November 2008

To: Nicholas A. Sabatini cc: Dan Jenkins

Associate Administrator for Aviation Safety Manager, Air Carrier Training Branch
AVS-1 AFS-210
800 Independence Avenue, SW 800 Independence Avenue, SW
FOB 10-A, Room 1000 West FOB 10-A, Room 831
Washington, DC 20591 Washington, DC 20591
cc: Greg Kirkland cc: Gloria LaRoche
Acting Manager, Air Transportation Division Aviation Safety Inspector
AFS-200 Air Carrier Training, AFS-210
800 Independence Avenue, SW 800 Independence Avenue, SW
FOB 10-A, Room 831 FOB 10-A, Room 831
Washington, DC 20591 Washington, DC 20591
Dear Mr. Sabatini:
We are pleased to provide you this “Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Revision 2”. This document
was developed in response to FAA request for us to convene an industry and government working group
to develop guidance to flight crews as it pertains to issues associated with operations, unintentional
slowdowns, and recoveries in the high altitude environment. In the interest of defining an effective
document, it has been decided to introduce this package as a supplement to the Airplane Upset Recovery
Training Aid first released in 1998. While the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid specifically
addressed airplanes with 100 seats or greater, the information in this supplement is directly applicable to
most jet airplanes that routinely operate in this environment. This supplemental information has been
inserted in the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Rev 2 completed October 2008.
As a group of industry experts, we are confident we achieved the goal of defining a reference that will be
effective to educate pilots so they have the knowledge and skill to adequately operate their airplanes and
prevent upsets in a high altitude environment. The key point is that no reference material published is of
value unless it is used. To that end, we implore the FAA to produce language to support implementation
of this material that will motivate operators to use it. Indeed, the current Airplane Upset Recovery
Training Aid serves as an excellent example of a collaborative reference produced at the insistence of the
FAA, with little endorsement or requirement for implementation. The industry result is an assortment of
products available with no standard reference. This competes against the very motivation for producing
a collaborative document in the first place.
Several recommendations have been provided to our team from the FAA certification group. We are
encouraged they continue to look at ways to improve future aircraft. We are confident this supplement
and the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid, for airplanes in service today, are effective references,
if implemented, to provide flight crews information and skills that respond to the suggestions this FAA
group are studying.
Your review and agreement to the attached Training Aid will allow us to produce and deliver it to
industry.
Sincerely,

Captain Dave Carbaugh Bob Vandel

The Boeing Company Flight Safety Foundation
Co-chair Upset Recovery Industry Team Co-chair Upset Recovery Industry Team
August 6, 2004

Dear Sir/Madam:

It is a pleasure to provide to you this “Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Revision 1”. Our goal
is to see it implemented within your organization and throughout the aviation industry. This training
tool is the culmination of a painstaking, concentrated effort of an industry and Government working
group representing a broad segment of the aviation community.

The training aid was originally released in 1998 using the same industry and Government process.
These teams were composed of both domestic and international experts representing a wide range of
knowledge and interests. This updated consensus document represents the most recent information
available on upset recovery training. We are providing this training aid to you as a means of
enhancing knowledge of, and recovery from, airplane upset situations.

The information and techniques presented in this training aid are aimed at industry solutions for large
swept-wing turbofan airplanes typically seating more than 100 passengers. Other type airplanes may
have characteristics that are different and guidance from the manufacturers of these types of airplanes
should be followed.

The training recommended in this aid was based on the capabilities of today’s modern airplanes and
simulators. It is hoped that training organizations will find this material easy to adapt to their training
programs and equipment. The modular design of the training allows the individual training
departments to use the segments that provide benefits to their organizations. The industry team
agreed that a training program that stresses academic understanding and practical simulation would
provide the individual pilot the tools necessary to recover should an upset situation occur. Today’s
modern simulators, when kept within the boundaries of valid data, provide an adequate environment
in which to perform the recommended training and exposure to upset recovery.

The incorporation of this Upset Recovery Training Aid into your training programs is strongly
recommended. In order to reduce the number of loss of control accidents we must have a consistent
industry standard of knowledge and training regarding airplane upset recovery. We hope the use of
this training aid will help us all to improve aviation safety.

Sincerely,

Captain Dave Carbaugh

The Boeing Company
Co-Chair Upset Recovery Industry Team

Captain Larry Rockliff

Airbus
Co-chair Upset Recovery Industry Team
 High Altitude Operations
Supplement #1 to the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid
Assembled by the Industry Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Team, October 5, 2008

Table of Contents
Page
Introduction..............................................................................................................................................1
High Altitude Aerodynamics....................................................................................................................2
L/D Max...................................................................................................................................................2
Weight & Balance Effects on Handling Characteristics..........................................................................6
Stalls.........................................................................................................................................................6
Altitude Exchange For Airspeed . ...........................................................................................................7
Flight Techniques of Jet Aircraft..............................................................................................................8
Additional Considerations ......................................................................................................................9
Exercise: High Altitude Stall Warning...................................................................................................11

Introduction
This document is intended to supplement the Air- recognize and prevent an impending high altitude
plane Upset Recovery Training Aid Rev 1 that was problem and increase the likelihood of a success-
released in August 2004. It addresses the issues as- ful recovery from a high altitude upset situation
sociated with operations, unintentional slowdowns, should it occur.
and recoveries in the high altitude environment.
While the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid This working group was formed as a result of the
addressed airplanes with 100 seats or greater, the United States National Transportation Safety Board
information in this document is directly applicable (NTSB) recommendations from a high altitude loss
to most all jet airplanes that routinely operate in of control accident and other recent accidents and
this environment. This information has also been incidents that have occurred under similar condi-
inserted in the Airplane Upset Recovery Train- tions. The NTSB recommendations stated that pilots
ing Aid Rev 2 completed October 2008. Consult should possess a thorough understanding of the
the operations manual for your airplane type, as airplane’s performance capabilities, limitations, and
that information takes precedent to the following high altitude aerodynamics. The guidance in this
guidance. document is intended to supplement the Airplane
Upset Recovery Training Aid in these areas.
An industry working group was formed to develop
this guidance at the request of the U.S. Department There have been other recent accidents where for
of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. various reasons (e.g. trying to top thunderstorms,
The working group consisted, in scope, of both icing equipment performance degradation, unfamil-
domestic and international organizational represen- iarity with high altitude performance, etc.) crews
tatives from the airline, manufacturer, regulatory, have gotten into a high altitude slowdown situation
industry trade, and educational segments. The goal that resulted in a stalled condition from which they
of this group was to educate pilots so they have the did not recover. There have been situations where
knowledge and skill to adequately operate their for many reasons (e.g. complacency, inappropri-
airplanes and prevent upsets in a high altitude ate automation modes, atmospheric changes, etc.)
environment. This should include the ability to crews got into situations where they received an

Supplement #1 1
SECTION 4

approach to stall warning. Some of the recoveries training aid defines high altitude as any altitude
from these warnings did not go well. This supple- above FL250.
ment is intended to discuss these possible situations,
and provide guidance on appropriate training and
recommendations for knowledge, recognition, and High Altitude Operations -Regulatory Issues
recovery. The high altitude environment has a number of
specific references within regulations. They include:
For example, a recent incident occurred where an criteria defining maximum operating altitude and
airplane experienced an environmental situation service ceilings, required high altitude training,
where airspeed slowly decayed at altitude. The flight crew member use of oxygen, passenger
crew only selected maximum cruise thrust, instead briefings, airspace issues, transponder usage, and
of maximum available thrust, and that did not arrest Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) re-
the slowdown. The crew decided to descend but quirements. Although this information is necessary
delayed to get ATC clearance. Airplane slow speed knowledge for flight crews, this document will focus
buffet started, the crew selected an inappropriate on the information necessary to prevent and recover
automation mode, the throttles were inadvertently from upsets in the high altitude environment.
reduced to idle, and the situation decayed into a
large uncontrolled altitude loss. This incident may There are a number of aerodynamic principles that
easily have been prevented had the flight crew acted are necessary to understand to have a good grasp
with knowledge of information and techniques as of high altitude performance.
contained in this supplement.

