‫‪R‬‬ ‫‪obotics‬‬

‫رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ‬

‫ﺑﮭﻨﺎم ﻣﯿﺮی ﭘ ﻮر ﻓﺮد‬

‫ا ﺳﺘﺎدﯾﺎر ﮔﺮ وه ﻣﮭﻨﺪ ﺳﯽ رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ داﻧﺸﮕﺎه ﺻﻨﻌﺘﯽ ھﻤﺪا ن‬
‫ھﻤﺪا ن‪ ،‬اﯾﺮا ن‬
‫‪[email protected]‬‬
 ‫ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﻣﮑﺎﺗﺮوﻧﯿﮏ‪:‬‬

‫ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ھﻢ اﻓﺰاﯾﺎﻧﻪ )ﺳﯿﻨﺮﺟﯿﺴﺘﯿﮏ( رﺷﺘﻪ ھﺎی‬

‫ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮏ‪ ،‬اﻟﮑﺘﺮوﻧﯿﮏ‪ ،‬ﮐﻨﺘﺮل و ﻋﻠﻮم ﮐﺎﻣﭙﯿﻮﺗﺮ‬

‫ﻧﻬﺎﯾﺖ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻣﮑﺎﺗﺮوﻧﯿﮏ=رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 :‫ﻣﺮﺟﻊ اﺻﻠﯽ درس‬

‫ﻣﺪﻟﺴﺎزي و ﮐﻨﺘﺮل رﺑﺎت‬

Mark W. Spong, Seth Hutchinson, and M. Vidyasagar

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.2009

.‫ اﻧﺘﺸﺎرات آﺷﯿﻨﺎ‬:‫ ﻧﺎﺷﺮ‬،”‫ دﮐﺘﺮ اﯾﺮج ﺣﺴﻦ زاده "ﻋﻀﻮ ھﯿﺌﺖ ﻋﻠﻤﯽ داﻧﺸﮕﺎه ﺗﺒﺮﯾﺰ‬: ‫ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻢ‬

B. Miripour Fard Hamedan University of Technology

 ‫ﺑﺮﺧﯽ ﻣﺮاﺟﻊ دﯾﮕﺮ‬

John J. Craig, Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and Control

(3rdEdition 2004), Prentice Hall, ISBN: 978-0201543612
S.B. Niku, Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Systems,
Applications, Prentice Hall, 2001
Jorge Angeles, Fundamentals of Robotic Mechanical Systems,
Springer, 1997.
Lung-Wen Tsai, Robot Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, 1999.
F.L. Lewis et al, Control of Robot Manipulators, Macmillan 1993.
R. Murray, Z. Li, and S.S. Sastry, A Mathematical Introduction to
Robotic Manipulation, CRC Press, 1994.

B. Miripour Fard Hamedan University of Technology

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 ‫اﯾﻦ ﮐﺘﺎب ﻣﺮﺟﻊ اﺻﻠﯽ دو درس رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ و ﮐﻨﺘﺮل رﺑﺎت اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫ﻓﮭﺮﺳﺖ‪:‬‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ اول ‪ :‬ﻣﻘﺪﻣﻪ‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ دوم ‪ :‬ﺣﺮﮐﺖ اﺟﺴﺎم ﺻﻠﺐ و ﺗﺒﺪﯾﻼت ھﻤﮕﻦ‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﺳﻮم ‪ :‬ﺳﯿﻨﻤﺎﺗﯿﮏ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﯿﻢ و ﻣﻌﮑﻮس‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﭼﮭﺎرم ‪ :‬ژاﮐﻮﺑﯿﻦ ھﺎ‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﭘﻨﺠﻢ ‪ :‬طﺮاﺣﯽ ﺣﺮﮐﺖ و ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ﻣﺴﯿﺮ‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﺷﺸﻢ ‪ :‬ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﻣﻔﺼﻞ ﺑﻪ ﻓﺮم ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ھﻔﺘﻢ ‪ :‬دﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﮏ‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ھﺸﺘﻢ ‪ :‬ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﺘﻐﯿﺮه‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﻧﮭﻢ ‪ :‬ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﻧﯿﺮو‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ دھﻢ ‪ :‬ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﻏﯿﺮ ﺧﻄﯽ ھﻨﺪﺳﯽ‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ ﯾﺎزدھﻢ ‪ :‬ﺑﯿﻨﺎﯾﯽ ﮐﺎﻣﭙﯿﻮﺗﺮی‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ دوازدھﻢ ‪ :‬ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﺳﺮو ﺑﯿﻨﺎﯾﯽ‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 :‫ﺑﺮﺧﯽ از داﻧﺸﮕﺎھﮭﺎﯾﯽ ﮐﻪ از اﯾﻦ ﮐﺘﺎب ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﻮان ﻣﺮﺟﻊ اﺻﯽ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﯽ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ‬

• ECE 470 Introduction to Robotics at the University of Illinois

• 15-384 Robotic Manipulation at Carnegie Mellon University (CMU)
• ME 752 Mechanical Design of Manipulators and Robots at the Ohio State University
• CSE 551A Robotic Manipulators at Washington University.
• BME 495 Biomedical Robotics at Northwestern University.
• M.E. 530.646 Introduction to Robotics at Johns Hopkins University
• Computer Science 290N Mathematic Elements of Structure and Behavior Modeling in
Computer Graphics at UCSB
• ME586: Mechanics and Control of Robotic Manipulators Department of Mechanical,
Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering University of Tennessee-Knoxville
• ECE 6-4990 at Mississippi State
• ME/AE 349 Robotic Manipulators and Mechanisms at University of Missouri-Rolla
• ENGR 466 - Integrated Mechatronics and Embedded Systems Project at University of Victoria
• FRT005F Robotics --- Kinematics, Dynamics and Control at Lund University
• Autonome Robotersysteme at Christian-Albrechts-Universitaet zu Kiel
• Robotics in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
• ME302 Introduction to Robotics I and ME406 Robotics II at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University.
• MCE/EEC 647/747 - Robot Dynamics and Control in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering at Cleveland State University.
• Robotics at Hamedan University of Technology (HUT)

B. Miripour Fard Hamedan University of Technology

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 ‫‪1‬‬
‫ﻣﻘﺪﻣﻪ‬

‫اﯾﻦ ﮐﺘﺎب ﺑﺎ ﻣﺴﺎﯾﻞ ﺑﻨﯿﺎدی رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﺳﺮوﮐﺎر دارد‪:‬‬

‫‪‬ﺳﯿﻨﻤﺎﺗﯿﮏ‬
‫‪‬دﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﮏ‬
‫‪‬ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ﻣﺴﯿﺮ‬
‫‪‬ﺑﯿﻨﺎﯾﯽ ﮐﺎﻣﭙﯿﻮﺗﺮی‬
‫‪‬ﮐﻨﺘﺮل‬
‫ﭘﺮداﺧﺘﻦ ﻣﻔﺼﻞ ﺑﻪ ھﻤﻪ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﺎت ﻧﯿﺎزﻣﻨﺪ ﭼﻨﺪﯾﻦ ﺟﻠﺪ ﮐﺘﺎب اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫ھﺪف اﺻﻠﯽ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﯽ ﮐﺎﻣﻞ ﺟﻨﺒﻪ ھﺎی ﻣﮭﻢ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﺎت ﻓﻮق در رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎی ﺻﻨﻌﺘﯽ و‬
‫ﺑﺎزوھﺎی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﺎھﺮ اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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‫ﻟﻐﺖ ”رﺑﺎت“ اوﻟﯿﻦ ﺑﺎر ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻧﻤﺎﯾﺸﻨﺎﻣﻪ ﻧﻮﯾﺲ اھﻞ ﭼﮏ‪ ،‬ﮐﺎرل ﭼﺎﭘﮏ ) ‪(Karel Capek‬‬
‫در ﺳﺎل ‪ 1920‬در ﻧﻤﺎﯾﺸﻨﺎﻣﻪ رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎی ﺟﮭﺎﻧﯽ روﺳﻮم اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﺷﺪ‪.‬‬

