Chapter

Solve, Differential/Quadratic
Differential, Integration,
Maximum/Minimum Value,
and Σ Calculations
3-1 Function Analysis Menu
3-2 Solve Calculations
3-3 Differential Calculations
3-4 Quadratic Differential Calculations
3-5 Integration Calculations
3-6 Maximum/Minimum Value Calculations
3-7 Σ Calculations
3-1 Function Analysis Menu
The following describes the items that are available in the menus you use when
performing Solve, differential/ quadratic differential, integration, maximum/minimum
value, and Σ calculations.

When the option menu is on the display, press 4 (CALC) to display the function
analysis menu.

AK4 (CALC)

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (Solve) ..... Used in Solve calculations
2 (d/dx) ........ Used in differential calculations
3 (d2/dx 2) ..... Used in quadratic differential calculations
4 (∫dx) .......... Used in integration calculations
6 (g) ........... Previous menu

6 (g)

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (FMin) ...... Used in minimum calculations
2 (FMax) ..... Used in maximum calculations
3 (Σ() ........... Used in Σ calculations
6 (g) ........... Previous menu

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3-2 Solve Calculations
To solve calculations, first display the function analysis menu, and then input the
values shown in the formula below to determine root x values in the function f(x).
P.64

1(Solve) f(x), n,a,b)

Initial estimate value Upper limit

Lower limit

With Solve calculations, the root of a function is determined using Newton’s method.

uNewton’s Method

This method is based on the assumption that f(x) can be approximated by a linear
expression within a very narrow range.
First, a starting value (predicted value) xo is given. Using this starting value as a
base, approximate value x1 is obtained, and then the left side and right side calcula-
tion results are compared. Next, approximate value x1 is used as the initial value to
calculate the next approximate value x2. This procedure is repeated until the differ-
ence between the left side and right side calculated values is less than some minute
value.

u To perform solve calculations

Example To calculate the value of root x in the following formula when

the initial estimated value is n = 1, the lower limit is a = 0, and the
upper limit is b = 1 :
2x2 + 7x – 9 = 0

Input the function f(x).

AK4(CALC)1(Solve)
cvx+hv-j,

1 2 3 4 5 6

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3-2 Solve Calculations

Input initial estimated value n.

b,

Input lower limit a and upper limit b.

a,b)

• In the function f(x), only X can be used as a variable in expressions. Other vari-
ables (A through Z, r, θ) are treated as constants, and the value currently as-
signed to that variable is applied during the calculation.
• Input of the closing parenthesis, lower limit a and upper limit b can be omitted.
• Roots obtained using Solve may include errors.

• Since Solve uses Newton’s method, the following can sometimes occur.
—Certain initial estimated values can make it impossible to obtain roots. In this
case, try inputting another value that you assume to be near the root and per-
form the calculation again.
—The calculator may be unable to obtain a root, even though a root exists.
• Due to certain idiosyncrasies of Newton’s method, roots for the following types
of functions tend to be difficult to calculate.
—Periodic functions (i.e. sin x = 0)
—Functions whose graph produce sharp slopes (i.e. ex = 0, 1/ x = 0)
—Discontinuous functions (i.e. x = 0)

• Note that you cannot use a Solve, differential, quadratic differential, integration,
maximum/minimum value or Σ calculation expression inside of a Solve calcula-
tion term.

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3-3 Differential Calculations
• To perform differential calculations, first display the function analysis menu, and
then input the values shown in the formula below.
P.64

2(d/ dx) f(x), a,∆ x)

Increase/decrease of x
Point for which you want to determine the derivative

d
d/dx ( f (x), a, ∆x) ⇒ ––– f (a)
dx

The differentiation for this type of calculation is defined as:

f (a + ∆x) – f (a)
f '(a) = lim –––––––––––––
∆x→0 ∆x

In this definition, infinitesimal is replaced by a sufficiently small ∆x, with the value in
the neighborhood of f ' (a) calculated as:

f (a + ∆x) – f (a)
f '(a) –––––––––––––
∆x

In order to provide the best precision possible, this unit employs central difference to
perform differential calculations. The following illustrates central difference.

The slopes of point a and point a + ∆x, and of point a and point a – ∆x in function
y = f(x) are as follows:

f (a + ∆x) – f (a) ∆y f (a) – f (a – ∆x) ∇y

––––––––––––– = ––– , ––––––––––––– = –––
∆x ∆x ∆x ∇x
In the above, ∆y/∆x is called the forward difference, while ∇ y/∇ x is the backward
difference.To calculate derivatives, the unit takes the average between the value of
∆y/∆x and ∇y/∇ x, thereby providing higher precision for derivatives.