In another high altitude situation, the crew decided L/D Max

to use heading select mode to avoid weather while The lowest point on the total drag curve (as indicated
experiencing turbulence. The steep bank angle that in figure 1) is known as L/D max (or Vmd-minimum
resulted from this mode quickly caused slow speed drag speed). The speed range slower than L/D max is
buffeting. The crew’s rapid inappropriate response known as slow flight, which is sometimes referred-to
to disconnect the autopilot and over-control the as the “back side of the power-drag curve” or the
airplane into a rapid descent in poor weather ex- “region of reverse command”. Speed faster than
acerbated the situation. These real world examples L/D max is considered normal flight, or the “front
provide evidence towards the need for more detailed side of the power-drag curve”.
training in high altitude operations.
Normal flight (faster than L/D max) is inherently
stable with respect to speed. When operating in
High Altitude Aerodynamics level flight at a constant airspeed with constant
To cope with high altitude operations and prevent thrust setting, any airspeed disturbance (such as
upset conditions, it is essential to have a good turbulence) will result in the airspeed eventually
understanding of high altitude aerodynamics. This returning to the original airspeed when the total
section represents terms and issues pilots need to thrust has not changed.
understand thoroughly in order to successfully
avoid upset conditions or cope with inadvertent Slow flight (slower than L/D max) is inherently
encounters. unstable with respect to speed and thrust settings.
When operating at a constant airspeed with constant
As a purely practical matter, it is useful to identify thrust setting, any disturbance causing a decrease in
high altitude operations as those above flight level airspeed will result in a further decrease in airspeed
250 (FL250 or 25,000 feet). The great majority unless thrust is increased. As in Figure 1, the lower
of passengers and freight is now being carried in speed will subject the airplane to increased drag.
turbojet-powered airplanes, virtually all of which This increase in drag will cause a further decrease
regularly operate at altitudes above FL250 where in airspeed, which may ultimately result in a stalled
high speeds and best economy are attained. While flight condition. Flight slower than L/D max at high
aerodynamic principles and certain hazards apply altitudes must be avoided due to the inefficiency
at all altitudes, they become particularly significant and inherent instability of the slow flight speed
with respect to loss of control (or upset) at altitudes range. When operating slower than L/D max, and
above FL250. For these reasons and others, this where total drag exceeds total thrust, the airplane

2
 Figure 1.
Airspeed versus drag
in level flight

will be unable to maintain altitude and the only reference speeds.

remaining option to exit the slow flight regime is
to initiate a descent.
Optimum Altitude
External factors, such as changing winds, increased Optimum Altitude is defined as an altitude at which
drag in turns, turbulence, icing or internal factors, the equivalent airspeed for a thrust setting will
such as anti-ice use, auto-throttle rollback, or engine equal the square root of the coefficient of lift over
malfunction or failure can cause airspeed decay. the coefficient of drag. In less technical terms, it is
Heavily damped auto-throttles, designed for pas- the best cruise altitude for a given weight and air
senger comfort, may not apply thrust aggressively temperature. A dramatic increase in temperature
enough to prevent a slowdown below L/D max. will lower the optimum altitude. Therefore, when
flying at optimum altitude, crews should be aware
Slower cruising speeds are an issue. As airplanes of temperature to ensure performance capability.
are pushed to more efficient flight profiles to save
fuel, it may dictate high altitude cruising at lower
Mach numbers. The net result is the crew may Optimum Climb Speed Deviations
have less time to recognize and respond to speed Airplane manuals and flight management systems
deterioration at altitude. produce optimum climb speed charts and speeds.
When increased rates of climb are required, ensure
At all times, pilots must ensure that flight slower than speed is not decreased below L/D max. Evidence
L/D max is avoided in the high altitude environment. shows that inappropriate use of vertical speed modes
Proper flight planning and adherence to published is involved in the majority of slow speed events
climb profiles and cruise speeds will ensure that during high altitude climbs.
speeds slower than L/D max are avoided.
Thrust Limited Condition and Recovery
As an airplane climbs and cruises at high altitude,
flight crews should be aware of terms that affect Most jet transport airplanes are thrust limited,
them. rather than low speed buffet limited, at altitude,
especially in a turn. It is imperative that crews be
aware of outside temperature and thrust available.
Crossover Altitude To avoid losing airspeed due to a thrust limit, use
Crossover Altitude is the altitude at which a speci- flight management systems/reduced bank angle as a
fied CAS (Calibrated airspeed) and Mach value routine for en-route flight if it incorporates real-time
represent the same TAS (True airspeed) value. bank angle protection, or routinely select a bank
Above this altitude the Mach number is used to angle limit of 10-15 degrees for cruise flight. If a

Supplement #1 3
 condition of airspeed decay occurs at altitude, take Maneuvering Stability
immediate action to recover: For the same control surface movement at constant
• Reduce bank angle airspeed, an airplane at 35,000 ft experiences a
• Increase thrust – select maximum continuous higher pitch rate than an airplane at 5,000 ft because
thrust if the airplane’s auto-throttle system is there is less aerodynamic damping. Therefore, the
maintaining thrust at a lower limit change in angle of attack is greater, creating more
• Descend lift and a higher load factor. If the control system is
designed to provide a fixed ratio of control force to
If a high drag situation occurs where maximum elevator deflection, it will take less force to generate
available thrust will not arrest the airspeed decay, the same load factor as altitude increases.
the only available option is to descend.
An additional effect is that for a given attitude
change, the change in rate of climb is proportional
Maximum Altitude to the true airspeed. Thus, for an attitude change
Maximum altitude is the highest altitude at which for 500 ft per minute (fpm) at 290 knots indicated
an airplane can be operated. In today’s modern air speed (KIAS) at sea level, the same change in
airplanes it is determined by three basic charac- attitude at 290 KIAS (490 knots true air speed) at
teristics which are unique to each airplane model. 35,000 ft would be almost 900 fpm. This character-
It is the lowest of: istic is essentially true for small attitude changes,
such as the kind used to hold altitude. It is also
• Maximum certified altitude (structural) that is de-
why smooth and small control inputs are required
termined during certification and is usually set by
at high altitude, particularly when disconnecting
the pressurization load limits on the fuselage.
the autopilot.
• Thrust Limited Altitude – the altitude at which
sufficient thrust is available to provide a specific
Operating limits of modern transport category
minimum rate of climb.
airplanes are designed so that operations within
• Buffet or Maneuver limited altitude – the altitude
these limits will be free of adverse handling char-
at which a specific maneuver margin exists prior
acteristics. Exceeding these limits can occur for
to buffet onset.
various reasons and all modern transport airplanes
are tested to allow normal piloting skill to recover
Although each of these limits is checked by modern
these temporary exceedences back to the normal
flight management computers the available thrust
operational envelope. It is imperative to not over-
may limit the ability to accomplish anything other
react with large and drastic inputs. There is no need
than relatively minor maneuvering.
to take quick drastic action or immediately discon-
nect a correctly functioning autopilot. Pilots should
The danger in operating near these ceilings is the
smoothly adjust pitch and/or power to reduce speed
potential for the speed and angle of attack to change
should an overspeed occur.
due to turbulence or environmental factors that
could lead to a slowdown or stall and subsequent
In the high altitude flight area there is normally
high altitude upset.
adequate maneuver margin at optimum altitude.
Maneuver margin decreases significantly as the
In early turbojet era airplanes the capability to reach
pilot approaches maximum altitude. Flying near
what is called absolute ceiling or “coffin corner”
maximum altitude will result in reduced bank angle
could exist. This is where if an airplane flew any
capability; therefore, autopilot or crew inputs must
slower it would exceed its stalling angle of attack
be kept below buffet thresholds. The use of LNAV
and experience low speed buffet. Additionally, if it
will ensure bank angle is limited to respect buffet
flew any faster it would exceed Mmo, potentially
and thrust margins. The use of other automation
leading to high speed buffet.
modes, or hand flying, may cause a bank angle that
result in buffeting. When maneuvering at or near
All airplanes are equipped with some form of stall
maximum altitude there may be insufficient thrust
warning system. Crews must be aware of systems
to maintain altitude and airspeed. The airplane
installed on their airplanes (stick pushers, shakers,
may initially be within the buffet limits but does
audio alarms, etc.) and their intended function.
not have sufficient thrust to maintain the necessary
In a high altitude environment, airplane buffet is
airspeed. This is a common item in many high
sometimes the initial indicator of problems.
altitude situations where airplanes slow down to