‫اﺻﻄﻼح رﺑﺎﺗﺎ ) ‪ (robota‬در زﺑﺎن ﭼﮏ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻌﻨﯽ ﮐﺎر اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫از آن ﺑﻪ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺑﺮای اﺑﺰارھﺎی ﻣﺘﻌﺪد ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺗﻠﻪ اﭘﺮاﺗﻮرھﺎ ﻣﺎﺷﯿﻦ ھﺎی زﯾﺮ آﺑﯽ‪،‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﺷﯿﻦ آﻻت ﺳﯿﺎر زﻣﯿﻨﯽ ﺧﻮدﮐﺎر و ﻏﯿﺮه اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﺷﺪ‪.‬‬

‫در واﻗﻊ ھﺮ وﺳﯿﻠﻪ ای ﮐﻪ ﺗﺎ اﻧﺪازه ای ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮرت‬

‫ﺧﻮدﻣﺨﺘﺎر و ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻ ﺗﺤﺖ ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﮐﺎﻣﭙﯿﻮﺗﺮ ﮐﺎر ﮐﻨﺪ‬
‫رﺑﺎت ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬
‫در اﯾﻦ درس ﻣﻨﻈﻮر از رﺑﺎت ﯾﮏ ﺑﺎزوی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ‬
‫ﻣﺎھﺮ ﺻﻨﻌﺘﯽ ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﺷﻮﻧﺪه ﺑﺎ ﮐﺎﻣﭙﯿﻮﺗﺮ اﺳﺖ )ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ‬
‫ﺷﮑﻞ(‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 ‫ﮐﻠﻤﻪ "رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ" ﻧﯿﺰ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﯾﮏ ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه اﺑﺪاع ﺷﺪ‪.‬‬

‫ﻧﻮﯾﺴﻨﺪه روﺳﯽ ﺗﺒﺎر آﻣﺮﯾﮑﺎﯾﯽ ﮐﺘﺎﺑﮭﺎی ﻋﻠﻤﯽ ﺗﺨﯿﻠﯽ‪ ،‬آﯾﺰاک آﺳﯿﻤﻮف‪ ،‬اوﻟﯿﻦ ﺑﺎر‬
‫اﯾﻦ ﮐﻠﻤﻪ را در ﺳﺎل ‪ 1942‬در داﺳﺘﺎن ھﺎی ﮐﻮﺗﺎه ﺧﻮد اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﮐﺮد‪ .‬ﻧﻈﺮ آﺳﯿﻤﻮف‬
‫در ﻣﻮرد رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ ﺑﺴﯿﺎر روﺷﻦ ﺗﺮ از ‪ Čapek‬ﺑﻮد‪.‬‬
‫آﺳﯿﻤﻮف ھﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ﭘﯿﺸﻨﮭﺎد ﻣﻌﺮوف ﺧﻮد ﯾﻌﻨﯽ ﺳﻪ "ﻗﺎﻧﻮن رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ" را اراﯾﻪ داد‬

‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮن اول‬
‫ﯾﮏ رﺑﺎت ﻧﺒﺎﯾﺪ ﺑﻪ اﻧﺴﺎن ﺻﺪﻣﻪ ﺑﺰﻧﺪ و ﯾﺎ ﺑﺎ ﻋﺪم اﻧﺠﺎم ﮐﺎری ﺑﺎﻋﺚ ﺷﻮد اﻧﺴﺎن‬
‫آﺳﯿﺐ ﺑﺒﯿﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮن دوم‬
‫رﺑﺎت ﺑﺎﯾﺪ از دﺳﺘﻮراﺗﯽ ﮐﻪ اﻧﺴﺎن ﻣﯽ دھﺪ ﭘﯿﺮوی ﮐﻨﺪ ﻣﮕﺮ آﻧﮑﻪ ﻗﺎﻧﻮن اول ﻧﻘﺾ‬
‫ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮن ﺳﻮم‬
‫رﺑﺎت ﺑﺎﯾﺪ از ﺧﻮد ﻣﺮاﻗﺒﺖ ﮐﻨﺪ ﻣﮕﺮ آﻧﮑﻪ ﻗﻮاﻧﯿﻦ اول و دوم ﻧﻘﺾ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 :‫ﺗﻌﺎرﯾﻒ ﻣﺘﻌﺪدی ﺑﺮای رﺑﺎت وﺟﻮد دارد‬

"An automatic device that performs functions normally ascribed to humans or a machine in the form
of a human."
Webster's Dictionary

"a reprogrammable manipulator device"

British Department of Industry

“‫”رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ رﺷﺘﻪ ای اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ در ﻣﻮرد ارﺗﺒﺎط ادراک ﺑﻪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺑﺤﺚ ﻣﯽ ﮐﻨﺪ‬

"Robotics is that field concerned with the intelligent connection of perception to action."
Mike Brady, Oxford University

B. Miripour Fard Hamedan University of Technology

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 RIA ‫ﯾﮏ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ رﺳﻤﯽ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ‬
[Robot Institute of America (RIA)]

‫ ﺑﺎزوی ﻣﺎھﺮ ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﻨﻈﻮره و ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﻪ رﯾﺰی ﻣﺠﺪد اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﺑﺮای‬،‫رﺑﺎت‬
‫ اﺑﺰار و ﯾﺎ دﺳﺘﮕﺎھﮭﺎی ﻣﺨﺼﻮص ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ از طﺮﯾﻖ‬،‫ﺟﺎﺑﺠﺎﯾﯽ ﻣﻮاد‬
.‫ﺣﺮﮐﺖ ھﺎی ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﻪ رﯾﺰی ﺷﺪه ﻣﺘﻨﻮع ﮐﺎرھﺎی ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ را ﺑﻪ اﺟﺮا در ﻣﯽ آورد‬

A robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator designed to

move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.
[from the Robot Institute of America (RIA)]

B. Miripour Fard Hamedan University of Technology

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 ‫ﯾﮏ ﻣﻐﺰ ﮐﺎﻣﭙﯿﻮﺗﺮی اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﺑﻪ رﺑﺎت ﺳﻮدﻣﻨﺪی و ﺳﺎزﮔﺎری ﻣﯽ ﺑﺨﺸﺪ‪.‬‬
‫اﻧﻘﻼب رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ در ﺣﻘﯿﻘﺖ ﺑﺨﺸﯽ از اﻧﻘﻼب ﮐﺎﻣﭙﯿﻮﺗﺮی اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫ﺑﺮﺧﯽ ﻣﺰاﯾﺎی رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ‬

‫‪‬ﮐﺎھﺶ ھﺰﯾﻨﻪ ھﺎی ﻧﯿﺮوی ﮐﺎر‬
‫‪ ‬اﻓﺰاﯾﺶ دﻗﺖ و ﺑﮭﺮه وری‬
‫‪ ‬اﻓﺰاﯾﺶ اﻧﻌﻄﺎف ﭘﺬﯾﺮی در ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺎﺷﯿﻦ آﻻت ﺗﺨﺼﺼﯽ‬
‫‪ ‬ﺑﺸﺘﺮ ﮐﺎر ھﺎی ﮐﺴﻞ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه‪ ،‬ﺗﮑﺮاری‪ ،‬و ﯾﺎ ﺧﻄﺮﻧﺎک ﺗﻮﺳﻂ‬
‫رﺑﺎت اﻧﺠﺎم ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 ‫اوﻟﯿﻦ رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎی ﻣﺪرن‬

