Electromagnetic Field

Jun. 26, 2009

4. Energy and Potential

1. Work and electric potential

Work can be calculated in two following manners:

• work given to the system

• work done to the system

The works done to and given to the system have the same magnitude with the opposite sign.

Consider the work done by the system due to the electric force.

W ·d

q ·d q ·d ,

where Wsystem : work by the system [Joule, J]

Fe : electric force [N]

E : electric field [V/m]

q : electric charge [C]

L : displacement [m]

In electromagnetic field the work considered is the work received from the system Therefore, it

has the opposite sign to Wsystem. The work is then defined as:

W ·d q ·d

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Jun. 26, 2009

The positive sign of Wgiven indicated that the work is done to the system and the negative sign of

Wgiven indicated that the work is given to the system. From now on, unless indicated in the text, W is

considered as Wgiven.

Line integral (integral along the line)

dL  is the sum of d(length) in each direction and the integration is performed over the dot
product of E to dL. dL is defined in each coordinate system as follows:
Rectangular coordinate: d dx dy dz
Cylindrical coordinate:  d dρ ρd dz
Spherical coordinate: d dr rdθ rsin θ d
In order to calculate for f x, y, z dx in line integral, the variable y and z is changed to the
function of x according to the path taken. In the same manner the calculation for f x, y, z dy 
f x, y, z dz ) are done by converting x and z (x and y) to the function of y (z)

Ex.(1) Find work from moving 6nC charge from point P(2,-2,3) for 2µm along the line
(i)

(ii)  

Given that the electric field in the system is

1
8xyz 4x z 4x y  V/m
z
Sol. (1) From the definition of work:

W q ·d

dL is given by definition.

d dx dy dz
Substitute q, dL and E into the definition of work.
1
W 6 10 8xyz 4x z 4x y · dx dy dz
z
8xy 4x2 4x y
6 10 dx dy dz
z z z
, , f
4x y 4x y
6 10 d 6 10
z z , ,

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Jun. 26, 2009

(2) Find the initial and final point

Initial point: (2, 2, -3) (given)
1.1. Final point: (2, 2, -3) + length × direction = (2, 2, -3) + 2×10-6(-6/7, 3/7, 2/7)
1.2. Final point: (2, 2, -3) + length × direction = (2, 2, -3) + 2×10-6(3/7, 6/7, 2/7)
(3) Substitute initial point and final point for work.
(i)
12 6
4 2 7 10 2 7 10 4 2 2
W 6 10 0.149 10  J
4 3
3 10
7
(ii)
6 12
4 2 7 10 2 7 10 4 2 2
W 6 10 0.149 10  J
4 3
3 7 10

V
Ex.(2) In the system where y , find the work in moving q-C charge from (1,3,5) to (2,0,3)

along the straight line joining

(i) (1,3,5) to (2,3,5) to (2,0,5) to (2,0,3)
(ii) (1,3,5) to (1,3,3) to (1,0,3) to (2,0,3)

Sol.: (i.1) Find work in each line section.  

, ,
W q·d yqdx  y constant and y 3
, ,
, ,
3qdx 3qx| 3q   J
, ,
, ,
W q·d yqdx 0  dx 0
, ,
, ,
W q·d yqdx 0  dx 0
, ,

(i.2) Find total work by summing work in each section

W W W W 3q  J

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Jun. 26, 2009

(ii.1) Find work in each line section.

, ,
W q·d yqdx 0  dx 0
, ,
, ,
W q·d yqdx 0  dx 0
, ,
, ,
W q·d yqdx 0  y constant and y 3
, ,

(ii.2) Find total work by summing work in each section

W W W W 0 J

In Ex.(1), even though the path is different, work is the same, while work in Ex.(2) is different

when the path is different. The reason is because · d in Ex.(1) can be written as df(x,y,z) while ·d

in Ex.(2) can not be written as df(x,y,z).

Summary: Work will depend only on the initial position and the final position (independent of the path

taken) when · d is df x,y,z .

2. Electric potential

2.1. Definition

Given a path in one system, · d is unchanged. We, then, defined this value as electric
potential.