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3-3 Differential Calculations

This average, which is called the central difference, is expressed as:

1 f (a + ∆x) – f (a) f (a) – f (a – ∆x)

f '(a) = –– ––––––––––––– + –––––––––––––
2 ∆x ∆x
f (a + ∆x) – f (a – ∆x)
= –––––––––––––––––
2∆x

u To perform a differential calculation

Example To determine the derivative at point x = 3 for the function

y = x3 + 4 x2 + x – 6, when the increase/decrease of x is defined as
∆ x = 1E – 5

Input the function f(x).

AK4(CALC)2( d/dx)
vMd+evx
+v-g,

Input point x = a for which you want to determine the derivative.

d,

Input ∆x, which is the increase/decrease of x.

bE-f)

• In the function f(x), only X can be used as a variable in expressions. Other vari-
ables (A through Z, r, θ) are treated as constants, and the value currently as-
signed to that variable is applied during the calculation.
• Input of ∆x and the closing parenthesis can be omitted. If you omit ∆x, the calcu-
lator automatically uses a value for ∆x that is appropriate for the derivative value
you are trying to determine.
• Discontinuous points or sections with drastic fluctuation can adversely affect pre-
cision or even cause an error.

68
 Differential Calculations 3-3
k Applications of Differential Calculations
• Differentials can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided with each other.

d d
Example ––– f (a) = f '(a), ––– g (a) = g'(a)
dx dx
Therefore:
f '(a) + g'(a), f '(a) × g'(a)

• Differential results can be used in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divi-

sion, and in functions.

Example 2 × f '(a), log ( f '(a))

• Functions can be used in any of the terms ( f ( x), a, ∆x) of a differential.

d
Example ––– (sin x + cos x, sin0.5)
dx

• Note that you cannot use a Solve, differential, quadratic differential, integration,
maximum/minimum value or Σ calculation expression inside of a differential cal-
culation term.

• Pressing A during calculation of a differential (while the cursor is not shown

on the display) interrupts the calculation.
• Always perform trigonometric differentials using radians (Rad Mode) as the
angle unit.

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3-4 Quadratic Differential Calculations
After displaying the function analysis menu, you can input quadratic differentials
using either of the two following formats.
P.64

3(d 2 /dx 2 ) f(x),a, n)

Final boundary ( n = 1 to 15)

Differential coefficient point

d2 d2
–––2 ( f (x), a, n) ⇒ –––2 f (a)
dx dx

Quadratic differential calculations produce an approximate differential value using

the following second order differential formula, which is based on Newton's polyno-
mial interpretation.

– f(x – 2h) + 16 f (x – h) – 30 f(x) + 16 f(x + h) – f(x + 2h)

f''(x) = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
12h2

In this expression, values for “sufficiently small increments of x ” are sequentially

calculated using the following formula, with the value of m being substituted as m =
1, 2, 3 and so on.

1
h = ––––
5m

The calculation is finished when the value of f " (x) based on the value of h calcu-
lated using the last value of m , and the value of f " (x) based on the value of h
calculated using the current value of m are identical before the upper n digit is reached.

• Normally, you should not input a value for n. It is recommended that you only
input a value for n when required for calculation precision.
• Inputting a larger value for n does not necessarily produce greater precision.

u To perform a quadratic differential calculation

Example To determine the quadratic differential coefficient at the point

where x = 3 for the function y = x3 + 4x2 + x – 6
Here we will use a final boundary value of n = 6.
Input the function f(x).
AK4(CALC)3( d2/dx2)
vMd+evx+
v-g,
1 2 3 4 5 6

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 Quadratic Differential Calculations 3-4
Input 3 as point a, which is differential coefficient point.
d,

Input 6 as n, which is final boundary.

g)

• In the function f(x), only X can be used as a variable in expressions. Other vari-
ables (A through Z, r, θ) are treated as constants, and the value currently as-
signed to that variable is applied during the calculation.
• Input of the final boundary value n and the closing parenthesis can be omitted.
• Discontinuous points or sections with drastic fluctuation can adversely affect pre-
cision or even cause an error.

k Quadratic Differential Applications

• Arithmetic operations can be performed using two quadratic differentials.
d2 d2
–––2 f (a) = f ''(a), –––2 g (a) = g''(a)
dx dx

Therefore:

f ''(a) + g''(a), f ''(a) × g''(a)

• The result of a quadratic differential calculation can be used in a subsequent

arithmetic or function calculation.