‫•در اواﯾﻞ دھﻪ ‪ 1950‬اوﻟﯿﻦ رﺑﺎت ﻣﺪرن ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ‪ George C. Devol‬از ﮐﻨﺘﺎﮐﯽ در آﻣﺮﯾﮑﺎ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪ‬
‫او ﯾﮏ ﺑﺎزوی ﻣﺎھﺮ ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎم "‪ "Unimate,‬ﺑﺎ ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ "‪ "Universal Automation.‬را اﺧﺘﺮاع و‬
‫ﺛﺒﺖ ﮐﺮد‪.‬‬
‫•در دھﻪ ﺑﻌﺪی او ﺗﻼش ﮐﺮد اﯾﻦ رﺑﺎت را ﺑﻪ ﺻﻨﻌﺖ ﺑﻔﺮوﺷﺪ‪ ،‬اﻣﺎ ﻣﻮﻓﻖ ﻧﺸﺪ‪.‬‬
‫•در اواﺧﺮ ‪ 1960‬ﯾﮏ ﻣﮭﻨﺪس‪/‬ﺗﺎﺟﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎم ‪ Joseph Engleberger‬اﺧﺘﺮاع او را ﺧﺮﯾﺪ و ﺗﻮاﻧﺴﺖ آن را‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮرت ﯾﮏ رﺑﺎت ﺻﻨﻌﺘﯽ در آورد و ﯾﮏ ﺷﺮﮐﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺎم ‪ Unimation‬را ﺟﮭﺖ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ رﺑﺎت ﺑﺮای‬
‫ﻓﺮوش ﺗﺎﺳﯿﺲ ﮐﺮد‬
‫•ﺑﻪ ﺧﺎطﺮ اﯾﻦ ﺗﻼﺷﮭﺎ و ﻣﻮﻓﻘﯿﺖ ھﺎ‪ ،‬در ﺻﻨﻌﺖ‪ ،‬اﻧﮕﻠﺒﺮﮔﺮ را ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﻮان ﭘﺪر رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻨﺎﺳﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫•ﭘﺲ از آن داﻧﺸﮕﺎه ھﺎ در ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎی ﺟﺪﯾﺪ ﭘﯿﺸﺮﻓﺖ ھﺎ را آﻏﺎز ﮐﺮدﻧﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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‫رﺑﺎت ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮرﺗﯽ ﮐﻪ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﺷﺪ در واﻗﻊ ﺑﺎ ﻣﻤﺰوج ﺷﺪن دو ﻓﻦ آوری ﻗﺒﻞ از ﺧﻮد‪ ،‬ﻣﺘﻮﻟﺪ‬
‫ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ‬
‫‪•Teleoperators‬‬
‫‪• Numerically controlled milling machines.‬‬
‫ﺗﻠﻪ اﭘﺮاﺗﻮرھﺎ ﯾﺎ ﻣﺎﺷﯿﻦ ھﺎی اﺳﺘﺎد‪ -‬ﺑﺮده )‪ ،(master-slave‬در ﺧﻼل ﺟﻨﮓ دوم ﺟﮭﺖ‬
‫ﺟﺎﺑﺠﺎﯾﯽ ﻣﻮاد رادﯾﻮ اﮐﺘﯿﻮ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﺪﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﻋﺪدی ﺑﺎ ﮐﺎﻣﭙﯿﻮﺗﺮ ) )‪ (Computer numerical control (CNC‬ﺑﻪ ﺧﺎطﺮ ﻧﯿﺎز ﺑﻪ‬
‫دﻗﺖ ﺑﺎﻻ ﮐﻪ در ﻣﺎﺷﯿﻨﮑﺎری ﺑﺮﺧﯽ ﻗﻄﻌﺎت )ﻣﺜﻼ ﻗﻄﻌﺎت ھﻮاﭘﯿﻤﺎ( ﻻزم ﺑﻮد ﺑﻪ وﺟﻮد آﻣﺪ‪.‬‬

‫رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎ در واﻗﻊ‪ ،‬ﺧﺼﻮﺻﯿﺎت ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﺗﻠﻪ اﭘﺮاﺗﻮرھﺎ را ﺑﺎ ﺧﻮدﻣﺨﺘﺎری و ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﻪ ﭘﺬﯾﺮی‬

‫دﺳﺘﮕﺎھﮭﺎی ‪ CNC‬ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ﻣﯽ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 ‫اوﻟﯿﻦ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺟﺎﺑﺠﺎﯾﯽ ﻣﻮاد و ﺗﺰرﯾﻖ ﺑﻪ ﻗﺎﻟﺒﮭﺎ و ﯾﺎ ﻣﮭﺮ زﻧﯽ‬
‫اﯾﻦ رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎ را ﻣﯽ ﺗﻮان ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﻪ رﯾﺰی ﮐﺮد ﺗﺎ ﻣﺜﻼ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ‪ A‬ﺣﺮﮐﺖ ﮐﻨﺪ و ﯾﺎ ﯾﮏ ﭘﻨﺠﻪ را ﺑﺎز‬
‫ﯾﺎ ﺑﺴﺘﻪ ﮐﻨﺪ‪.‬اﯾﻦ رﺑﺎت ھﺎ ﺗﻮاﻧﺎﯾﯽ ﺣﺴﮕﺮی ﺑﯿﺮون را ﻧﺪارﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدھﺎی ﭘﯿﭽﯿﺪه ﺗﺮ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﺟﻮﺷﮑﺎری‪ ،‬ﺳﻨﮓ زﻧﯽ و ﻣﻮﻧﺘﺎژ ﻧﻪ ﺗﻨﮭﺎ ﻧﯿﺎزﻣﻨﺪ ﺣﺮﮐﺎت دﻗﯿﻖ‬
‫اﺳﺖ ﺑﻠﮑﻪ ﻧﯿﺎزﻣﻨﺪ ﺑﺮﺧﯽ ﺣﺴﮕﺮی ھﺎی ﺑﯿﺮوﻧﯽ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ دﯾﺪن‪ ،‬ﻻﻣﺴﻪ و ﯾﺎ ﺣﺲ ﻣﯿﺰان ﻧﯿﺮو‬
‫ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 ‫ﻣﺪﻟﺴﺎزی رﯾﺎﺿﯽ رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎ‬
‫‪ 1-1-1‬ﻧﻤﺎﯾﺶ ﻧﻤﺎدﯾﻦ رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎ‬

‫ﺑﺎزوھﺎی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﺎھﺮ از راﺑﻂ ھﺎﯾﯽ )ﻟﯿﻨﮏ ھﺎﯾﯽ( ﺗﺸﮑﯿﻞ ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﻣﻔﺎﺻﻞ ﺑﻪ ھﻢ وﺻﻞ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ﺗﺎ ﯾﮏ زﻧﺠﯿﺮه ﺳﯿﻨﻤﺎﺗﯿﮑﯽ ﺗﺸﮑﯿﻞ دھﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻔﺎﺻﻞ ﯾﺎ دوراﻧﯽ اﻧﺪ )‪ (Revolute‬و ﯾﺎ ﮐﺸﻮﯾﯽ )‪(prismatic‬‬

‫ﻣﻔﺎﺻﺎ دوراﻧﯽ را ﺑﺎ ‪ R‬و ﮐﺸﻮﯾﯽ را‬

‫ﺑﺎ ‪ P‬ﻧﺸﺎن ﻣﯽ دھﯿﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨﻮان ﻣﺜﺎل ﯾﮏ ﺑﺎزوی ﺳﻪ‬
‫ﻟﯿﻨﮑﯽ ﺑﺎ ﺳﻪ ﻣﻔﺼﻞ دوراﻧﯽ ﺑﻪ‬
‫ﺻﻮرت )‪ (RRR‬ﻧﺸﺎن داده ﻣﯽ‬
‫ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 RRP RRR

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 ‫‪ 1.1.2‬ﻓ ﻀﺎی ﭘﯿﮑﺮﺑﻨﺪی‬

‫ﭘﯿﮑﺮﺑﻨﺪی رﺑﺎت‪ :‬ﯾﮏ وﺿﻌﯿﺖ ﺧﺎص از رﺑﺎت )در ﯾﮏ ﻟﺤﻈﻪ( ﮐﻪ در آن ﻣﻮﻗﻌﯿﺖ ﮐﺎﻣﻞ‬

‫ھﺮ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ از رﺑﺎت را ﻣﯽ ﺗﻮان ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ﻧﻤﻮد‪.‬‬

‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺗﻤﺎم ﭘﯿﮑﺮﺑﻨﺪی ھﺎی ﻣﻤﮑﻦ ﻓﻀﺎی ﭘﯿﮑﺮﺑﻨﺪی را ﺗﺸﮑﯿﻞ ﻣﯽ دھﺪ‪.‬‬

‫وﻗﺘﯽ ﻣﯽ ﮔﻮﯾﯿﻢ رﺑﺎت در ﭘﯿﮑﺮﺑﻨﺪی ‪ q‬ﻗﺮار دارد ﺑﻪ اﯾﻦ ﻣﻌﻨﺎ اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﻣﻘﺎدﯾﺮ‬

‫ﻣﺘﻐﯿﺮھﺎی ﻣﻔﺼﻠﯽ ﺑﺮاﺑﺮ ‪ q1 · · · qn‬اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫‪qi =θi‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮای ﻣﻔﺼﻞ دوراﻧﯽ‬

‫‪qi = di‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮای ﻣﻔﺼﻞ ﮐﺸﻮﯾﯽ‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 PUMA ‫ﭼﻨﺪ ﭘﯿﮑﺮﺑﻨﺪی ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ ﺑﺮای رﺑﺎت‬

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 ‫درﺟﻪ آزادی )‪ (DOF‬ﺳﯿﺴﺘﻢ ﺑﺮاﺑﺮ ‪ n‬اﺳﺖ اﮔﺮ ﺑﺘﻮان ﭘﯿﮑﺮﺑﻨﺪی آن را ﺣﺪاﻗﻞ ﺑﺎ ‪n‬‬
‫ﭘﺎراﻣﺘﺮ ﺗﻌﯿﯿﻦ ﮐﺮد‪ .‬ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮاﯾﻦ ﺗﻌﺪاد درﺟﻪ آزادی ﺑﺮاﺑﺮ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻓﻀﺎی ﭘﯿﮑﺮﺑﻨﺪی اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫در ﯾﮏ ﺑﺎزوی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﺎھﺮ ﺗﻌﺪاد ﻣﻔﺎﺻﻞ ھﻤﺎن ﺗﻌﺪاد درﺟﺎت آزادی اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 ‫ﺟﺴﻢ ﺻﻠﺐ در ﻓﻀﺎ ‪ 6‬درﺟﻪ آزادی دارد‬
‫ﺳﻪ درﺟﻪ ﺑﺮای ﺗﻌﯿﯿﻦ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﯿﺖ )ﻣﺜﻼ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﯿﺖ ﻣﺮﮐﺰ ﺟﺮم آن(‬
‫ﺳﻪ درﺟﻪ ﺗﻌﯿﯿﻦ ﺟﮭﺖ ﮔﯿﺮی )ﻣﺜﻼ زواﯾﺎی رول‪ ،‬ﭘﯿﭻ و ﯾﺎو(‬
‫ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮاﯾﻦ ﯾﮏ ﺑﺎزوی ﻣﺎھﺮ ﺣﺪاﻗﻞ ﺑﺎﯾﺪ دارای ‪ 6‬درﺟﻪ آزادی ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫اﮔﺮ درﺟﻪ آزادی ﮐﻤﺘﺮ از ‪ 6‬ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎزو ﻧﻤﯽ ﺗﻮاﻧﺪ ﺑﻪ ھﺮ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ در ﻓﻀﺎی ﮐﺎری ﺑﺮود و‬
‫ﺟﮭﺖ ﮔﯿﺮی دﻟﺨﻮاه داﺷﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬

‫در ﺑﺮﺧﯽ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮدھﺎ )ﻣﺜﻼ دﺳﺘﺮﺳﯽ ﺑﻪ ﭘﺸﺖ ﯾﮏ ﻣﺎﻧﻊ( ﻣﻤﮑﻦ اﺳﺖ ﺑﯿﺶ از ‪ 6‬درﺟﻪ‬
‫ﻻزم ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺑﺎزوی ﻣﺎھﺮ ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﮐﻪ ﺑﯿﺶ از ‪ 6‬ﻟﯿﻨﮏ دارد ﺑﺎزوی دارای اﻓﺰوﻧﮕﯽ ﺳﯿﻨﻤﺎﺗﯿﮑﯽ‬
‫ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪(kinematically redundant manipulato) .‬‬
‫ﺑﺎ اﻓﺰاﯾﺶ ﺗﻌﺪاد ﻟﯿﻨﮑﮭﺎ ﮐﻨﺘﺮل رﺑﺎت ﻣﺸﮑﻠﺘﺮ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 ‫‪1.1.3‬ﻓﻀﺎی ﺣﺎﻟﺖ‬
‫ﯾﮏ ﭘﯿﮑﺮﺑﻨﺪی ﯾﮏ ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻒ ﻟﺤﻈﻪ ای از ھﻨﺪﺳﻪ ﺑﺎزو ﻓﺮام ﻣﯽ ﮐﻨﺪ اﻣﺎ ﭼﯿﺰی در ﻣﻮرد‬
‫ﭘﺎﺳﺦ دﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﮑﯽ آن اراﯾﻪ ﻧﻤﯽ دھﺪ‪.‬‬
‫در ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ‪ ،‬ﺣﺎﻟﺖ رﺑﺎت ﯾﮏ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ای از ﻣﺘﻐﯿﺮھﺎﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﻋﻼوه ﺑﺮ ﺗﻮﺻﯿﻒ دﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﮏ ﺑﺎزو‬
‫و ورودی آن ﺑﺮای ﺗﻌﯿﯿﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ھﺎی آﺗﯽ از آن اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻀﺎی ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ھﻤﻪ ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ھﺎی رﺑﺎت را ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬
‫در ﺑﺎزوی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﺎھﺮ‬
‫‪x = (q, q˙)T‬‬
‫‪M(q)q¨+ C(q, q˙)q˙ + G(q) = u.‬‬

‫ﺑﺎ ﻣﻠﻮم ﺑﻮدن ‪ x‬و ﺑﺎ ﺣﻞ ﻣﻌﺎدﻟﻪ دﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﮑﯽ رﺑﺎت)ﮐﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻮرت دﯾﻔﺮاﻧﺴﯿﻠﯽ اﺳﺖ( ﻣﯽ‬
‫ﺗﻮان ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ھﺎی ﺑﻌﺪی را ﺗﻌﯿﯿﻦ ﮐﺮد‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻌﺪ ﻓﻀﺎی ﺣﺎﻟﺖ ﺑﺮاﺑﺮ ‪ 2n‬اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 ‫‪1.1.4‬ﻓﻀﺎی ﮐﺎری‬

‫ﻓﻀﺎی ﮐﺎری ﯾﮏ ﺑﺎزوی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﺎھﺮ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﯽ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺟﺎروب ﺷﺪه ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻣﺠﺮی ﻧﮭﺎﯾﯽ‬
‫ﻣﯽ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﺑﻪ ﮔﻮﻧﻪ ای ﮐﻪ ﺑﺎزو ھﻤﻪ ﺣﺮﮐﺖ ھﺎی ﻣﻤﮑﻦ را اﺟﺮا ﮐﻨﺪ‪.‬‬

‫ھﻨﺪﺳﻪ رﺑﺎت و ﻣﺤﺪودﯾﺖ ھﺎی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﻔﺎﺻﻞ ﻓﻀﺎی ﮐﺎری را ﻣﺤﺪود ﻣﯽ ﮐﻨﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺜﻼ ﻣﻤﮑﻦ اﺳﺖ ﯾﮏ ﻣﻔﺼﻞ دوراﻧﯽ ﻣﻘﯿﺪ ﺑﻪ دوران ﮐﻤﺘﺮ از ‪ 360‬درﺟﻪ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬

‫ﻓﻀﺎی ﮐﺎری‬

‫ﻓﻀﺎی ﻗﺎﺑﻞ‬
‫دﺳﺘﺮﺳﯽ‬ ‫ﻓﻀﺎی ﻣﺎھﺮ‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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B. Miripour Fard Hamedan University of Technology
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B. Miripour Fard Hamedan University of Technology
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 ‫‪ 2.1‬رﺑﺎ ت ﺑﻪ ﻋﻨ ﻮا ن د ﺳﺘﮕﺎه ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ‬