4
the lower buffet limits. These situations can be Figure 3 shows that for normal cruise speeds there
illustrated with performance charts. is excess thrust available at this fixed weight and
altitude. When trying to turn using 30 degrees of
Figure 2 shows a typical transport category air- bank, the drag exceeds the normal maximum cruise
plane optimum and maximum altitude capability. thrust limit. If the pilot selects maximum continuous
When temperature increases the maximum altitude thrust (MCT) then there is enough thrust to maintain
capability decreases significantly. This is a situation the bank angle in the same situation.
where maneuver buffet margins are adequate but
temperature is affecting thrust capability to sustain
airspeed at the higher altitudes.

Figure 2.
Typical optimum
versus maximum
altitude

Figure 3.
Drag reduced by
bank versus
available thrust

Supplement #1 5
 Weight & Balance Effects on Handling capability charts can allow the crew to determine
Characteristics the maximum altitude that can be flown while still
respecting the required buffet margins.
Weight and Balance limitations must be respected.
An airplane that is loaded outside the weight and
At high altitudes the excess thrust available is lim-
balance envelope will not exhibit the expected level
ited. Crews must be aware that additional thrust is
of stability and will result in aircraft handling that
available by selecting maximum available/continu-
is unpredictable and may not meet certification
ous thrust at any time. However, in extreme airspeed
requirements. This is a serious issue, particularly in
decay situations MCT may be insufficient. Proper
an aft loading situation where stall recovery may be
descent techniques will be necessary in order to
severely affected. The problem may be exacerbated
prevent further airspeed decay into an approach to
at high altitude.
stall and stall situation.
At high altitude, an aft loaded airplane will be
more responsive to control pressures since it is Stalls
less stable than a forward loading. Of interest to
Fundamental to understanding angle of attack and
pilots is that the further aft an airplane is loaded,
stalls is the realization that an airplane wing can be
less effort is required by the tail to counteract the
stalled at any airspeed and any altitude. Moreover,
nose down pitching moment of the wing. The less
attitude has no relationship to the aerodynamic
effort required by the tail results in less induced
stall. Even if the airplane is in descent with what
drag on the entire airplane which results in the
appears like ample airspeed, the wing surface can
most efficient flight. Some airline load planning
be stalled. If the angle of attack is greater than the
computers attempt to load airplane as far aft as
stall angle, the surface will stall.
possible to achieve efficiency. Some advanced
airplanes use electronic controls to help improve
Most pilots are experienced in simulator or even
airplane handling with aft loading.
airplane exercises that involve approach to stall. This
is a dramatically different condition than a recovery
Mach Tuck and Mach Buffet from an actual stall because the technique is not the
In some airplanes, at speeds above Mmo, a phenom- same. The present approach to stall technique being
enon called mach tuck will occur. Above critical taught for testing is focused on “powering” out of the
Mach number the speed of an airplane at which near-stalled condition with emphasis on minimum
airflow over any part of the wing first reaches Mach loss of altitude. At high altitude this technique may
1.0 a shock wave will begin to form on the wing and be totally inadequate due to the lack of excess thrust.
mach buffet will occur. Mach buffet will continue to It is impossible to recover from a stalled condition
increase with increased speed and the aft movement without reducing the angle of attack and that will
of the shock wave, the wing’s center of pressure certainly result in a loss of altitude, regardless of
also moves aft causing the start of a nose-down how close the airplane is to the ground. Although
tendency or “tuck.” Because of the changing center the thrust vector may supplement the recovery it
of lift of the wing resulting from the movement is not the primary control. At stall angles of attack,
of the shock wave, the pilot will experience pitch the drag is very high and thrust available may be
down tendencies. In modern transport airplanes this marginal. Also, if the engine(s) are at idle, the ac-
phenomenon has been largely eliminated. celeration could be very slow, thus extending the
recovery. At high altitudes, where the available
thrust is reduced, it is even less of a benefit to the
Buffet-Limited Maximum Altitude pilot. The elevator is the primary control to recover
There are two kinds of buffet to consider in flight; from a stalled condition, because, without reducing
low speed buffet and high speed buffet. As altitude the angle of attack, the airplane will remain in a
increases, the indicated airspeed at which low speed stalled condition until ground impact, regardless
buffet occurs increases. As altitude increases, high of the altitude at which it started.
speed buffet speed decreases. Therefore, at a given
weight, as altitude increases, the margin between Effective stall recovery requires a deliberate and
high speed and low speed buffet decreases. smooth reduction in wing angle of attack. The
elevator is the primary pitch control in all flight
Proper use of buffet boundary charts or maneuver conditions, not thrust.

6
Altitude Exchange For Airspeed use anti-ice. Careful monitoring of flight conditions
Although stall angle of attack is normally constant is critical in this decision making.
for a given configuration, at high altitudes swept
wing turbojet airplanes may stall at a reduced angle Appropriate and judicious use of anti-ice equipment
of attack due to Mach effects. The pitch attitude at high altitude is very important. One must be aware
will also be significantly lower than what is expe- of the fact that the use of anti-ice has a negative
rienced at lower altitudes. Low speed buffet will effect on the available thrust. In some cases, it may
likely precede an impending stall. Thrust available not be possible to maintain cruise speed or cruise
to supplement the recovery will be dramatically altitude at high altitude with anti-ice on. Pilots
reduced and the pitch control through elevator must should also be aware of the specific flight planning
be used. The goal of minimizing altitude loss must parameters for their particular flight.
be secondary to recovering from the stall. Flight
crews must exchange altitude for airspeed. Only In-flight Icing Stall Margins
after positive stall recovery has been achieved, can
In-flight icing is a serious hazard. It destroys the
altitude recovery be prioritized.
smooth flow of air on the airplane, increasing drag,
degrading control authority and decreasing the
An airplane is stalled when the angle of attack is
ability of an airfoil to produce lift. The airplane
beyond the stalling angle. A stall is characterized
may stall at much higher speeds and lower angles
by any of, or a combination of, the following:
of attack than normal. If stalled, the airplane can
a. Buffeting, which could be heavy at times roll or pitch uncontrollably, leading to an in-flight
b. A lack of pitch authority upset situation.
c. A lack of roll control.
d. Inability to arrest descent rate. Even with normal ice protection systems operat-
ing properly, ice accretion on unprotected areas
These characteristics are usually accompanied by
of the airplane may significantly increase airplane
a continuous stall warning.
weight and drag.

