec and H. K. Schutte, “Videokymography: High- players: A methodological pilot study,” Human Movement
speed line scanning of vocal fold vibration,” Journal of Science 42 (2015): 132 – 145.
Voice 10, no. 2 (1996): 201 – 205. 52 Ibid., 140
38 For an overview on embouchure dystonia see: S. J. Frucht, 53 P.W. Iltis and others, “High-speed real-time magnetic res-
“Embouchure dystonia: Portrait of a task‐specific cranial onances imaging of fast tongue movements in elite horn
dystonia,” Movement Disorders 24, no. 12 (2009): 1752 – players,” Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery 5,
1762. One system specifically developed to observe the no. 3 (2015): 374 – 381.
lips of players of various brass instruments is rpSzene® by 54 M. Stone, “A guide to analysing tongue motion from
Rehder Partner Medizintechnik, Hamburg, Germany, in ultrasound images,” Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics 19, no.
cooperation with the department of Phoniatrics and Pedi- 6 – 7 (2005): 455 – 501.
atric Audiology at the Heinrich-Heine Universität in Düs- 55 B.C. Sonies and others, “Ultrasonic visualization of
seldorf, Germany. See text below and endnote 61 for more tongue motion during speech,” Journal of the Acoustical
information on their weekly brass consultation practice. Society of America 70, no. 3 (1981): 683 – 686.
39 S.J. Elliott and J. M. Bowsher, “Regeneration in brass 56 B. Wein and others, “Ultrasonic animations of tongue
wind instruments,” Journal of Sound and Vibration 83, shapes during playing wind-instruments,” in Proceedings of
no. 2 (1982): 181 – 217. the XXIst Congress of the International Association of Logo-
40 Described as “force stripes” in: Jaume Rosset I. Llobet, pedics and Phoniatrics. (Prague: IALP, 1989), 517 – 519.