‫در ﻣﺪﻟﺴﺎزی رﯾﺎﺿﯽ ﺑﺮﺧﯽ ﺟﻨﺒﻪ ھﺎی ﻓﯿﺰﯾﮑﯽ ﻟﺤﺎظ ﻧﺨﻮاھﻨﺪ ﺷﺪ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ‬

‫ﺧﺼﻮﺻﯿﺎت ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ )ﺑﺮای ﻣﺜﺎل ﻧﺤﻮه ﮐﺎرﮐﺮد ﻣﻔﺎﺻﻞ‪ ،‬دﻗﺖ و ﺗﮑﺮارﭘﺬﯾﺮی و اﺑﺰارھﺎی‬

‫ﻣﺘﺼﻞ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺠﺮی ﻧﮭﺎﯾﯽ(‬

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 ‫ طﺒﻘﻪ ﺑﻨﺪی ﺑﺎزوھﺎی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﺎھﺮ رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ‬.1.2.1

‫از ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﻨﺒﻊ ﻗﺪرت‬

Power Source

Hydraulically
Electrically Pneumatically
powered powered powered

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 ‫ﻣﺤﺮﮐﻪ ھﺎی ھﯿﺪروﻟﯿﮑﯽ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﺑﺎﻻ‪ ،‬ﮔﺸﺘﺎور ﺑﺎﻻ‬

‫اﻣﮑﺎن ﻧﺸﺖ و ﺗﻤﯿﺰ ﻧﺒﻮدن‪ ،‬ﺳﺮو ﺻﺪای ﺑﺎﻻ‬

‫ﻣﺤﺮﮐﻪ ھﺎی اﻟﮑﺘﺮﯾﮑﯽ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ﺗﻤﯿﺰ و ﺑﯽ ﺳﺮو ﺻﺪا و ارزان‬

‫ﻣﺤﺮﮐﻪ ھﺎی ﻧﯿﻮﻣﺎﺗﯿﮑﯽ‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫ارزان و ﺳﺎده اﻣﺎ ﻋﺪم ﮐﻨﺘﺮل دﻗﯿﻖ‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 ‫از ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﻮارد ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد‬

‫از ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﻮارد‬

‫ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد‬

‫رﺑﺎت ھﺎی‬ ‫رﺑﺎت ھﺎی‬

‫ﻣﻮﻧﺘﺎژﮐﺎر‬ ‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻮﻧﺘﺎژﮐﺎر‬

‫‪‬رﺑﺎت ھﺎی ﻣﻮﻧﺘﺎژﮐﺎر ﮐﻮﭼﮏ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎ ﻣﺤﺮک اﻟﮑﺘﺮﯾﮑﯽ و ﻣﺪل ﻟﻮﻻﯾﯽ‬

‫‪‬رﺑﺎت ھﺎی ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻮﻧﺘﺎژﮐﺎر در ﺟﻮﺷﮑﺎری و رﻧﮓ ﭘﺎﺷﯽ و ﺟﺎﺑﺠﺎﯾﯽ ﻣﻮاد‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 ‫از ﻧﻈﺮ روش ﮐﻨﺘﺮل‬

‫‪Method of‬‬
‫‪Control‬‬

‫رﺑﺎت ھﺎی‬ ‫رﺑﺎت ھﺎی‬

‫ﺑﺪون ﺳﺮو‬ ‫ﺳﺮو‬

‫رﺑﺎت ھﺎی ﻗﺪﯾﻤﯽ ﺑﺪون ﺳﺮو ﺑﻮدﻧﺪ )ﺣﻠﻘﻪ ﺑﺎز( ﺑﺎ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد ﺟﺎﺑﺠﺎﯾﯽ ﻣﻮاد‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

‫‪31‬‬
 ‫رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎی ﺑﺎ ﺳﺮو )ﺣﻠﻘﻪ ﺑﺴﺘﻪ‪ -‬ﭼﻨﺪﮐﺎره و ﺑﺎ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﯿﺖ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﻪ رﯾﺰی ﻣﺠﺪد(‬
‫ﺗﻘﺴﯿﻢ ﺑﻨﺪی اﯾﻦ رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﺑﺮ اﺳﺎس روﺷﯽ ﮐﻪ ﮐﻨﺘﺮﻟﺮ ﺑﺮای ھﺪاﯾﺖ ﻣﺠﺮی ﻧﮭﺎﯾﯽ‬
‫اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﯽ ﮐﻨﻨﺪ‪:‬‬
‫•رﺑﺎت ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ )ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﻓﻘﻂ در ﻧﻘﺎط اﻋﻤﺎل ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد ﻧﻪ ﻣﺎﺑﯿﻦ ﻧﻘﺎط(‬
‫رﺑﺎت در اﯾﻦ ﻧﻘﺎط ﺑﺎ ﺟﻌﺒﻪ آﻣﻮزﺷﯽ )‪ (Teach Pendant‬آﻣﻮزش داده ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‬
‫•رﺑﺎت ھﺎی ﻣﺴﯿﺮ ﭘﯿﻮﺳﺘﻪ‬
‫در ﮐﻞ ﻣﺴﯿﺮ ﻣﺠﺮی ﻧﮭﺎﯾﯽ ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد ﻣﯽ ﺗﻮان ﺳﺮﻋﺖ و ﺷﺘﺎب را را ھﻢ‬
‫ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﮐﺮد‪.‬‬
‫اﯾﻦ روش ﻧﯿﺎز ﺑﻪ ﮐﻨﺘﺮل و ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﻪ رﯾﺰی ﭘﯿﭽﯿﺪه دارد‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

‫‪32‬‬
 ‫از ﻧﻈﺮ ﺷﮑﻞ ھﻨﺪﺳﯽ‬
‫اﮐﺜﺮ رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎی اﻣﺮوزی ‪ 6‬و ﯾﺎ ﮐﻤﺘﺮ از آن درﺟﻪ آزادی دارﻧﺪ‬
‫ﺑﺎزوی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﺎھﺮ را ﻣﯽ ﺗﻮان ﻣﺘﺸﮑﻞ از ﺑﺎزو و ﻣﭻ و ﻣﺠﺮی ﻧﮭﺎﯾﯽ داﻧﺴﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺎزو ھﺎ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻ ﯾﮑﯽ از اﻧﻮاع زﯾﺮ ﻣﯽ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ‪:‬‬

‫‪1.‬‬ ‫)‪Articulated (RRR‬‬

‫‪2.‬‬ ‫)‪Spherical (RRP‬‬
‫‪3.‬‬ ‫)‪SCARA (RRP‬‬
‫‪4.‬‬ ‫)‪cylindrical (RPP‬‬
‫‪5.‬‬ ‫)‪Cartesian (PPP‬‬

‫رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎی ﻓﻮق ھﻤﮕﯽ ﺳﺮی ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ‬

‫ﺑﺎزوھﺎی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﺎھﺮ ﻣﻮازی ھﻢ وﺟﻮد دارﻧﺪ ﮐﻪ در آﻧﮭﺎ زﻧﺠﯿﺮه ﺳﯿﻨﻤﺎﺗﯿﮑﯽ‬
‫ﺑﺴﺘﻪ اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬
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 ‫‪1.2.2‬ﺳﯿﺴﺘﻤﮭﺎی رﺑﺎﺗﯿﮏ‬
‫ﺑﺎزوی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﺎھﺮ ﭼﯿﺰی ﻓﺮاﺗﺮ از ﯾﮏ ﺳﺮی اﺗﺼﺎﻻت ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