Weather effects that could cause a slowdown Activation of an artificial stall warning device, such
or stall at high altitudes as a stick shaker, is typically based on a pre-set angle
of attack. This setting gives a warning prior to actual
At high altitudes the upper air currents such as the
stall onset where buffeting or shaking of the airplane
jet-stream become significant. Velocities in the jet-
occurs. For a clean airplane, the pilot has adequate
stream can be very high and can present a beneficial
warning of impending stall. However, with ice, an
tailwind or a troublesome headwind. Windshear at
airplane may exhibit stall onset characteristics be-
the boundaries of the jet-stream can cause severe
fore stick shaker activation because of the effect of
turbulence and unexpected changes in airspeed
ice formations on reducing the stall angle-of-attack.
or Mach number. This windshear, or other local
In this case, the pilot does not have the benefit of a
disturbances, can cause substantial and immediate
stick shaker or other stall warning.
airspeed decreases in cruise, as well as climb situa-
tions. If the airplane is performance limited due to
Flight crews must be especially wary of automa-
high altitude and subsequently encounters an area
tion during icing encounters. Autopilots and auto-
of decreasing velocity due to wind shear, in severe
throttles can mask the effects of airframe icing and
cases the back side of the power curve may be
this can contribute to ultimate loss of control. There
encountered. The pilot will have to either increase
have been several accidents in which the autopilot
thrust or decrease angle of attack to allow the air-
trimmed the airplane right to a stall upset situation
speed to build back to normal climb/cruise speeds.
by masking heavy control forces. If the autopilot
This may require trading altitude for airspeed to
disengages while holding a large roll command to
accelerate out of the backside of the power curve
compensate for an asymmetric icing condition (or
region if additional thrust is not available.
other similar problem causing roll), an immediate
large rolling moment ensues for which the pilot
ICING – Use of Anti-Ice on Performance may not be prepared, resulting in a roll upset. Pilots
Pilots must understand that occasionally icing does have been surprised when the autopilot automati-
occur at high altitudes and they must be prepared to cally disconnected with the airplane on the brink
of a stall.

Supplement #1 7
 Some autopilots are designed with control laws possible that due to changing conditions (increasing
that enable them to continue to operate until they temperature, mountain wave, etc.) or poor planning,
get to stick shaker. Alternatively, the autopilot may an airplane could be thrust limited and not be able
disconnect early because of excessive roll rates, roll to maintain the desired altitude and/or airspeed.
angles, control surface deflection rates, or forces Regardless, the airplane’s automatic control sys-
that are not normal. These autopilots are not mal- tem will try to maintain this altitude by increasing
functioning; they are working as designed. thrust to its selected limit. When the thrust is at the
maximum limit the pitch may continue to increase
High altitude weather can cause favorable condi- to maintain altitude and the airspeed then continues
tions for upsets. Thunderstorms, clear air turbulence, to decay. The only option then is to descend. The
and icing are examples of significant weather pilot’s action should be to pitch down and increase
that pilots should take into consideration in flight the airspeed while being in an automation mode
planning. Careful review of forecasts, significant that keeps the throttles at maximum thrust. If the
weather charts, turbulence plots are key elements in autopilot is still engaged, select a lower altitude and
avoiding conditions that could lead to an upset. use an appropriate mode to start the aircraft down.
However, if the aircraft is not responding quickly
Once established in cruise flight, the prudent crew enough you must take over manually. Pilots must
will update weather information for the destination assess the rate at which vertical speed and airspeed
and enroute. By comparing the updated information increase is occurring to make this determination.
to the preflight briefing, the crew can more accu- This does not imply that aggressive control inputs
rately determine if the forecast charts are accurate. are necessary. The autopilot can then be reengaged
Areas of expected turbulence should be carefully once the airplane is in a stable descent and the
plotted and avoided if reports of severe turbulence commanded speed has been reestablished. Do not
are received. Trend monitoring of turbulence areas attempt to override the autopilot, it is always bet-
is also important. Trends of increasing turbulence ter to disconnect it before making manual control
should be noted and if possible avoided. Avoiding inputs. Due to RVSM considerations and large
areas of potential turbulence will reduce the risk altitude losses, crews should consider turning off
of an upset. course during descents and monitoring TCAS to
reduce the potential for collisions. Crews should
also inform ATC of their altitude deviations.
Primary Flight Display Airspeed Indications
Modern airplanes that are equipped with a primary The consequences of using Vertical Speed (VS)
flight display (PFD) provide information that will at high altitude must be clearly understood. Most
help maintain a safe airspeed margin between the autoflight systems have the same logic for prioritiz-
low and high speed limits. Most of these airplanes ing flight path parameters. The fundamental aspect
have an indication of airspeed trending. This is im- of energy management is to manage speed by either
portant because these displays do not indicate if ad- elevator or with thrust. When using the VS mode
equate thrust is available at that altitude to maintain of the Auto Flight System (AFS), airplane speed is
the current airspeed. Older airplanes have charts in normally controlled by thrust. If a too high vertical
the performance section that depict adequate speed descent rate is selected the autothrottle will reduce
ranges for a given altitude and weight. thrust to idle and the airspeed will start to increase
above the commanded airspeed. The reverse situ-
ation can occur with considerable risk if an exces-
Flight Techniques of Jet Aircraft sive climb rate is selected. In that case, if the thrust
Now that we are familiar with terms and aerodynam- available is less than the thrust required for that
ics of high altitude operations, certain techniques selected vertical speed rate the commanded speed
will now be discussed that will aid in eliminating will not be able to be held and a speed decay will
high altitude upsets. result. On some airplanes, improper use of VS can
result in speed loss and eventually a stall.
Automation During High Altitude Flight Pilots must understand the limits of their airplanes
During cruise at high altitude the autopilot will be when selecting vertical modes. As a general guide-
engaged with the pitch in an altitude hold mode line, VS should not be used for climbing at high
and the throttles in a speed mode. However, it is altitudes. Reduced thrust available at high altitudes

8
means that speed should be controlled through pitch feet even in the case of an impending high altitude
and not with thrust. VS can be used for descent; stall, 4) inadequate experience with high altitude
however, selecting excessive vertical speeds can manual flight control, and 5) concern for passenger
result in airspeed increases into an overspeed con- and crew safety. While the magnitude of required
dition. Using a mode that normally reduces thrust, flight control input will vary by airplane design for
when the need arises to descend immediately, may recovery, flightcrews should be trained to expect a
not be appropriate for a low speed situation. Either longer recovery time and greater altitude loss, often
disconnect autothrottles, or use a mode that keeps thousands of feet, while the airplane accelerates to
the throttles at maximum available thrust in these gain airspeed following high altitude stall
situations.
Also, since there is no detailed checklist or procedure
telling the pilot when to start the stall recovery and
Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets how much back pressure should be used for return
The flightcrew may be startled by unexpected low to level flight after stall recovery, these techniques
airspeed stall warnings, dynamic buffeting and need to be adequately trained. For example during
large changes in airplane attitude (design depen- stall recovery, pilots gauge how assertively they
dent) especially when the airplane is on autopilot. can pull back by using stick shaker activation
While flightcrews receive training on systems to indicate when to reduce back pressure. Other
such as stick shakers to alert the pilots of impend- pilots may use angle of attack limit indications
ing stall, normally they do not receive training in on the attitude indicator (if equipped) to aid in the
actual full stall recovery, let alone stall recovery stall recovery. Pilots should also be aware that an
at high altitudes. Hence, flight crews are inclined aggressive stall recovery and subsequent altitude
to respond to high altitude stalls like they have recapture can result in a secondary stall during stall
been trained to respond to stall warnings, but the recovery as the pilot discovers the correct level of
procedures for the latter are neither effective nor control inputs required to recover the airplane. On
proper for stall recovery. Furthermore, unlike the the other side there is the concern of accelerating
conditions for which the flightcrew is trained to into high speed buffet during the recovery if the
respond to stall warnings at lower altitudes, at the airplane is allowed to accelerate too much.
higher altitudes the available thrust is insufficient,
alone, to recover from a stall. The only effective
response is to reduce the angle of attack and trade Additional Considerations
altitude for airspeed. Pilots have also reported that
low airspeed buffet was mistaken for high speed Multi-Engine Flame Out
buffet which prompts an incorrect response to At high altitudes, as a result of very low airspeed,
reduce airspeed when approaching a low airspeed stall conditions, or other occurrences an all engine
stall. As in any emergency situation, if the airplane flameout may occur. This is easily detected in
is designed with effective alerting (actual and/or cruise but may be more difficult to detect during a
artificial) and the flightcrew is adequately trained descent. The all engine flameout demands prompt
to recognize the indicators of the stall, these will action regardless of altitude and airspeed. After
lead to appropriate flight crew recovery actions as recognition, immediate accomplishment of the re-
discussed in the next paragraph. Equally important call items and/or checklist associated with the loss
is that crews be familiar with stall warning and of all engines is necessary to quickly establish the
recognition devices, such as stick pushers, in order appropriate airspeed (requires a manual pitch down)
to understand their operation. and to attempt a windmill relight. It should be noted
that loss of thrust at higher altitudes (above 30,000
Once the pilot recognizes the airplane is in a full feet) may require driftdown to a lower altitude to
aerodynamic stall, immediate corrective actions improve windmill starting capability. Additionally,
and decisions required for airplane recovery are even though the inflight start envelope is provided
sometimes delayed by the flightcrew. Some of the to identify the region where windmill starts can
reasons for the delay include 1) lack of situational occur, it is often demonstrated during certification
awareness and crew confusion, 2) anxiety associated this envelope does not define the only areas where
with altitude violations and maintaining separation a windmill start may be successful. Regardless
from other air traffic, 3) previous training emphasiz- of the conditions and status of the airplane, strict
ing prevention of altitude loss of only a few hundred adherence to the checklist is essential to maximize