B
VBA ·d ,
A

where VBA : electric potential between point A to point B [Volt, V].

When the initial point A is at infinity the notation is shorthanded to VB, i.e.

B
VB ·d

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Jun. 26, 2009

Electric potential for charge distribution: consider the path in direction.

dq
d
4πε r
A A
dq · dr
dVA d ·d
4πε r
A
dq dq
4πε r 4πε rA

2.2. Properties

9 VAB VA VB

9 VAB VBA

9 V    gradient

9 WAB q VA VB (Work in moving q-C charge from B to A.)

Gradient:

V V V
Rectangular coordinate: V

V V V
Cylindrical coordinate: V

V V V
Spherical coordinate: V
 

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Jun. 26, 2009

Ex.(3) V 100ρcos Volt. Find E, ρv at P(ρ = 3m, φ = 60°, z = 2m)

Sol. (1) Find E from definition.
V 
∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
 
∂ρ ρ∂ ∂z
∂ 100ρ cos 1 ∂ 100ρ cos ∂ 100ρ cos
ρ z  
∂ρ ρ ∂ ∂z
100 cos ρ 100 sin  

P 100 cos 60° 100 sin 60° 50 50√3  V/m 

      (2) Find ρv by Gauss’ law in the point form
ρ · · ε0
1 ∂ρE 1 ∂E ∂E
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ ∂z
1 ∂ρ 100 cos 1 ∂ 100 sin ∂0
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ ∂z
1 1
100 cos 100 cos 0 C/m3
ρ ρ
ρ ,P 0 C/m3

Ex.(4) Given 6x 6y 4 V/m. Find V at N(-3, -3, 2) when V = 2V at P(1,2,-4).

Sol. (1) The relationship of E and V. Find the electric potential between N and P.
N N
VNP ·d 6x 6y 4 · dx dy dz
P P
N
, ,
6x dx 6ydy 4dz 2x 3y 4z | , ,
P

2 3 1 3 3 2 4 2— 4 56 15 24 17 V
(2) Find VN.
VNP VN VP
VN VNP VP 17 2 19 V

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Ex.(5) The annular surface 1cm < ρ < 3 cm, z = 0. Carries the uniform surface charge density ρs =
5nC/m2. Find the work in moving 2nC point charge from P(0,0,2cm) to Q(0,0,1cm).
Sol. (1) Draw the system diagram

V ?

Angle =dφ

ρ ρdφ

dρ

(2) Find the voltage at point (0,0,z) by considering the electric potential due to the dQ charge.
dQ
dV
4πε r
ρ ρdρd
4πε ρ z
ρ ρdρd
V
4πε ρ z
ρ ρdρ
d
4πε ρ z
ρ ρ
2π ρ z 9 10 z 10 z
4πε 2ε

(3) Find W.
WQP q VQ VP
5 10
VQ 9 10 10 10 10 4.94 V
2 8.854 10
5 10
VP 9 10 4 10 10 4 10 3.87 V
2 8.854 10
WQP 2 10 VQ VP 2.14 10 J

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Ex.(6) A charge is uniformly distributed on the surface of the sphere with the radius of a  m. Find the
electric potential (V) at the point r m away from the center of the sphere. Then proof that the
electric field intensity (E) inside the sphere is zero and the outside the sphere is similar to when
the total charge is located as the point charge at the center of the sphere.
Sol.: (1) Draw the system diagram. Consider the sphere with the center at an origin.
x 
ρsadθ
a R
θ  z

y 

r 

(2) Find dV due to the thin ring with the thickness of adθ at z   acos θ . Assume V   0 at infinity.

dL asin θ dφ 

a sin θ a R
r

a cos θ

2 2
R r acos θ asin θ r2 2racos θ a

dQ ρs adθ asin θ d
dV
4πε R 4πε r2 2racos θ a

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(3) Integrate the entire sphere’s surface for V.