 ‫‪1.2.3‬دﻗﺖ وﺗﮑﺮار ﭘﺬﯾﺮی‬
‫دﻗﺖ ﯾﮏ ﺑﺎزوی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﺎھﺮ ﺑﻪ اﻧﺪازه ﻣﯿﺰان ﺗﻮاﻧﺎﯾﯽ آن در ﻧﺰدﯾﮏ ﺷﺪن ﺑﻪ ﯾﮏ‬
‫ﻧﻘﻄﻪ داده ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫ﺗﮑﺮارﭘﺬﯾﺮی رﺑﺎت ﯾﻪ اﻧﺪازه ﺗﻮاﻧﺎﯾﯽ آن در ﻧﺰدﯾﮏ ﺷﺪن ﻣﺠﺪد ﺑﻪ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ از ﻗﺒﻞ آﻣﻮزش‬
‫دﯾﺪه ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫دﻗﺖ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺗﺎﺛﯿﺮ ﺧﻄﺎی ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﺎﺗﯽ‪ ،‬دﻗﺖ ﻣﺎﺷﯿﻨﮑﺎری در ﺳﺎﺧﺖ ﺑﺎزو‪ ،‬ﺗﺎﺛﯿﺮ اﻧﻌﻄﺎف‬
‫ﭘﺬﯾﺮی‪ ،‬ﭘﺲ زﻧﺶ ﭼﺮﺧﺪﻧﺪه ھﺎ و ‪ ...‬اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ھﻤﯿﻦ دﻟﯿﻞ ﺳﻌﯽ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد رﺑﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﮐﺎﻣﻼ ﺻﻠﺐ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻪ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫دﻗﺖ را ﻣﯽ ﺗﻮان ﺑﺎ ﺣﺴﮕﺮی ﻣﺴﺘﻘﯿﻢ )ﻣﺜﻼ ﺑﺎ ﺑﯿﻨﺎﯾﯽ و ﻧﻪ ﺑﺎ رﻣﺰﮔﺬار )‪((encoder‬‬
‫اﻓﺰاﯾﺶ داد‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 ‫ﺗﮑﺮارﭘﺬﯾﺮی ﺑﻪ ﺗﻔﮑﯿﮏ ﭘﺬﯾﺮی )‪ (resolution‬ﮐﻨﺘﺮﻟﺮ ﺑﺴﺘﮕﯽ دارد‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻔﮑﯿﮏ ﭘﺬﯾﺮی ﮐﻨﺘﺮﻟﺮ ﺑﻪ ﮐﻮﭼﮑﺘﺮﯾﻦ ﻧﻤﻮ ﺣﺮﮐﺘﯽ ﮐﻪ ﮐﻨﺘﺮﻟﺮ ﻣﯽ ﺗﻮاﻧﺪ آن را ﺣﺲ ﮐﻨﺪ‪،‬‬
‫ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬
‫رزوﻟﻮﺷﻦ رﺑﺎت ﺑﺮاﺑﺮ ﺑﺎ ﮐﻞ ﻣﺴﺎﻓﺖ طﯽ ﺷﺪه ﺗﻮﺳﻂ اﻧﺘﮭﺎ ﺗﻘﺴﯿﻢ ﺑﺮ ‪ 2n‬اﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﮐﻪ ‪n‬‬
‫ﺑﺮاﺑﺮ ﺗﻌﺪاد ﺑﯿﺖ ھﺎی رﻣﺰﮔﺬار اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮاﯾﻦ ﯾﮏ ﻣﺤﻮر ﺧﻄﯽ‪ ،‬ﻣﻔﺼﻞ ﮐﺸﻮﯾﯽ‪ ،‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻔﺼﻞ دوراﻧﯽ رزوﻟﻮﺷﻦ ﺑﯿﺸﺘﺮی‬
‫دارد‪) .‬ﭼﻮن ﻓﺎﺻﻠﻪ طﯽ ﺷﺪه در اﻣﺘﺪاد ﺧﻂ راﺳﺖ ﮐﻤﺘﺮ از ﮐﻤﺎن اﺳﺖ(‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

‫‪36‬‬
 ‫در ﻓﺼﻞ ھﺎی آﺗﯽ ﺧﻮاھﯿﻢ دﯾﺪ ﮐﻪ ﻣﻔﺎﺻﻞ دوراﻧﯽ ﺳﺒﺐ ﮐﻮﭘﻠﯿﻨﮏ ﺑﺎﻻ ﺑﯿﻦ راﺑﻂ ھﺎ‬
‫ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد و اﯾﻦ اﻣﺮ ﻣﻮﺟﺐ ﺗﺠﻤﯿﻊ ﺧﻄﺎ و ﻣﺸﮑﻞ ﺷﺪن ﮐﻨﺘﺮل ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬
‫ﭘﺲ ﻣﺰﯾﺖ ﻣﻔﺎﺻﻞ دوراﻧﯽ ﭼﯿﺴﺖ؟‬
‫ﭼﺎﺑﮑﯽ و ﺟﻤﻊ و ﺟﻮر ﯾﻮدن و ﻣﺎﻧﻮر ﺑﮭﺘﺮ در ﻧﺰدﯾﮑﯽ ﻣﻮاﻧﻊ‬
‫داﻣﻨﻪ ﺣﺮﮐﺖ را در ﺷﮑﻞ زﯾﺮ ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﮐﻨﯿﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

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 ‫‪ 1.2.4‬ﻣﭻ ھﺎ و ﻣﺠﺮی ھﺎی ﻧﮭﺎﯾﯽ‬
‫‪Wrists and End-Effectors‬‬

‫ﺑﻪ ﻣﻔﺎﺻﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ ﺑﺎزو و ﻣﺠﺮی ﻧﮭﺎﯾﯽ ﻣﭻ ﮔﻔﺘﻪ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‬

‫ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻻ ﻣﻔﺎﺻﻞ ﻣﭻ ھﻤﮕﯽ دوراﻧﯽ اﻧﺪ‪.‬‬

‫اﻣﺮوزه طﺮاﺣﯽ ﻣﭻ ھﺎی ﮐﺮوی ﮐﻪ ﺳﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻮر ﻣﻔﺎﺻﻠﺸﺎن در ﯾﮏ ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﻣﺘﻘﺎطﻌﻨﺪ رو‬
‫ﺑﻪ اﻓﺰاﯾﺶ اﺳﺖ‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

‫‪38‬‬
 ‫ﺑﺎزوی ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯽ ﻣﺎھﺮ ﺳﻪ درﺟﻪ آزادی ﺑﺮای رﺳﯿﺪن ﺑﻪ ﯾﮏ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﯿﺖ ﻧﯿﺎز دارد ﮐﻪ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﺑﺎزو ﺑﻪ آن ﻣﯽ رﺳﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﻪ درﺟﻪ آزادی ﺑﺮای ﺟﮭﺖ ﮔﯿﺮی ھﻢ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻣﭻ ﭘﻮﺷﺶ داده ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﻤﮑﻦ اﺳﺖ ﺑﺴﺘﻪ ﺑﻪ ﮐﺎرﺑﺮد درﺟﻪ آزادی ﻣﭻ ﮐﻤﺘﺮ ھﻢ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺮای ﻣﺜﺎل رﺑﺎت اﺳﮑﺎرا ﭼﮭﺎر درﺟﻪ آزادی دارد‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﻪ درﺟﻪ ﺑﺮای ﺑﺎزو‪ -‬ﯾﮏ درﺟﻪ ﺑﺮای ﻣﭻ )دوران ﺣﻮل ﻣﺤﻮر ‪(Z‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

‫‪39‬‬
 ‫ﻣﺠﺮی ﻧﮭﺎﯾﯽ ﯾﺎ اﺑﺰار اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﮐﺎر اﻧﺠﺎم ﻣﯽ دھﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪It has been said that a robot is only as good as its‬‬

‫‪hand or end-effector.‬‬

‫ﺳﺎده ﺗﺮﯾﻦ ﻧﻮ ع ﻣﺠﺮی ﻧﮭﺎﯾﯽ ﮔﯿﺮه ھﺎ )‪ (grippers‬ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ‪.‬‬

‫اﻣﺮوزه ﭘﮋوھﺸﮭﺎی زﯾﺎدی ﺑﺮ روی ﺳﺎﺧﺖ دﺳﺖ ھﺎی آﻧﺘﺮﭘﻮﻣﻮﻓﯿﮏ )ﺷﺒﯿﻪ‬
‫اﻧﺴﺎن( )‪ (anthropomorphic‬اﻧﺠﺎم ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

B. Miripour Fard Hamedan University of Technology
41
 ‫ ﭼﯿﺪﻣﺎن ھﺎی ﺳﯿﻨﻤﺎﺗﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﺘﺪاول‬1.3

:‫ﭼﯿﺪﻣﺎن ھﺎی زﯾﺮ در ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﺘﺪاول ھﺴﺘﻨﺪ‬

‫ رﺑﺎت ﺑﻨﺪ ﺑﻨﺪ‬1.3.1

Articulated manipulator (RRR)

‫رﺑﺎت آرﻧﺠﯽ و ﯾﺎ آﻧﺘﺮوﭘﻮﻣﻮرﻓﯿﮏ ھﻢ ﻧﺎﻣﯿﺪه ﻣﯽ‬

‫ﺷﻮد‬

Fig. 1.6 The ABB IRB1400 Robot. Photo

courtesy of ABB.