2 × f ''(a), log ( f ''(a) )

• Functions can be used within the terms ( f(x), a, n ) of a quadratic differential

expression.
d2
–––2 (sin x + cos x, sin 0.5)
dx

• Note that you cannot use a Solve, differential, quadratic differential, integration,
maximum/minimum value or Σ calculation expression inside of a quadratic differ-
ential calculation term.

• Use only integers within the range of 1 to 15 for the value of final boundary n .
Use of a value outside this range produces an Ma ERROR.
• You can interrupt an ongoing quadratic differential calculation by pressing the
A key.
• You should always specify radians (Rad) as the unit of angle unit before per-
forming a quadratic differential calculation using trigonometric functions.

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3-5 Integration Calculations
To perform integration calculations, first display the function analysis menu, and then
input the values shown in the formula below.
P.64
4(∫dx) f(x) , a , b , n )

Number of Divisions (value for n in N = 2 n,

n is an integer from 1 through 9)
End Point
Start Point

∫( f (x), a, b, n) ⇒ ∫
b
f (x)dx, N = 2n
a

∫
b
Area of f (x)dx is calculated
a

N number of divisions

Integration calculations are performed by applying Simpson’s Rule for the f (x) func-
tion you input. This method requires that the number divisions be defined as N = 2n ,
where the value of n is an integer in the range of 1 through 9. If you do not specify a
value for n, the calculator automatically assigns a value in accordance with the inte-
gration being performed.
As shown in the illustration above, integration calculations are performed by calcu-
lating integral values from a through b for the function y = f (x) where a < x < b, and
f (x) > 0*. This in effect calculates the surface area of the shaded area in the illustra-
tion.

* If f (x) < 0 where a < x < b, the surface area calculation produces negative values
(surface area × – 1).

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 Integration Calculations 3-5
u To perform an integration calculation

Example To perform the integration calculation for the function

∫
5
(2x2 + 3x + 4) dx
1

Input the function f (x).

AK4(CALC)4( ∫dx)cvx
+dv+e,

Input the start point and end point.

b,f,

Input the number of divisions.

g)

• In the function f(x), only X can be used as a variable in expressions. Other vari-
ables (A through Z, r, θ) are treated as constants, and the value currently as-
signed to that variable is applied during the calculation.
• Input of n and the closing parenthesis can be omitted. If you omit n, the calculator
automatically selects the most appropriate value.
• Calculation precision is theoretically ±1 at the least significant digit of the dis-
played result.

k Application of Integration Calculation

• Integrals can be used in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

∫ ∫
b d
Example f (x) dx + g (x) dx
a c

• Integration results can be used in addition, subtraction, multiplication and divi-

sion, in functions.

∫ ∫
b b
Example 2× f (x) dx, log ( f (x) dx)
a a

• Functions can be used in any of the terms ( f(x), a, b, n) of an integral.

∫ ∫
cos 0.5
Example (sin x + cos x) dx = (sin x + cos x, sin 0.5, cos 0.5, 5)
sin 0.5

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3-5 Integration Calculations

• Note that you cannot use a Solve, differential, quadratic differential, integration,
maximum/minimum value or Σ calculation expression inside of an integration cal-
culation term.

• Pressing A during calculation of an integral (while the cursor is not shown on

the display) interrupts the calculation.
• Always perform trigonometric integrations using radians (Rad Mode) as the
angle unit.
• This unit utilizes Simpson’s rule for integration calculation. As the number of
significant digits is increased, more calculation time is required. In some cases,
calculation results may be erroneous even after considerable time is spent per-
forming a calculation. In particular, when significant digits are less than 1, an
ERROR (Ma ERROR) sometimes occurs.
• Integration involving certain types of functions or ranges can result in relatively
large errors being generated in the values produced.

Note the following points to ensure correct integration values.

(1) When cyclical functions for integration values become positive or negative for
different divisions, perform the calculation for single cycles, or divide between
negative and positive, and then add the results together.

Positive
part (S)

Negative part (S)

∫ ∫ ∫
b c b
f(x)dx = f(x)dx + (– f (x)dx)
a a c

Positive part ( S ) Negative part (S )

(2) When minute fluctuations in integration divisions produce large fluctuations in

integration values, calculate the integration divisions separately (divide the large
fluctuation areas into smaller divisions), and then add the results together.