ρs a2 sin θ dθ d
V
4πε r2 2racos θ a
ρ s a2 d cos θ d
4πε r2 2racos θ a
ρs a2 1
2π r2 2racos θ a
4πε aR
ρs a
r2 2racos π a r2 2racos 0 a
2ε r
ρs a
|r a| |r a|
2ε r
ρ s a2
 V;      r
V ε r
ρs a
 V;      0 r
ε
(4) Find E from V. The gradient is calculated with the position of V , i.e. r.
∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
V
∂r r ∂θ rsin θ ∂
ρ s a2
 V/m; r
ε r
V
   ;   0
m
The expression of E indicates that when r    a, E has the magnitude of zero. That is no
electric field inside the sphere. When r a. the expression for E can be rewritten as follows.
ρ s a2 ρs a2 4π
ε r ε r 4π
ρs 4πa2 Q
 V/m
4πε r 4πε r
The above expression is the expression for E when the point charge of Qsphere V is located
at the origin (center of the sphere).

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Jun. 26, 2009

Ex.(7) Find the electric field intensity (E) and electric potential (V) at 0,0,zo due to a uniform surface
charge, ρs C/m2 locating at 0   z   h, ρ  ρ0, 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π.  zo   h
Sol.: (1) Draw the system diagram. z
V 0,0,z0 ?

dQ  ρsρ0dφdz ρs C/m2 
h

y 

(2) Find dV due to dQ at z   z, φ   φ. Assume V   0 at infinity.

R z0 z 2 ρ 2

dQ ρs ρ0 d dz
R  z0 – z   dV
4πε R 4πε z0 z 2 ρ 2

ρ0   (3) Integrate for the entire surface for V.

ρs ρ0 d dz
V
z0 z 2 2

ρs ρ0 dz
2ε z0 z 2 ρ 2

Substitute z0 z ρ0 tanα and dz ρ sec αdα.

ρs ρ0 ρ0 sec2 αdα
V
2 2
2ε ρ0 tanα ρ

ρs ρ0 2 sec2 α dα ρs ρ 0
ln|sec α tan α| |
2ε ρ0 secα 2ε

ρs ρ0 z0 z2 ρ 2 z0 z
ln
2ε ρ0 ρ0

ρ s ρ0 z0 2 ρ 2 z0
ln  V
2ε z0 h 2 ρ 2 z0 h
(4) Find E from V. The gradient is calculated with the position of V , i.e. z0. (Consider z0 as z
4‐10 
∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
  V
∂ρ ρ∂ ∂z

z0 2 ρ 2 z0
∂ ln
ρs ρ 0 z0 h2 ρ 2 z0 h
2ε ∂z
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Jun. 26, 2009

Ex.(8) Find the electric field intensity (E) and electric potential (V) at 0,0,zo due to a uniform surface
charge, ρs C/m2 locating at  z   0, 0   ρ a, 0 ≤ φ ≤ φ0.
 
Sol.: (1) Draw the system diagram.

(2) Find dE due to dQ at ρ   ρ, φ   φ, z   0.

ρ z
dQ
d R
4πε R
ρs ρdρd ρ z
4πε ρ2 z0 2 ρ2 z0 2
ρs ρ ρ z dρd
4πε ρ 2 2
z0 .

(3) Integrate the entire surface for E.

0 ρs ρ ρ z dρd
4πε ρ2 z0 2 .
ρs 0 ρ z ρ
dρd
4πε ρ2 z0 2 .

ρs 0 ρ 0 z ρ
dρd  dρd
4πε ρ2 z0 2 . ρ2 z0 2 .

For the first term in the RHS, substitute ρ z tanα and dρ z sec αdα. For the second
term, substitute ρdρ with dρ /2.
ρs 0 ρ z0 tanα 0 z
z0 sec2 αdαd  ρdρd
4πε ρ z0 tanα 2 z0 2 . ρ2 z0 2 .