B. Miripour Fard Hamedan University of Technology

42
 In both of these arrangements joint axis z2
is parallel to z1 and both z1 and z2 are
perpendicular to z0.

This kind of manipulator is known as an

elbow manipulator.

Fig. 1.7 The Motoman SK16 manipulator.

‫ﺑﺎ ﭘﯿﻮﻧﺪ ﻣﺘﻮازی اﻻﺿﻼع‬

B. Miripour Fard Hamedan University of Technology

43
 .‫ﺷﮑﻞ زﯾﺮ دﻟﯿﻞ ﻧﺎﻣﮕﺬاری رﺑﺎت را ﻧﺸﺎن ﻣﯽ دھﺪ‬

B. Miripour Fard Hamedan University of Technology

44
 ‫ﭘﯿﻮﻧﺪ )‪ (linkage‬ﻣﺘﻮازی اﻻﺿﻼع از ﭘﯿﻮﻧﺪ آرﻧﺠﯽ ﻣﮭﺎرت ﮐﻤﺘﺮی دارد‪.‬‬
‫اﻣﺎ ﻣﺰﯾﺖ ھﺎی ﻣﮭﻤﯽ ھﻢ دارد‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺮک ﻣﻔﺼﻞ ﺳﻪ ﺑﺮ روی ﻟﯿﻨﮏ ﯾﮏ ﻗﺮار دارد ﺑﻨﺎﺑﺮاﯾﻦ ﻟﯿﻨﮑﮭﺎی دو و ﺳﻪ را ﻣﯽ‬
‫ﺗﻮان ﺳﺒﮑﺘﺮ و ﻣﻮﺗﻮرھﺎ را ﺑﺎ ﻗﺪرت ﭘﺎﯾﯿﻦ اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﮐﺮد‪.‬‬
‫دﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﮏ آن ھﻢ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ رﺑﺎت آرﻧﺠﯽ ﺳﺎده ﺗﺮ و در ﻧﺘﯿﺠﻪ ﮐﻨﺘﺮل آن آﺳﺎﻧﺘﺮ‬
‫اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫‪B. Miripour Fard‬‬ ‫‪Hamedan University of Technology‬‬

‫‪45‬‬
 1.3.2 Spherical Manipulator (RRP)
By replacing the third or elbow joint in the revolute manipulator by a prismatic
joint one obtains the spherical manipulator shown in Figure 1.10.

The term spherical manipulator derives

from the fact that the spherical
coordinates defining the position of the
end-effector with respect to a frame
whose origin lies at the intersection of
the three z axes are the same as the first
three joint variables.

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 Figure 1.11 shows the Stanford Arm, one of the most well known spherical
robots. The workspace of a spherical manipulator is shown in Figure 1.12.

Fig. 1.11 The Stanford Arm. Photo courtesy

of the Coordinated Science Lab, University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

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 1.3.3 SCARA Manipulator (RRP)

The SCARA arm (for Selective Compliant Articulated Robot for Assembly)
shown in Figure 1.13 is a popular manipulator, which, as its name suggests,
is tailored for assembly operations.

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 Although the SCARA has an RRP structure, it is quite different from
the spherical manipulator in both appearance and in its range of
applications.
Unlike the spherical design, which has z0 perpendicular to z1, and z1
perpendicular to z2, the SCARA has z0, z1, and z2 mutually parallel.

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 Figure 1.14 shows the Epson E2L653S, a manipulator of SCARA type.

The SCARA manipulator workspace is shown in Figure 1.15.

Fig. 1.14 The Epson E2L653S SCARA Robot.

Photo Courtesy of Epson.

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 1.3.4 Cylindrical Manipulator (RPP)
The cylindrical manipulator is shown in Figure 1.16. The first joint is
revolute and produces a rotation about the base, while the second and
third joints are prismatic.
As the name suggests, the joint variables are the cylindrical coordinates of
the end-effector with respect to the base. A cylindrical robot, the Seiko
RT3300, is shown in Figure 1.17, with its workspace shown in Figure 1.18.

Fig. 1.17 The Seiko RT3300

Robot. Photo courtesy of Seiko.

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 1.3.5 Cartesian manipulator (PPP)
A manipulator whose first three joints are prismatic is known as a
Cartesian manipulator, shown in Figure 1.19.
For the Cartesian manipulator the joint variables are the Cartesian
coordinates of the end-effector with respect to the base.
As might be expected the kinematic description of this manipulator is
the simplest of all manipulators.

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 Cartesian manipulators are useful for table-top assembly applications
and, as gantry robots, for transfer of material or cargo.
An example of a Cartesian robot, from Epson-Seiko, is shown in
Figure 1.20.
The workspace of a Cartesian manipulator is shown in Figure 1.21.

Fig. 1.20 The Epson Cartesian

Robot. Photo courtesy of Epson.
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 1.3.6 Parallel Manipulator
A parallel manipulator is one in which some subset of the links form a
closed chain. More specifically, a parallel manipulator has two or more
independent kinematic chains connecting the base to the end-effector.
Figure 1.22 shows the ABB IRB 940 Tricept robot, which is a parallel
manipulator.

The closed chain kinematics of parallel

robots can result in greater structural
rigidity, and hence greater accuracy, than
open chain robots.
The kinematic description of parallel
robots is fundamentally different from that
of serial link robots and therefore requires
different methods of analysis.

Fig. 1.22 The ABB IRB940 Tricept Parallel Robot. Photo

courtesy of ABB.

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 1.4 OUTLINE OF THE TEXT
A typical application involving an industrial manipulator is shown in
Figure 1.23.

The manipulator is shown with a grinding

tool that it must use to remove a certain
amount of metal from a surface.

In the present text we are concerned with the following question:

What are the basic issues to be resolved and what must we learn in order to be
able to program a robot to perform such tasks?

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 The ability to answer this question for a full six degree-of-freedom
manipulator represents the goal of the present text. The answer is too
complicated to be presented at this point. We can, however, use the
simple two-link planar mechanism to illustrate some of the major issues
involved and to preview the topics covered in this text.

Suppose we wish to move the manipulator from its home position to

position A, from which point the robot is to follow the contour of the
surface S to the point B, at constant velocity, while maintaining a
prescribed force F normal to the surface.
In so doing the robot will cut or grind the surface according to a
predetermined specification.
To accomplish this and even more general tasks, we must solve a number
of problems.
Below we give examples of these problems, all of which will be treated in
more detail in the remainder of the text.

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 Forward Kinematics
The first problem encountered is to describe both the position of the
tool and the locations A and B (and most likely the entire surface S)
with respect to a common coordinate system.
In Chapter 2 we give some background on representations of
coordinate systems and transformations among various coordinate
systems.