© 2016 International Trumpet Guild June 2016 / ITG Journal 13

57 F. Šram and J.G. Svec, “Die Tonerzeugung beim Spielen 71 The two Tongan and one Japanese participant in our cur-
von Blasinstrumenten. Sprache und Musik: Beiträge der rent dataset all use this kind of tongue position while play-
71. Jahrestagung der Deutsche Gesellschaft für Sprach- ing. For two of these players, this is very close to /o/, while
und Stimmheilkunde e.V. (Berlin: DGSS e.V., 2000). It is for one player, it is closer to /u/.
not clear from the text whether these findings are based 72 S.M. Lulich, “Combined analysis of real-time three-dim-
exclusively on ultrasound research, as the authors also ensional tongue ultrasound and digitized three-dimension-
used X-ray imaging before switching to ultrasound. The al palate impressions: Methods and findings,” Journal of the
publication also discusses findings gained by using Acoustical Society of America 136, no. 4 (September 2014).
videostroboscopy and videokymographie to observe the 73 See also: A.L. Miller and K.B. Finch, “Corrected high-
brass player’s lips in motion (see endnote 36). frame rate anchored ultrasound with software alignment,”
58 We believe that the pronunciations indicated by the use of Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 54,
Czech letters refer to the following vowel positions on the no. 2 (2011): 471 – 486.
IPA chart (Figure 2): “A” = /a/, “Y” or “JÍ” = /i~I/. Cf. 74 See also: Derrick et al. (2015).
Š. Šimáčková, V.J. Podlipský, and K. Chládková, “Czech 75 M. Bertsch and P. Hoole, “Tonguing on brass instru-
spoken in Bohemia and Moravia,” Journal of the Interna- ments: Highspeed visualization and benchmarks of fastest
tional Phonetic Association 42, no. 2 (2012): 225 – 232. Tempi,” in Proceedings of the International Symposium on
59 Šram and Svec, 155. Musical Acoustics (Le Mans: ISMA, 2014), 407 – 412.
60 Ibid., 156. Video from the data collection is available on YouTube
61 A. Zielke, “Zungensonographie und Gesichts-Hals-Moto- (http://tinyurl.com/itg1606de).
rik beim Spielen von Blasinstrumenten” (Ph.D. diss., 76 The system used in this study was a Carstens AG501 by
Heinrich-Heine Universität, 2010). Carstens Medizinelektronik, Bovenden, Germany.
62 More information is available on the website 77 Our system is a Northern Digital Inc. Wave machine.
(http://tinyurl.com/itg1606d). 78 M. Bertsch, Studien zur Tonerzeugung auf der Trompete
63 Zielke, 21. (Vienna: University of Vienna, 1998). For a summary in
64 D.H. Whalen, K. Iskarous, and M.K. Tiede, “The Hask- English, see: M. Bertsch, “Variabilities in trumpet sounds,”
ins optically corrected ultrasound system (hocus),” Journal in Proceedings of the International Symposium of Musical
of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 48, no. 3 Acoustics, ed. A. Myers (St Alban: Institute of Acoustics,
(2005): 543 – 553. 1997), 401 – 406.
65 J.M. Scobbie, A.A. Wrench, and M. van der Linden, 79 E.R. White, “Electromyographic potentials of selected
“Head-probe stabilisation in ultrasound tongue imaging facial muscles and labial mouthpiece pressure measure-
using a headset to permit natural head movement,” in Pro- ments in the embouchure of trumpet players” (Ph.D. diss.,
ceedings of the 8th International Seminar on Speech Produc- Columbia University, 1972). See also: E.R. White and
tion (Strasbourg: ISSP, 2008), 373 – 376. J.V. Basmajian, “Electromyographic analysis of embou-
66 D. Derrick, C.T. Best, and R. Fiasson, “Non-metallic ultra- chure muscle function in trumpet playing,” Journal of
sound probe holder for co-collection and co-registration Research in Music Education 22, no. 4 (1974): 292 – 304.
with EMA,” in Proceedings of the 18th International Congress 80 See also: C.L. Isley, “A theory of brasswind embouchure
of Phonetic Sciences (Glasgow: ICPhS, 2015). This paper based upon facial anatomy, electromyographic kinesiology,
includes an assessment of the motion variance of the system, and brasswind embouchure pedagogy” (Ph.D. diss.,
which showed that 95% confidence intervals of probe North Texas State University, 1972).
motion and rotation were well within acceptable parameters 81 P.W. Iltis and M. W. Givens, “EMG characterization of
described in a widely-cited paper (Whalen et al., 2005). embouchure muscle activity: Reliability and application
67 M. Heyne and D. Derrick, “Trombone players seem to to embouchure dystonia,” Medical Problems of Performing
use different tongue positions while playing sustained Artists 20, no. 1 (2005): 25 – 34.
notes, depending on their native languages,” in Proceedings 82 J.-S. Kim and others, “Cooling can relieve the difficulty of
of the 9th Triennial Conference of the European Society for playing the tuba in a patient with embouchure dystonia”
the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM), ed. J. Ginsborg, [Letter to the editor], Movement Disorders 22, no. 15
A. Lamont, and S. Bramley (Manchester: ESCOM, 2015), (2007): 2291 – 2292.
446 – 455. M. Heyne and D. Derrick, “The influence of 83 Fréour.
tongue position on trombone sound: A likely area of lan- 84 See also: Bertsch (1998); S. Carral and M. Campbell,
guage influence,” in Proceedings of the 18th International “The influence of the mouthpiece throat diameter on the
Congress of Phonetic Sciences (Glasgow: ICPhS, 2015). perception of timbre of brass instruments,” in Proceedings
Matthias also presented about his research in the research of the International Symposium on Musical Acoustics (Mex-
room session of the 40th International Trumpet Guild ico City: Escuela Nacional de Música (UNAM), 2002),
Conference in Columbus, Ohio, in May 2015. 233 – 245; P. Hoekje, “Comparing steady-state and tran-
68 This participant could also be classified as a late bilingual, sient phenomena in brass instruments,” in Proceedings of
as he grew up in Mexico and subsequently migrated to the Meetings on Acoustics 19, no. 1 (2013); R. Smith, “The
United States. He is thus very proficient in both variety of effect of material in brass instruments: A review,” Proceed-
Spanish spoken in Mexico and American English. ings of the Institute of Acoustics 8, no. 1 (1986): 91 – 96.
69 E.g., /ə/ vs. /ɐ/, /ʊ/ vs. /oː/ in New Zealand English (NZE). 85 Praat, frequently employed in speech research, is a free
70 Six of our seven NZE-speaking participants use a central software application that allows scripting and works well
position, while a single less-proficient player uses a posi-
Continued on Page 24
tion closer to the vowel in the word thought (/oː/).
14 ITG Journal / June 2016 © 2016 International Trumpet Guild
 Visualization Techniques continued from page 14

for instrumental music. Researchers who would like more

control of individual steps of the analysis can also use pro-
gramming platforms such as MATLAB. P. Boersma and
D. Weenink, Praat: Doing phonetics by computer [Comput-
er software], available from http://www.praat.org. Math-
Works, Inc. MATLAB [Computer software].
86 Note though, that a few studies have tried to observe mul-
tiple factors at the same time, including Nichols et al.
(1971), Logie et al. (2010) and Fréour & Scavone (2011).
87 B. Gick, I. Wilson, and D. Derrick, Articulatory phonetics
(Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2012).

24 ITG Journal / June 2016 © 2016 International Trumpet Guild