03 Wind Power
03 Wind Power
03 Wind Power
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Wind Turbines
Power for a House or City
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Wind Energy Outline
History and Context
Advantages
Design
Siting
Disadvantages
Economics
Project Development
Policy
Future
4
History and Context
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Wind Energy History
1 A.D.
Hero of Alexandria uses a wind machine to power an organ
~ 400 A.D.
Wind driven prayer wheels in Tibet
600 to 800
The first practical windmills were in use in Iran
1200 to 1850
Golden era of windmills in western Europe – 50,000
9,000 in Holland; 10,000 in England; 18,000 in Germany
1850’s
Multiblade turbines for water pumping made and marketed in U.S.
1882
Thomas Edison commissions first commercial electric generating stations in
NYC and London
1900
Competition from alternative energy sources reduces windmill population
to fewer than 10,000
2000 ~
The world's first operational offshore large-capacity floating wind turbine,
Hywind, became operational in the North Sea off Norway in late 2009.
By late 2011, Japan announced plans to build a multiple-unit floating wind
farm, with six 2-megawatt turbines, off the Fukushima coast of northeast 6
Japan
Increasingly Significant Power Source
coal
Wind could
petroleum
natural gas generate
nuclear
hydro 6% of
nation’s
other renewables
wind
electricity
Wind currently produces less than
1% of the nation’s power.
by 2020
Source: Energy Information Agency
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8
Manufacturing Market Share
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Source: American Wind Energy Association
US Wind Energy
U.S. Capacity
Wind Energy Capacity
10000
8000
6000
MW
4000
2000
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
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Wind Energy Projects in AC
The Arab Countries (AC) had installed wind energy:
Egypt: 550 MW
Tunisia: 750 GWh annually
Morocco: 289 MW
Source: http://www.renewablesb2b.com/ahk_egypt/en/portal/index/news/show/592e52e2b91fb7a9
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Zafarana farm, Egypt – 550MW
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Wind Atlas for Egypt
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Wind Power Advantages
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Advantages of Wind Power
Environmental
Economic Development
Fuel Diversity & Conservation
Cost Stability
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Environmental Benefits
No air pollution
No greenhouse gasses
Does not pollute water with mercury
No water needed for operations
Wind energy system operations do not generate air or water emissions and
do not produce hazardous waste. Nor do they deplete natural resources
such as coal, oil, or gas, or cause environmental damage through resource
extraction and transportation. Wind's pollution-free electricity can help
reduce the environmental damage caused by power generation.
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Pollution from Electric Power
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Economic Development Benefits
Wind farms can revitalize the economy of rural communities, providing steady income through lease or royalty
payments to farmers and other landowners.
Although leasing arrangements can vary widely, a reasonable estimate for income to a landowner from a single utility-
scale turbine is about $3,000 a year. For a 250-acre farm, with income from wind at about $55 an acre, the annual
income from a wind lease would be $14,000, with no more than 2-3 acres removed from production. Such a sum can
significantly increase the net income from farming. Farmers can grow crops or raise cattle next to the towers.
Farmers are not the only ones in rural communities to find that wind power can bring in income. In Spirit Lake, Iowa,
the local school is earning savings and income from the electricity generated by a turbine. In the district of Forest City,
Iowa, a turbine recently erected as a school project is expected to save $1.6 million in electricity costs over its
lifetime.
Additional income is generated from one-time payments to construction contractors and suppliers during installation,
and from payments to turbine maintenance personnel on a long-term basis. Wind farms also expand the local tax
base, and keep energy dollars in the local community instead of spending them to pay for coal or gas produced
elsewhere.
Finally, wind also benefits the economy by reducing "hidden costs" resulting from air pollution and health care.
Several studies have estimated that 50,000 Americans die prematurely each year because of air pollution.
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Cost Stability Benefits
Flat-rate pricing
Hedge التحوطagainst fuel price volatility risk
Wind electricity is inflation-proof واقية من التضخم
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Wind Power Design
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Power in the Wind (Watts)
A V3
= ½ × air density × swept rotor area × (wind speed)3
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Wind Energy Natural Characteristics
Wind Speed
Wind energy increases with the cube of the wind speed
10% increase in wind speed translates into 30% more
electricity
2X the wind speed translates into 8X the electricity
Height
Wind energy increases with height to the 1/7 power
1
vh2 h2 7
vh1 h1
2X the height translates into 10.4% more electricity
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Wind Energy Natural Characteristics
Air density
Wind energy increases proportionally with air density
Humid climates have greater air density than dry climates
Lower elevations have greater air density than higher
elevations
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Betz Limit
Theoretical maximum energy extraction from
wind = 16/27 = 59.3%
Undisturbed wind velocity
reduced by 1/3
Albert Betz (1928)
Betz Limit with values of
0.35-0.45
Only 10-30% of the power of
the wind is actually
converted into usable
electricity 26
Example of Wind Power
Largest wind turbines with a rotor blade
diameter of 126 m
Air density = 1.225 kg/m3
Wind speed = 14 m/s
Rotors sweep area = π x r2 = 12,470 m2
Wind Power = 0.5 x 12,470 x 1.225 x (14)3
= 21,000,000 Watts (21MW)
The turbine is rated at 5MW due to Betz Limit
Total wind power = 5MW x 8,760 hours =
= 44GWh/year 27
How Big is a 2.0 MW Wind Turbine?