ρ a a
z0 z dρ
sec α cos α ρ dαd   d
4πε0 0 0 0 0 ρ z 1.5 2
ρ a z0 z
a
ln|sec α tan α| sin α | 0 ρd  d
4πε0 0 0 ρ z 0.5
0

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a
ρ ρ z ρ ρ
ln ρ d
4πε0 0 z ρ z 0

1 1
z0 z  d
0 z a z

ρ a z a a 1 1
ln ρd z0 z
4πε0 0 z a z z a z

Because aρ changes the direction with ; therefore, it cannot be integrated as a constant. is

changed to cos sin . The integration of the first term in the RHS can then be integrated as

a2 z0 2 a a
follows. (Define  K ln z0
)
a2 z0 2

0 a2 z0 2 a a 0
ln d K x cos y sin d
z0 a2 z0 2

x sin y cos
0
K

K x sin 0 1 y cos 0

Substitute the integration result to E.

ρs a2 z0 2 a a
ln x sin 0 y 1 cos 0
4πε z0 a2 z0 2
1 1
0z | z0 |
 V/m
a2 z0 2
(4) It is possible to find V from the expression of E above but it would be difficult to integrate.
So instead, V will be calculated separately.
dQ ρs ρdρd
dV
4πε R 4πε z0 2 ρ2
0 ρs ρdρd
V
4πε z0 2 ρ2
ρs
4πε 0

0 ρs
z0 2 a2 |z0 |   V
4πε
4‐12  V because in order to find E, it is necessary to
Note: In Ex.(8), it is not possible to find E by integrating
take
  the integration over V at any point. The gradient of V in z axis as in Ex.(7) is allowed only when it
is known that E will be on z axis only.
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3. Energy density

Energy in the system is the amount of work required to construct the system and is defined as

follows.

1 1
W ρ Vdv ε E dv
2 2

The energy stored in the electrostatic field can be considered as the summation of the product of

the electric potential and the charge to the entire volume ∑ qV and can be proved as follows.

Proof: consider the case of constructing the point charge system in Fig.1.

(1) Initially, there is no charge in the system. Move Q1 from infinity to the current position.

Because there is no charge present, there is no force resisting Q1 and no work is

required.

r12
Q1 Q2

r23
r13

Q3
Fig.1 Point charge system for proving the formulae for energy density

(2) Move Q2 to the current position. Because charge Q1 is presented, the electric force due

to Q1 is exerted on Q2. Work is required to move Q2.

Q
W Q V Q ,
4πε r

where V12 : electric potential due to Q1 at the position Q2 

(Not the electric potential from 2 to 1!!!)

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(3) Move Q3 to the current position. Because charge Q1 and Q2 are presented, the electric

force due to Q1 and Q2 is exerted on Q3. Work is required to move Q3.

W Q V Q V

(4) Add the work in case for the total work.

W W W W Q V Q V Q V

QQ QQ
(5) Because QiVji   is the same as QjVij ,  QiVji can be rewritten as QV

Q V . Replace all QiVji with the rewritten form.

1 1 1
W Q V Q V Q V Q V Q V Q V
2 2 2

(6) Rearrange the term.

1
W Q V V Q V V Q V V
2

1
Q V Q V Q V
2
1
QV
2

(7) Consider Q as the small charge. The summation becomes the integration and the first

part of the definition of the energy stored in the electric field is proved.

1
W lim QV
Q 2

1
VdQ
2

1
ρ Vdv
2

(8) Substitute ρV by ∇⋅D. (Gauss’ law in the point form)

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Jun. 26, 2009

1
W ρ Vdv
2

1
· Vdv
2

From the divergence relationship.

· V · V · V

· V · V   · V

Consider the first term in the right hand side when it is combined with the integration

over the entire volume.

· V dv   V·d

1 1
V ·d
r r

1
·d
r

(9) Because S is the function of r2 while F is the function of 1/r3, when r is inifinite the

integration becomes zero. It can then be concluded that the integration over the first

term will be zero. Substitute ∇⋅D V into W by considering only the second term in the

right hand side. The second part of the definition of the energy stored in the electric

field is then proved.