Typically, the manipulator will be able to sense its own position in some
manner using internal sensors (position encoders located at joints 1 and
2) that can measure directly the joint angles 1 and 2. We also need
therefore to express the positions A and B in terms of these joint angles.
This leads to the forward kinematics problem studied in Chapter 3,
which is to determine the position and orientation of the end-effector or
tool in terms of the joint variables.

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 It is customary to establish a fixed coordinate system, called the
world or base frame to which all objects including the manipulator
are referenced.
In this case we establish the base coordinate frame o0x0y0 at the base
of the robot, as shown in Figure 1.24.

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 The coordinates (x, y) of the tool are expressed in world coordinate frame
as:

in which 1 and 2 are the lengths of the two links, respectively

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 The orientation of the tool frame relative to the base frame is given by
the direction cosines of the x2 and y2 axes relative to the x0 and y0 axes,
that is,

which we may combine into an orientation matrix

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 Equations (1.1), (1.2) and (1.3) are called the forward kinematic equations
for the arm.

For a six degree-of-freedom robot these equations are quite complex and
cannot be written down as easily as for the two-link manipulator.

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 The general procedure that we discuss in Chapter 3 establishes

coordinate frames at each joint and allows one to transform

systematically among these frames using matrix transformations. The

procedure that we use is referred to as the Denavit-Hartenberg

convention. We then use homogeneous coordinates and homogeneous

transformations to simplify the transformation among coordinate

frames.

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 Inverse Kinematics
Now, given the joint angles 1, 2 we can determine the end-effector
coordinates x and y. In order to command the robot to move to location A
we need the inverse; that is, we need the joint variables 1, 2 in terms of the
x and y coordinates of A. This is the problem of inverse kinematics.

In other words, given x and y in the forward kinematic Equations (1.1)

and (1.2) , we wish to solve for the joint angles.

Since the forward kinematic equations are nonlinear, a solution may not
be easy to find, nor is there a unique solution in general.

We can see in the case of a two-link planar mechanism that there may be
no solution, for example if the given (x, y) coordinates are out of reach of
the manipulator.

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 If the given (x, y) coordinates are within the manipulator’s reach there
may be two solutions as shown in Figure 1.25, the so-called elbow up
and elbow down configurations, or there may be exactly one solution if
the manipulator must be fully extended to reach the point. There may
even be an infinite number of solutions in some cases.

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 Consider the diagram of Figure 1.26.

Using the Law of Cosines we see that the angle θ2 is given by

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 However, a better way to find θ2 is to notice that if cos(θ2) is given by
Equation (1.4) then sin(θ2) is given as

The advantage of this latter approach is that both the elbow-up and
elbow down solutions are recovered by choosing the positive and
negative signs in Equation (1.7), respectively. It is left as an exercise
(Problem 1-19) to show that θ1 is now given as:

Notice that the angle 1 depends on 2. This makes sense physically since
we would expect to require a different value for 1, depending on which
solution is chosen for 2.

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 Velocity Kinematics
In order to follow a contour at constant velocity, or at any prescribed
velocity, we must know the relationship between the velocity of the
tool and the joint velocities. In this case we can differentiate Equations
(1.1) and (1.2) to obtain

The matrix J defined by Equation (1.10) is called the Jacobian of the

manipulator and is a fundamental object to determine for any
manipulator.

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 In Chapter 4 we present a systematic procedure for deriving the Jacobian
for any manipulator in the so-called cross-product form.
The determination of the joint velocities from the end-effector velocities
is conceptually simple since the velocity relationship is linear. Thus the
joint velocities are found from the end-effector velocities via the inverse
Jacobian

in which cθ and s denote respectively cosθ and sinθ .

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 The determinant of the Jacobian in Equation (1.10) is 12 sinθ 2.
The Jacobian does not have an inverse, therefore, when θ2 = 0 or , in
which case the manipulator is said to be in a singular configuration,
such as shown in Figure 1.27 for 2 = 0.

The determination of such singular

configurations is important for several
reasons.
At singular configurations there are
infinitesimal motions that are
unachievable; that is, the manipulator
end-effector cannot move in certain
directions.

In the above cases the end effector cannot move in the positive x2
direction when θ2 = 0 .

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 Singular configurations are also related to the nonuniqueness
of solutions of the inverse kinematics.
For example, for a given end-effector position, there are in general
two possible solutions to the inverse kinematics.
Note that a singular configuration separates these two solutions in
the sense that the manipulator cannot go from one configuration to
the other without passing through a singularity.

For many applications it is important to plan manipulator motions

in such a way that singular configurations are avoided.

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 Path Planning and Trajectory Generation
The robot control problem is typically decomposed hierarchically into three
tasks:
1. path planning
2. Trajectory generation
3. Trajectory tracking.

The path planning problem, considered in Chapter 5, is to determine

a path in task space (or configuration space) to move the robot to a
goal position while avoiding collisions with objects in its workspace.

These paths encode position and orientation information without

timing considerations, i.e. without considering velocities and
accelerations along the planned paths.

The trajectory generation problem, also considered in Chapter 5, is

to generate reference trajectories that determine the time history of
the manipulator along a given path or between initial and final
configurations.

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 Dynamics
A robot manipulator is primarily a positioning device. To control the
position we must know the dynamic properties of the manipulator in
order to know how much force to exert on it to cause it to move: too little
force and the manipulator is slow to react; too much force and the arm
may crash into objects or oscillate about its desired position.

Deriving the dynamic equations of motion for robots is not a simple task
due to the large number of degrees of freedom and nonlinearities present
in the system.
In Chapter 6 we develop techniques based on Lagrangian dynamics for
systematically deriving the equations of motion of such a system.

In addition to the rigid links, the complete description of robot dynamics

includes the dynamics of the actuators that produce the forces and torques
to drive the robot, and the dynamics of the drive trains that transmit the
power from the actuators to the links. Thus, in Chapter 7 we also discuss
actuator and drive train dynamics and their effects on the control problem.

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72
 Position Control
In Chapters 7 and 8 we discuss the design of control algorithms for the
execution of programmed tasks.
The motion control problem consists of the Tracking and Disturbance
Rejection Problem, which is the problem of determining the control inputs
necessary to follow, or track, a desired trajectory that has been planned for
the manipulator, while simultaneously rejecting disturbances
due to unmodeled dynamic effects such as friction and noise.

We detail the standard approaches to robot control based on frequency

domain techniques.
We also introduce the notion of feedforward control and the techniques of
computed torque and inverse dynamics as a means for compensating the
complex nonlinear interaction forces among the links of the manipulator.
Robust and adaptive control are introduced in Chapter 8 using the Second
Method of Lyapunov.
Chapter 10 provides some additional advanced techniques from nonlinear
control theory that are useful for controlling high performance robots.

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 Force Control

Once the manipulator has reached location A, it must follow the contour
S maintaining a constant force normal to the surface.
Conceivably, knowing the location of the object and the shape of the
contour, one could carry out this task using position control alone. This
would be quite difficult to accomplish in practice, however.

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 Since the manipulator itself possesses high rigidity, any errors in
position due to uncertainty in the exact location of the surface or
tool would give rise to extremely large forces at the end-effector
that could damage the tool, the surface, or the robot.

A better approach is to measure the forces of interaction directly and

use a force control scheme to accomplish the task.
In Chapter 9 we discuss force control and compliance along with
commonapproaches to force control, namely hybrid control and
impedance control.

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 Vision

Cameras have become reliable and relatively inexpensive sensors in

many robotic applications.

Unlike joint sensors, which give information about the internal

configuration of the robot, cameras can be used not only to measure
the position of the robot but also to locate objects external to the
robot in its workspace.

In Chapter 11 we discuss the use of computer vision to determine

position and orientation of objects.

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 Vision-based Control

In some cases, we may wish to control the motion of the manipulator

relative to some target as the end-effector moves through free space.

Here, force control cannot be used.

Instead, we can use computer vision to close the control loop around
the vision sensor.
This is the topic of Chapter 12. There are several approaches to vision-
based control, but we will focus on the method of Image- Based Visual
Servo (IBVS). This method has become very popular in recent years,
and it relies on mathematical development analogous to that given in
Chapter 4.

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 Problems
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