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Wind Turbine Power Curve
2500
1500
1000
500
0
10 20 30 40 50
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Mile per Hour, MPH
Recent Capacity Enhancements
2006
5 MW
182m
2003
1.8 MW
2000 106m
850 kW
80m
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Nacelle Components 10
16
17
12
12
1. Hub controller 11. Blade bearing
2. Pitch cylinder 12. Blade
3. Main shaft 13. Rotor lock system
4. Oil cooler 14. Hydraulic unit
5. Gearbox 15. Machine foundation
6. Top Controller 16. Yaw gears
7. Parking Break 17. Generator
8. Service crane 18. Ultra-sonic sensors
9. Transformer 19. Meteorological gauges 31
80
60
40
20
0
1981 '83 '85 '90 '98 Year
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Wind Project Siting
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Wind Power Classes
10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft)
Wind Speed Speed
Power m/s m/s
Class (mph) (mph)
0 0
1
4.4 (9.8) 5.6 (12.5)
2
5.1 (11.5) 6.4 (14.3)
3
5.6 (12.5) 7.0 (15.7)
4
6.0 (13.4) 7.5 (16.8)
5
6.4 (14.3) 8.0 (17.9)
6
7.0 (15.7) 8.8 (19.7)
7
9.4 (21.1) 11.9 (26.6)
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Average wind power
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Siting a Wind Farm
Winds
Minimum class 4 desired for utility-scale wind farm (>7
m/s at hub height)
Transmission
Distance, voltage excess capacity
Permit approval
Land-use compatibility
Public acceptance
Visual, noise, and bird impacts are biggest concern
Land area
Economies of scale in construction
Number of landowners
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Wind Disadvantages
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Market Barriers
Siting
Avian = birds
Noise
Aesthetics
Intermittent source of power مصدرمتقطع
Transmission constraints
Operational characteristics different from
conventional fuel sources
Financing
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Wind Energy and the Grid
Pros
Small project size
Short/flexible development time
Dispatchability
Cons
Generally remote location
Grid connectivity -- lack of transmission capability
Intermittent output
Only When the wind blows (night? Day?)
Low capacity factor
Predicting the wind -- we’re getting better 40
Birds - A Serious Obstacle
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Wind Economics
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Wind Farm Design Economics
Key Design Parameters
Mean wind speed at hub height
Capacity factor
Start with 100%
Subtract time when wind speed less than optimum
Subtract time due to scheduled maintenance
Subtract time due to unscheduled maintenance
Subtract production losses
Dirty blades, shut down due to high winds
Typically 33% at a Class 4 wind site
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Wind Farm Financing
Financing Terms
Interest rate
Loan term
Up to 15 years
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Cost of Energy Components
Cost (¢/kWh) =
(Capital Recovery Cost + O&M) / kWh/year
Capital Recovery = Debt and Equity Cost
O&M Cost = Turbine design, operating
environment
kWh/year = Wind Resource
It is helpful to look at the cost of the energy produced by a wind turbine over the life of
turbine, in order to compare to other technologies, although many people acknowledge that
there are costs associated with pollution and the use of conventional fuel that are not
incorporated in the cost of energy.
To calculate the cost of energy, one should add the cost of financing the project for a year
(debt and equity costs) to the cost of operating the project for a year, and divide that by
the amount of electricity produced in the year. 46
Costs Nosedive Wind’s Success
38 cents/kWh
$0.40
$0.30
$0.20
$0.00
1980 1984 1988 1991 1995 2000 2005
The cost of producing electricity from wind energy has declined more than 80%, from
about 38 cents per kilowatt-hour in the early 80s to a current range of 3 to 6 cents per
kilowatt-hour (KWh) levelized over a plant's lifetime.
In the not-too-distant future, analysts predict, wind energy costs could fall even lower
than most conventional fossil fuel generators, reaching a cost of 2.5 cents per kWh.