Supplement #1 9
 the probability of a successful relight. Rollback
Turbine engine rollback is an uncommon anomaly
consisting of an uncommanded loss of thrust (de-
Core Lock crease in EPR or N1), which is sometimes accom-
Core lock is a phenomenon that could, in theory, panied by an increase in EGT. Rollback can be
occur in any turbine engine after an abnormal ther- caused by a combination of many events including
mal event (e.g. a sudden flameout at low airspeed) moisture, icing, fuel control issues, high angle of
where the internal friction exceeds the external attack disrupted airflow, and mechanical failure and
aerodynamic driving forces and the “core” of the usually results in flameout or core lockup. Modern
engine stops. When this occurs, differential contrac- airplanes alleviate most rollback issues with auto-
tion of the cooler outside case clamps down on the relight. Additionally, updated progressive mainte-
hotter internal components (seals, blade tips etc.) nance programs identify potential problems and
preventing rotation or “locking the core.” This help to decrease rollback events. It is conceivable
seizure may be severe enough to exceed the driving that pilots would recognize the results of rollback
force available by increasing airspeed or from the rather than the rollback event itself depending on
starter. If differential cooling locks the core, only workload and flight experience. If airspeed stagna-
time will allow the temperature difference to equal- tion occurs, checking of appropriate thrust levels
ize, reduce the contact friction caused by differential is important as well as increasing airspeed in the
contraction and allow free rotation. case where an engine has rolled back.

After all engine flameouts, the first critical item

is to obtain safe descent speed. Then flight crews High Altitude Loft Scenario
need to determine engine status. If any of the engine The following example loft scenario is recom-
spools indicate zero RPM then a situation of core mended by industry as a way of familiarizing
lock may exist or mechanical engine damage could crews with high altitude slowdowns and approach
have occurred. If this case applies to all engines, to stall. Crews should always recover at the first
crews must obtain best L/D airspeed instead of ac- indication of an impending stall. Operators may
celerating to windmill speed, to obtain an optimum want to modify this scenario for the specific airplane
glide ratio. Crews then should consider their forced models flown.
landing options. In the event the seized spool(s)
begin to rotate a relight will be contemplated and
windmill airspeed may be necessary.

10
 High Altitude Stall Warning
Lesson: High Altitude Stall Warning Performance Package: TBD
Lesson Type: Train to Proficiency Pre-Brief Time: TBD
Minimum Device: Full Flight Simulator Preparation Time: TBD
Sim Time TBD
Preparations Time: TBD
De-Brief Time: TBD
Introduction: The purpose of this LOFT training aid is to assist operators of high altitude
jet airplanes. The high altitude slowdown to an approach to stall represents
a threat that has resulted in accidents and incidents when mismanaged. This
simulator training is to assist crews in managing this threat. The exercise is not
intended to train an actual jet upset or full stall, it only has the airplane reach
the indications of an approach to stall before a recovery is initiated. Operators
should consider a number of factors to determine how realistic their simulator
will respond to this training scenario. Operators should determine the optimum
manner to set up this scenario to achieve the goals of the training.
Goals of Training: 1. Reinforce understanding of applicable high altitude characteristics
2. Assess how to determine cruise altitude capability
3. Reinforce acceptable climb techniques and acknowledge the risks associ-
ated with various climb scenarios and in particular vertical speed
4. Recognize cues of an approach to stall and indications observable prior to
that point
5. Discuss automation factors such as mode protections, hazards of split
automation (where either autopilot or autothrottle is disconnected) and
inappropriate modes
6. Address intuitive and incorrect reactions to stall warning indications
7. Develop procedures that are widely accepted to recover from impending
high altitude stall conditions with and without auto-flight systems
Introductory The crew begins this lesson in cruise flight with an airplane at an altitude of
Notes: FL250 or above in a near maximum altitude situation. The airplane weight
should be at or near the maximum for that altitude based upon company or
manufacturer’s procedures. The crew should discuss performance capability
and reference applicable resources to determine what the maximum altitude is
for the weight and environmental conditions. These references could include
cruise charts, FMS optimum and FMS maximum altitudes with various mode
protections (lateral and vertical) available. Buffet margins should be referenced
and discussed based on the altitude. Alternative climbing modes and their as-
sociated hazards should be understood. Common errors include complacency
with climb and cruise procedures as well as a lack of knowledge with cruise
charts.

Supplement #1 .11
 Setup and The simulator will then be either positioned or flown inappropriately to a situation where
Limitations: with an increase in ISA temperature will cause the airplane to be behind the power curve
due to changing ambient conditions. The early addition of maximum available thrust
should be discussed as a necessity to prevent this situation from occurring. However, in
this situation maximum thrust is not enough to keep from slowing down while maintaining
altitude. Certain airplane features, either with automation or without, may prevent an
approach to stall from occurring. However, indications of such an impending situation
should be discussed. These include airspeed trends, symbology/warning changes, low
speed indications, trim changes, etc. Auto thrust or autopilot may have to be discon-
nected to provide the approach to stall indications, but the goal should be to keep those
modes in operation if possible to simulate a real scenario. Instructors should discuss the
system degradation that results in this situation and the associated hazards. If unable to
produce desired effect, reducing thrust may be necessary.

Recognition and Brief interactive discussions of impending stall warning recovery methods followed
Recovery by an actual stall warning recovery. Instructors should ensure the crews recover at the
first indication of an approach to stall (mode reversions, aural; shaker, pusher warnings,
buffet, etc). Do not allow the airplane to stall or the situation to progress to an upset
situation because simulator realism may be compromised in this condition. Emphasis
should be placed that the recovery requires maximum thrust and the reduction of pitch
to lower the angle of attack and allowing the airplane to accelerate. At these altitudes
and weight/temperature combinations, a descent will be required. If the autoflight sys-
tems are used, appropriate modes should be used that meet the objectives of maximum
thrust and a smooth decrease in pitch and a descent to an appropriate altitude that allows
acceleration to normal and sustainable cruise speed. If manual flight is used, smooth
control inputs avoiding abrupt control actions and maximum thrust are necessary. Pilots
should be aware that with the increased true airspeed larger changes will occur for the
same amount of pitch change as used at lower altitudes. Common errors include incor-
rect recovery technique. Repeat scenario as necessary time permitting.