1
W · V dv
2

1
· dv
2

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1
ε · dv
2
1
ε E dv
2

Ex.(9) Find the energy stored in free space for the region 2mm < r < 3mm, 0 < θ < 90° , 0 < φ < 90° for
the system with the electric potential defined by as follows.
300 cos θ
V
r
Sol.: (1) Because ρv is not given, find E by the relationship between E and V.
∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
V
∂r r ∂θ rsin θ ∂
300 cos θ 300 cos θ 300 cos θ
∂ 1∂ 1 ∂
r r r
∂r r ∂θ rsin θ ∂

600 cos θ 300 sin θ 600 cos θ 300 sin θ

0  V/m
r r r r

(2) From the definition of the energy stored in the system.

1
W ε E dv
2

1 600 cos θ 300 sin θ

ε dv
2 r r

1 300
ε 4 cos θ sin θ dv
2 r

1 300
ε 3 cos θ 1 r sin θ drdθd
2 r

1 1
300 ε d 3 cos θ sin θ sin θ dθ dr
2 r
π π π 1 1 1
150 300ε cos 0 cos 0 cos cos
2 2 2 3 2 10 3 10
150 300ε π 2.932 10 36.7 J

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4. Dipole

Dipole is the system consists of two charges of the magnitude +Q C and –Q C. The two charges

are apart by the distance of d  Fig.2 . Dipole is often used in describing the characteristic of the

dielectric material.

‐Q
Fig. 2. Dipole system

It is often approximated that the distance between the two charges is very small compared to the

distance to the position of interest. The electric potential to the position of interest (point A) can then be

calculated as follows.

(1) Find VA at point A.

Q Q
VA
4πε r Q 4πε r Q

Q r Q r Q
4πε r Qr Q

(2) Approximate the difference between the distance r‐Q and r Q. When point A is very far

away, the direction from Q  charge to point A and –Q charge to point A can be

considered parallel. r‐Q - r Q can then be approximated as dcos θ. (Fig. 3)

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d
θ
‐Q
dcos θ

Fig. 3 The direction of r‐Q and r Q when point A is very far away.

(3) r‐Q  and r Q are approximated as r the distance from the center of the dipole to point A.

(Fig. 4). When point A is very far away, these three lines can be considered parallel.

r Q

r
Q
r‐Q 
d

‐Q
Fig. 4 r, r‐Q and r Q in dipole

(4) Substitute r‐Q, r Q and r‐Q - r into VA (in (1)).

Qd cos θ 
VA
4πε r

(5) Find EA from VA.

A V 

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∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
 
∂r r ∂θ rsin θ ∂
Qd cos θ  Qd cos θ  Qd cos θ 
∂ 1∂ 1 ∂
4πε r 4πε r 4πε r
 
∂r r ∂θ rsin θ ∂

Qd cos θ  Qd sin θ 
0  
2πε r 4πε r
Qd 
2 cos θ sin θ  
4πε r

It should be noted that for dipole system, the electric potential is the function of 1/r2 instead of

1/r as in the normal point charge and the electric field is the function of 1/r3 instead of 1/r2.

One parameter often associated with the dipole is the dipole moment which is defined as

follows.

Q ,

where p : dipole moment (C-M)

d : vector connecting –Q‐C charge to Q‐C charge (M).

The formulae for finding the electric potential of the dipole can then be written in vector format

as follow.

Qd cos θ  ·
VA  V
4πε r 4πε r

(The angle between p and ar is θ.)

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Ex.(10) +1nC and -1nC charges are located at the point (0,0,0.1) and (0,0,-0.1). Find V and E at point
P(3, 0,4).

Sol.: (1) Because the system is the dipole whose center is at the origin. Use the equation for V and E for
the dipole.
Qd cos θ 
VA
4πε r
Qd 
A 2 cos θ sin θ
4πε r

0.1 0.1 0.2  m

3 0 4 0 0 0
3 0 4

· 0.2 3 0 4
cos θ 0.8
|d||r| 0.2 5

sin θ 1 0.8 0.6

(2) Substitute cos θ, sin θ, Q, d and r into the definition to get EA and VA.
10 0.2 0.8  
VA 5.75 10  V
4πε 5
10 0.2  
A 2 0.8 0.6
4πε 5
2.30 10 8.63 10 V/m

4‐20