This dramatic reduction in the cost of energy from wind plants can be attributed
largely to technological improvements and economies of scale achieved by
manufacturing more and larger wind turbines. 47
Construction Cost Elements
Design &
Financing & Legal Engineering
Fees 2%
3% Land
Development Transportation
Activity 2%
4%
Interconnect/
Subsation Turbines, FOB
4% USA
49%
Interest During
Construction
4%
Towers
(tubular steel)
10%
Construction
22%
100%
80%
Balance of System
Transportation
60%
Foundations
Tower
40% Control System
Drive Train Nacelle
20% Blades and Rotor
0%
750 kW 1500 kW 3000 kW
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Wind Farm Economics
Capacity factor
Start with 100%
Subtract time when wind speed < optimum
Subtract time due to scheduled maintenance
Subtract time due to unscheduled maintenance
Subtract production losses
Dirty blades, shut down due to high winds
Typically 33% at a Class 4 wind site
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Improved Capacity Factor
Performance Improvements due to:
Better siting
Larger turbines/energy capture
Technology Advances
Higher reliability
Capacity factors > 35% at good sites
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Wind Farm Economics
Key parameter
Distance from grid interconnect
≈ $350,000/mile for overhead transmission lines in
USA
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Wind Farm Economics
Example
200 MW wind farm
Fixed costs - $1.23M/MW
Class 4 wind site
33% capacity factor
10 miles to grid
6%/15 year financing
100% finance
20 year project life
Determine Cost of Energy - COE
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Wind Farm Economics
Total Capital Costs
$246M + (10 x $350K) = $249.5M
Total Annual Energy Production
200 MW x 1000 x 365 x 24 x 0.33 = 578,160,000 kWh
Total Energy Production
578,160,000 x 20 = 11,563,200,000 kWh
Capital Costs/kWh
3.3¢/kWh
Operating Costs/kWh
1.6¢/kWh
Cost of Energy – New Facilities
Wind – 4.9¢/kWh
Coal – 3.7¢/kWh
Natural gas – 7.0¢/kWh
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Wind Farm Development
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Wind Farm Development
Key parameters
Wind resource
Zoning/Public Approval/Land Lease
Power purchase agreements
Connectivity to the grid
Financing
Tax incentives
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Wind Farm Development
Wind resource
Absolutely vital to determine finances
Wind is the fuel
Requires historical wind data
Daily and hourly detail
Install metrological towers
Preferably at projected turbine hub height
Multiple towers across proposed site
Multiyear data reduces financial risk
Correlate long term offsite data to support short term
onsite data
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Wind Farm Development
Zoning/Public Approval/Land Lease
Obtain local and governmental approvals
Often includes Environmental Impact Studies
Impact to wetlands, birds
Negotiate lease arrangements with ranchers,
farmers, etc.
Annual payments per turbine or production based
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Wind Farm Development
Connectivity to the grid
Obtain approvals to tie to the grid
Obtain from grid operators
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Wind Farm Development
Financing
Once all components are settled…
Wind resource
Zoning/Public Approval/Land Lease
Power Purchase Agreements (PPA)
Connectivity to the grid
Turbine procurement
Construction costs
…Take the deal to get financed
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Financing Revenue Components
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Future Trends
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Expectations for Future Growth
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Future Cost Reductions
Financing Strategies
Manufacturing
Economy of Scale
Better Sites and
―Tuning‖ Turbines for
Site Conditions
Technology
Improvements
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Future Tech Developments
Application Specific Turbines
Offshore
Limited land/resource areas
Transportation or construction limitations
Low wind resource
Cold climates
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The Future of Wind - Offshore
•1.5 - 6 MW per turbine
•60-120 m hub height
•5 km from shore, 30 m
deep ideal
•Gravity foundation, pole, or
tripod formation
•Shaft can act as artificial
reef
•Drawbacks- T&D losses
(underground cables lead to
shore) and visual eye sore
68
Wind Energy Storage
Pumped hydroelectric
Georgetown facility – Completed 1967
Two reservoirs separated by 1000 vertical feet
Pump water uphill at night or when wind energy production exceeds
demand
Flow water downhill through hydroelectric turbines during the day or
when wind energy production is less than demand
About 70 - 80% round trip efficiency
Raises cost of wind energy by 25%
Difficult to find, obtain government approval and build new facilities
Compressed Air Energy Storage
Using wind power to compress air in underground storage caverns
Salt domes, empty natural gas reservoirs
Costly, inefficient
Hydrogen storage
Use wind power to electrolyze water into hydrogen
Store hydrogen for use later in fuel cells
50% losses in energy from wind to hydrogen and hydrogen to electricity
25% round trip efficiency
Raises cost of wind energy by 4X 69
U.S. Wind Energy Challenges
Best wind sites distant from
population centers
major grid connections
Wind variability
Can mitigate if forecasting improves
Non-firm power
Debate on how much backup generation is required
NIMBY component
Cape Wind project met with strong resistance by Cape
Cod residents
Limited offshore sites
Sea floor drops off rapidly on east and west coasts
North Sea essentially a large lake
Intermittent federal tax incentives
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Oceanic Energy
Next Week
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