.12
 The crew begins this lesson in cruise flight with an airplane at an altitude of FL250 or above. The
airplane weight should be at or near the maximum for that altitude based upon company or manufac-
turer’s procedures. Ensure crew references applicable cruise charts to determine what the maximum
altitude is for the weight and environmental conditions. IOS: Instructor operating system or simulator
control panel

1. IOS»POSITION SET»FL 250 or ABOVE

2. IOS»AIRPLANE SET»
Gross weight: MAX appropriate

3. IOS»ENVIRONMENT SET»
Weather: As desired
DAY or NIGHT
29.92 or STANDARD
Winds: As desired
OAT»ISA or as initially required for scenario

Element Information / check for

• Ask crew if they can take the next higher flight level (take note of VNAV max
altitude)
• Review the use of vertical speed/ other climb modes in climbs and what are the
caveats
• Ensure crew understands how to determine MAX cruise altitude from Flight
Management System (if applicable) as well as supporting documents or manuals
Cruise Flight (e.g. Performance Manual, QRH, FCOM, etc.)
• Ensure crew understands what their buffet margin is for the current altitude and
weight combination.
• Review different scenarios leading to high altitude stalls and upset conditions. For
each scenario, review recovery procedures.
• Set or maneuver simulator to situation that is behind the power curve such that a
slowdown will occur regardless of thrust setting, with increased ISA

IOS» Take a “snap shot” or save the current phase and position of flight
if available to permit repetition of conditions and training
IOS»Increase OAT as appropriate to simulate flight into warmer conditions
• Ask crew to disengage auto thrust (only if applicable/required).
• Instructor may have remove power from certain aircraft specific systems (e.g.
flight computers) to permit aircraft to encounter a stall warning. Autopilot use
may be lost.
• Instructor may have to set thrust that produces, along with temperature increase,
a slow loss in airspeed.
Airspeed • Explain to crew how the aircraft reacts with the Autopilot on and its attempt to
Decay maintain altitude.
• Explain to crew how the aircraft reacts with the Autopilot on and its attempt to
maintain altitude.
• Point out airspeed trend and instrument indications (low speed indications/sym-
bology if applicable)
• Explain what the aircraft specific threats that will be encountered with various
automation situations (split automation, LNAV vs. heading select modes, etc.)

Supplement #1 .13
 • Explain to crew what the stall warning system uses to set off warning and in what
Stall Warning progression the alerts will take place (visual, aural, shaker, pusher, buffet, etc.).
• Make sure crew understands that recovery will begin at first level of warning.

• Crew should command a desirable (down) vertical speed into the auto-flight sys-
tem. E.g. (-1000ft/min)
• Speed should be crew selected to avoid any thrust reduction by auto-flight sys-
tem
Recovery • Ensure thrust DOES NOT reduce to idle or below desired setting
(Autoflight)
• Monitor TCAS and SCAN for traffic conflicts
• Notify ATC
• Crew should determine appropriate new cruising altitude (a descent of at least
1000 feet is recommended to achieve adequate acceleration).

Recovery
(Manual) • Crew should disengage auto-flight systems (if applicable)
• Pitch aircraft down smoothly to establish descent, AVOID ABRUPT CONTROL
INPUTS, Pilots should be aware that with the increased true airspeed larger changes
will occur for the same amount of pitch change as used at lower altitudes
• Set thrust to MAX (MAX appropriate to aircraft)
• Accelerate to appropriate airspeed
• Monitor TCAS and SCAN for traffic conflicts
• Notify ATC
• Crew should determine appropriate new cruising altitude

.14
 ABX Air, Inc.

A.M. Carter Associates

(Institute for Simulation & Training)

Air Transport Association

Airbus

Air Line Pilots Association

AirTran Airways

Alaska Airlines, Inc.

All Nippon Airways Co., Ltd.

Allied Pilots Association

Aloha Airlines, Inc.

American Airlines, Inc.

American Trans Air, Inc.

Ansett Australia

Bombardier Aerospace Training Center

(Regional Jet Training Center)

British Airways

Calspan Corporation

Cathay Pacific Airways Limited

-W
ing Turb
o
Training
pt
e Aid
fa

Sw
n

Industry Solutions for Large ore Than 100 Passengers Revision 2

Ai

la
rp

ne
M

s Ty g
pically Se at i n Cayman Airways, Ltd.

Civil Aviation House

Continental Airlines, Inc.

Delta Air Lines, Inc.

Deutsche Lufthansa AG

EVA Airways Corporation

Federal Aviation Administration

FlightSafety International

Flight Safety Foundation

Hawaiin Airlines

International Air Transport Association

Japan Airlines Co., Ltd.

Lufthansa German Airlines

Midwest Express Airlines, Inc.

National Transportation Safety Board

Northwest Airlines, Inc.

Qantas Airways, Ltd.

SAS Flight Academy

Southwest Airlines

The Boeing Company

Trans World Airlines, Inc.

United Air Lines, Inc.

Upset Doamain Training Institute

US Airways, Inc.

Rev 2_November 2008 Veridian

 Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid
Table of Contents

Section Page

Reference
Units of Measurement......................................................................................................................v
Acronyms.........................................................................................................................................v
Glossary..........................................................................................................................................vii

1 Overview for Management...........................................................................................................1.1

1.0 Introduction..............................................................................................................................1.1
1.1 General Goal and Objectives...................................................................................................1.2
1.2 Documentation Overview........................................................................................................1.2
1.3 Industry Participants................................................................................................................1.2
1.4 Resource Utilization.................................................................................................................1.3
1.5 Conclusion...............................................................................................................................1.3

2.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................2.1
2.1 Objectives...............................................................................................................................2.1
2.2 Definition of Airplane Upset..................................................................................................2.1
2.3 The Situation..........................................................................................................................2.2
2.4 Causes of Airplane Upsets......................................................................................................2.2
2.4.1 Environmentally InducedAirplane Upsets...........................................................................2.3
2.4.1.1 Turbulence.........................................................................................................................2.3
2.4.1.1.1 Clear Air Turbulence.......................................................................................................2.4
2.4.1.1.2 Mountain Wave...............................................................................................................2.4
2.4.1.1.3 Windshear.......................................................................................................................2.4
2.4.1.1.4 Thunderstorms................................................................................................................2.4
2.4.1.1.5 Microbursts.....................................................................................................................2.5
2.4.1.2 Wake Turbulence...............................................................................................................2.6
2.4.1.3 Airplane Icing....................................................................................................................2.8
2.4.2 Systems-Anomalies-Induced Airplane Upsets.....................................................................2.8
2.4.2.1 Flight Instruments..............................................................................................................2.9
2.4.2.2 Autoflight Systems.............................................................................................................2.9
2.4.2.3 Flight Control and Other Anomalies..................................................................................2.9
2.4.3 Pilot-Induced Airplane Upsets............................................................................................2.10
2.4.3.1 Instrument Cross-Check..................................................................................................2.10
2.4.3.2 Adjusting Attitude and Power..........................................................................................2.10
2.4.3.3 nattention.........................................................................................................................2.10
2.4.3.4 Distraction From PrimaryCockpit Duties........................................................................2.11
2.4.3.5 Vertigo or Spatial Disorientation.....................................................................................2.11
2.4.3.6 Pilot Incapacitation..........................................................................................................2.11
2.4.3.7 Improper Use of Airplane Automation............................................................................2.11
2.4.3.8 Pilot Techniques—PIO Avoidance/Recovery..................................................................2.12
2.4.4 Combination of Causes.......................................................................................................2.12
2.5 Swept-Wing Airplane Fundamentals for Pilots....................................................................2.12
2.5.1 Flight Dynamics.................................................................................................................2.13
2.5.2 Energy States......................................................................................................................2.13
2.5.3 Load Factor.........................................................................................................................2.14
2.5.4 Aerodynamic Flight Envelope............................................................................................2.17