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
b x1 x2 b
f(x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx +.....+ f (x)dx
a a x1 x4

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3-6 Maximum/Minimum Value Calculations
After displaying the function analysis menu, you can input maximum/minimum cal-
culations using the formats below, and solve for the maximum and minimum of a
P.64 function within interval a < x < b.

uMinimum Value
6(g)1(FMin) f(x) , a , b , n )

Precision (n = 1 ~ 9)
End point of interval
Start point of interval

uMaximum Value
6(g)2(FMax) f(x), a , b , n )

Precision (n = 1 ~ 9)
End point of interval
Start point of interval

uTo perform maximum/minimum value calculations

Example 1 To determine the minimum value for the interval defined by start
point a = 0 and end point b = 3 , with a precision of n = 6 for the
function y = x2 – 4x + 9

Input f(x).
AK4(CALC)
6(g)1(FMin)
vx-ev+j,
1 2 3 4 5 6
Input the interval a = 0, b = 3.
a,d,

Input the precision n = 6 .

g)

75
3-6 Maximum/Minimum Value Calculations

Example 2 To determine the maximum value for the interval defined by start
point a = 0 and end point b = 3 , with a precision of n = 6 for the
function y = –x2 + 2x + 2

Input f(x).
AK4(CALC)
6(g)2(FMax)
-vx+cv+c,
1 2 3 4 5 6
Input the interval a = 0, b = 3 .
a,d,

Input the precision n = 6.

g)

• In the function f(x), only X can be used as a variable in expressions. Other vari-
ables (A through Z, r, θ ) are treated as constants, and the value currently as-
signed to that variable is applied during the calculation.
• Input of n and the closing parenthesis following the precision value can be omit-
ted.
• Discontinuous points or sections with drastic fluctuation can adversely affect pre-
cision or even cause an error.
• Note that you cannot use a Solve, differential, quadratic differential, integration,
maximum/minimum value or Σ calculation expression inside of a maximum/mini-
mum calculation term.
• Inputting a larger value for n increases the precision of the calculation, but it also
increases the amount of time required to perform the calculation.

• The value you input for the end point of the interval ( b) must be greater than the
value you input for the start point (a). Otherwise an Ma ERROR is generated.
• You can interrupt an ongoing maximum/minimum calculation by pressing the
A key.
• You can input an integer in the range of 1 to 9 for the value of n. Using any
value outside this range causes an error (Arg ERROR).

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3-7 Σ Calculations
To perform Σ calculations, first display the function analysis menu, and then input the
values shown in the formula below.

6(g)3(Σ() a k , k , α , β , n )

Distance between partitions

Last term of sequence {ak}
Initial term of sequence {ak}
Variable used by sequence { ak}

Σ ( a k, k, α, β, n) = Σa
k=α
k

Σ calculation is the calculation of the partial sum of sequence { a k}, using the follow-
ing formula.

β
S = aα + aα +1 +........+ aβ = Σa
k=α
k

k Example Σ Calculation

Example To calculate the following:

6

Σ (k – 3k + 5)
k=2
2

Use n = 1 as the distance between partitions.

Input sequence {a k}
AK4(CALC)6(g)3(Σ()
aKx-daK+f,

Input variable used by sequence {a k}

aK,

Input the initial term of sequence {a k} and last term of sequence {a k}.
c,g,

Input n.
b)

77
3-7 Σ Calculations

• You can use only one variable in the function for input sequence {ak}.
• Input integers only for the initial term of sequence {a k} and last term of sequence
{a k}.
• Input of n and the closing parentheses can be omitted. If you omit n, the calcula-
tor automatically uses n = 1.

k Σ Calculation Applications

u Arithmetic operations using Σ calculation expressions

n n
Expressions: Sn = Σ ak, Tn = Σ bk
k=1 k=1

Possible operations: Sn + Tn , Sn – Tn, etc.

u Arithmetic and function operations using Σ calculation results

2 × Sn, log (Sn), etc.

u Function operations using Σ calculation terms (ak, k)

Σ (sink, k, 1, 5), etc.

• Note that you cannot use a Solve, differential, quadratic differential, integration,
maximum/minimum value or Σ calculation expression inside of a Σ calculation
term.

k Σ Calculation Precautions
• Make sure that the value used as the final term β is greater than the value used
as the initial term α. Otherwise, an Ma ERROR will occur.
• To interrupt an ongoing Σ calculation (indicated when the cursor is not on the dis-
play), press the A key.

78