.i
SECTION 1

Section Page

2.5.5 Aerodynamics.....................................................................................................................2.18
2.5.5.1 Angle of Attack and Stall.................................................................................................2.18
2.5.5.2 Camber.............................................................................................................................2.21
2.5.5.3 Control Surface Fundamentals........................................................................................2.22
2.5.5.3.1 Spoiler-Type Devices....................................................................................................2.22
2.5.5.3.2 Trim...............................................................................................................................2.23
2.5.5.4 Lateral and Directional Aerodynamic Considerations.....................................................2.24
2.5.5.4.1 Angle of Sideslip...........................................................................................................2.24
2.5.5.4.2 Wing Dihedral Effects...................................................................................................2.25
2.5.5.4.3 Pilot-Commanded Sideslip...........................................................................................2.26
2.5.5.4.4 Crossover Speed.........................................................................................................2.26
2.5.5.5 Stability............................................................................................................................2.27
2.5.5.6 Maneuvering in Pitch.......................................................................................................2.27
2.5.5.7 Mechanics of Turning Flight...........................................................................................2.29
2.5.5.8 Lateral Maneuvering........................................................................................................2.30
2.5.5.9 Directional Maneuvering.................................................................................................2.31
2.5.5.10 Flight at Extremely Low Airspeeds..............................................................................2.34
2.5.5.11 High-Altitude Characteristics.......................................................................................2.34
2.5.5.11.1 Regulatory Issues........................................................................................................2.36
2.5.5.11.2 Aerodynamic Principles of High Altitude Operations................................................2.36
2.5.5.11.2.1 L/D Max...................................................................................................................2.36
2.5.5.11.2.2 Crossover Altitude ..................................................................................................2.37
2.5.5.11.2.3 Optimum Altitude....................................................................................................2.37
2.5.5.11.2.4 Optimum Climb Speed Deviations..........................................................................2.37
2.5.5.11.2.5 Thrust Limited Condition and Recovery.................................................................2.37
2.5.5.11.2.6 Maximum Altitude...................................................................................................2.37
2.5.5.11.2.7 Maneuvering Stability.............................................................................................2.37
2.5.5.11.3 Weight & Balance Effects on Handling Characteristics.............................................2.39
2.5.5.11.4 Mach Tuck and Mach Buffet......................................................................................2.39
2.5.5.11.5 Buffet-Limited Maximum Altitude............................................................................2.39
2.5.5.11.6 Stalls...........................................................................................................................2.40
2.5.5.11.7 Icing . .........................................................................................................................2.40
2.5.5.11.8 Primary Flight Display Airspeed Indications.............................................................2.41
2.5.5.11.9 Automation During High Altitude Flight...................................................................2.41
2.5.5.11.10 Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets..................................................................2.42
2.5.5.11.11 Additional Considerations .........................................................................................2.42
2.5.5.11.11.1 Multi-Engine Flame Out..........................................................................................2.42
2.5.5.11.11.2 Core Lock................................................................................................................2.43
2.5.5.11.11.3 Rollback...................................................................................................................2.43
2.5.5.12 Flight at Extremely High Speeds.....................................................................................2.43
2.5.5.13 Defensive, Aggressive Maneuvers .................................................................................2.44
2.6 Recovery From Airplane Upsets..........................................................................................2.44
2.6.1 Situation Awareness of anAirplane Upset..........................................................................2.44
2.6.2 Miscellaneous Issues Associated With Upset Recovery....................................................2.45
2.6.2.1 Startle Factor....................................................................................................................2.45
2.6.2.2 Negative G Force.............................................................................................................2.45
2.6.2.3 Use of Full Control Inputs...............................................................................................2.46
2.6.2.4 Counter-Intuitive Factors.................................................................................................2.46
2.6.2.5 Previous Training inNonsimilar Airplanes......................................................................2.46
2.6.2.6 Potential Effects on Engines............................................................................................2.46
2.6.2.7 Post Upset Conditions......................................................................................................2.46

.ii
Section Page

2.6.3 Airplane Upset RecoveryTechniques.................................................................................2.46

2.6.3.1 Stall .................................................................................................................................2.47
2.6.3.2 Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques..............................................................2.47
2.6.3.3 Nose-Low, Wings-LevelRecovery Techniques................................................................2.48
2.6.3.4 High-Bank-AngleRecovery Techniques..........................................................................2.49
2.6.3.5 Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques.............................................2.49

3.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................3.1
3.1 Academic Training Program...................................................................................................3.1
3.1.1 Training Objectives..............................................................................................................3.2
3.1.2 Academic Training Program Modules..................................................................................3.2
3.1.3 Academic Training Syllabus.................................................................................................3.2
3.1.4 Additional Academic Training Resources............................................................................3.3
3.2 Simulator Training Program...................................................................................................3.3
3.2.1 Simulator Limitations...........................................................................................................3.3
3.2.2 Training Objectives..............................................................................................................3.4
3.2.3 Simulator Training Syllabus.................................................................................................3.4
3.2.4 Pilot Simulator Briefing........................................................................................................3.4
3.2.5 Simulator Training................................................................................................................3.5

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Syllabus.........................................................................................3.7

Simulator Training Exercises..............................................................................................................3.11

Exercise 1. Nose-High Characteristics (Initial Training)....................................................................3.13
Exercise 1. Iteration One—Use of Nosedown Elevator.....................................................................3.13
Exercise 1. Iteration Two—Use of Bank Angle..................................................................................3.14
Exercise 1. Iteration Three—Thrust Reduction (Underwing-Mounted Engines)...............................3.15
Exercise 1. Practice—Practice Using All Techniques........................................................................3.15
Exercise 2. Nose-Low Characteristics (Initial Training)....................................................................3.17
Exercise 2. Iteration One—Nose-Low Recovery...............................................................................3.17
Exercise 2. Iteration Two—Accelerated Stall Demonstration............................................................3.18
Exercise 2. Iteration Three—High Bank Angle/Inverted Flight.........................................................3.19
Exercise 3. Optional Practice Exercise...............................................................................................3.21
Exercise 3. Instructions for the Simulator Instructor..........................................................................3.21

Exercise 4: High Altitude Stall Warning.............................................................................................3.23

Recurrent Training Exercises..............................................................................................................3.26

Appendix 3-A, Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery Questions........................................App. 3-A.1

Appendix 3-B, Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing..................................................................App. 3-B.1
Appendix 3-C, Video Script: Airplane Upset Recovery..........................................................App. 3-C.1
Appendix 3-D, Flight Simulator Information..........................................................................App. 3-D.1
Appendix 3-E, High Altitude Operations Presentation............................................................. App. 3-E.i

4 References for Additional Information...................................................................................4.1

Index .............................................................................................................................................index.1

.iii
SECTION 1

.iv
 REFERENCE

Units of Measurement
° degree (temperature)
deg degree (angle)
deg/s degrees per second
ft feet
ft/min feet per minute
ft/s feet per second
hPa hectoPascal
hr hour
in inch
inHg inches of mercury
kg kilogram
kn knot
m meter
mbar millibar
mi mile
min minute
nm nautical mile
sec second

Acronyms
ADI Attitude Direction Indicator
AFM Approved Flight Manual
AGL above ground level
AOA angle of attack
ASRS Aviation Safety Reporting System
ATC air traffic control
CAT clear air turbulence
CFIT Controlled Flight Into Terrain
CG center of gravity
ECAMS Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring System
EICAS Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
GA general duration
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ILS Instrument Landing System
IMC instrument meteorological conditions
MAC mean aerodynamic chord
MSL mean sea level
NASA National Aeronautics Space Administration
NTSB National Transportation Safety Board
PF pilot flying
PFD Primary Flight Display
PIO pilot-induced oscillation
PNF pilot not flying
RTO rejected takeoff
VMC visual meteorological conditions
VSI Vertical Speed Indicator

.v
SECTION
REFERENCE1

.vi
 REFERENCE

Airplane Upset Recovery Glossary Ceiling

Certain definitions are needed to explain the con- The heights above the Earth’s surface of the lowest
cepts discussed in this training aid. Some of the layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena that are
definitions are from regulatory documents or other reported as “broken,” “overcast,” or “obscuration,”
references, and some are defined in the aid. and not classified as “thin” or “partial.”

Airplane Upset Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)

An airplane in flight unintentionally exceeding the High-level turbulence (normally above 15,000 ft
parameters normally experienced in line operations above sea level) not associated with cumuliform
or training: cloudiness, including thunderstorms.
• Pitch attitude greater than 25 deg, nose up.
• Pitch attitude greater than 10 deg, nose down.
• Bank angle greater than 45 deg. Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)
• Within the above parameters, but flying at air- An event where a mechanically normally function-
speeds inappropriate for the conditions. ing airplane is inadvertently flown into the ground,
water, or an obstacle.

Altitude (USA)
The height of a level, point, or object measured Dihedral
in feet above ground level (AGL) or from mean The positive angle formed between the lateral axis
sea level (MSL). of an airplane and a line that passes through the
a. MSL altitude — Altitude expressed in feet center of the wing.
measured from mean sea level.
b. AGL altitude — Altitude expressed in feet
measured above ground level. Energy
c. Indicated altitude— The altitude as shown The capacity to do work.
by an altimeter. On a pressure or barometric
altimeter, it is altitude as shown uncorrected
Energy State
for instrument error and uncompensated
for variation from standard atmospheric How much of each kind of energy (kinetic, poten-
conditions. tial, or chemical) the airplane has available at any
given time.
Altitude (ICAO)
The vertical distance of a level, a point, or an ob- Flight Crew or Flight Crew Member
ject considered as a point, measured from mean A pilot, first officer, flight engineer, or flight navigator
sea level. assigned to duty in an airplane during flight time.

Angle of Attack (AOA) Flight Level

Angle of attack is the angle between the oncoming A level of constant atmospheric pressure related
air or relative wind, and some reference line on to a reference datum of 29.92 inches of mercury.
the airplane or wing. This is stated in three digits that represent hundreds
of feet. For example, flight level 250 represents a
barometric altimeter indication of 25,000 ft; flight
Autoflight Systems
level 255, an indication of 25,500 ft.
The autopilot, autothrottle, and all related
systems that perform flight management and
guidance. Flight Management Systems
A computer system that uses a large database to
allow routes to be preprogrammed and fed into
Camber
the system by means of a data loader. The system
The amount of curvature evident in an airfoil is constantly updated with respect to position ac-
shape.

.vii
SECTION
REFERENCE1

curacy by reference to conventional navigation IIIB. An ILS approach procedure that provides
aids. The sophisticated program and its associated for approach without a decision height
database ensures that the most appropriate aids minimum and with runway visual range
are automatically selected during the information of not less than 150 ft.
update cycle. IIIC. An ILS approach procedure that provides
for approach without a decision height
minimum and without runway visual
Flight Path range minimum.
The actual direction and velocity an airplane
follows.
Instrument Meteorological Conditions
Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of
Flight Path Angle visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling less than
The angle between the flight path vector and the the minimums specified for visual meteorological
horizon. conditions.

Flight Recorder International Civil Aviation Organization

A general term applied to any instrument or device A specialized agency of the United Nations whose
that records information about the performance of objectives are to develop the principles and tech-
an airplane in flight or about conditions encoun- niques of international air navigation and foster
tered in flight. planning and development of international civil
air transport.

Fly-by-Wire Airplanes
Load Factor
Airplanes that have electronic flight control
systems A measure of the acceleration being experienced
by the airplane.

Instrument Landing System

Maneuver
A precision instrument approach system that nor-
mally consists of the following electronic compo- A controlled variation of the flight path.
nents and visual aids:
a. Localizer.
Mean Sea Level (MSL) Altitude
b. Glideslope. Altitude expressed in feet measured from mean
c. Outer marker. sea level.
d. Middle marker.
e. Approach lights. Mountain Wave
Severe turbulence advancing up one side of a
Instrument Landing System Categories mountain and down the other.
1. ILS Category I— An ILS approach procedure
that provides for approach to a height above
touchdown of not less than 200 ft and with run-
Newton’s First Law
way visual range of not less than 1800 ft. An object at rest will tend to stay at rest, and an object
2. ILS Category II— An ILS approach procedure in motion will tend to stay in motion in a straight
that provides for approach to a height above line, unless acted on by an external force.
touchdown of not less than 100 ft and with run-
way visual range of not less than 1200 ft.
3. ILS Category III—
Newton’s Second Law
IIIA. An ILS approach procedure that provides An object in motion will continue in a straight line
for approach without a decision height unless acted on by an external force.
minimum and with runway visual range Force = mass x acceleration
of not less than 700 ft.

.viii
 REFERENCE

Operators Visual Meteorological Conditions

The people who are involved in all operations Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of
functions required for the flight of commercial visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling equal to
airplanes. or better than specified minimums.

Pitch VMCA
Movement about the lateral axis. The minimum flight speed at which the airplane is
controllable with a maximum of 5-deg bank when
the critical engine suddenly becomes inoperative
Pitch Attitude with the remaining engine at takeoff thrust.
The angle between the longitudinal axis of the
airplane and the horizon.
Wake Turbulence
The condition in which a pair of counter-rotating
Roll vortices is shed from an airplane wing, thus causing
Motion about the longitudinal axis. turbulence in the airplane’s wake.

Sideslip Angle Windshear

The angle between the longitudinal axis of the Wind variations at low altitude
airplane and the relative wind as seen in a plan
view.
Yaw
Motion about the vertical axis
Stability
Positive static stability is the initial tendency to re-
turn to an undisturbed state after a disturbance.

Stall
An airplane is stalled when the angle of attack is
beyond the stalling angle. A stall is characterized
by any of, or a combination of, the following:
a. Buffeting, which could be heavy at times.
b. A lack of pitch authority.
c. A lack of roll control.
d. Inability to arrest descent rate.

Trim
That condition in which the forces on the airplane
are stabilized and the moments about the center of
gravity all add up to zero.

Turbulence
Turbulent atmosphere is characterized by a large
variation in an air current over a short distance.

.ix
SECTION
REFERENCE1

.x
Section 1
 SECTION 1

Overview for Management

Table of Contents

Section Page
1
1.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................1.1

1.1 General Goal and Objectives..................................................................................................1.2

1.2 Documentation Overview.......................................................................................................1.2

1.3 Industry Participants...............................................................................................................1.2

1.4 Resource Utilization...............................................................................................................1.3

1.5 Conclusion..............................................................................................................................1.3

1.i
SECTION
SECTION 11
 SECTION 1

Overview for Management

1.0 Introduction prepare pilots to recover airplanes that have been

1
Airplane manufacturers, airlines, pilot associations, upset. Airplane manufacturers have responded to
flight training organizations, and government and this by leading an industry team formed to develop
regulatory agencies have developed this training this Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid.
resource. The training package consists of this
document and a supporting video. It is dedicated The team approach to the development of training
to reducing the number of accidents caused by the has several advantages. Most issues are identified
loss of control of large, swept-wing airplanes that and discussed, and a consensus is then achieved that
results from airplane upset. Airplane upset is defined is acceptable to the aviation industry. This process
as an airplane in flight unintentionally exceeding reduces the time for development and implemen-
the parameters normally experienced in line opera- tation of training. Synergy is gained during this
tions or training. process that results in an improved product. Finally,
a training program is readily available to any opera-
While specific values may vary among airplane tor that may not have been able to produce its own
models, the following unintentional conditions program. Established programs may be improved
generally describe an airplane upset: and modified.
• Pitch attitude greater than 25 deg, nose up.
• Pitch attitude greater than 10 deg, nose down. This training aid is intended to be a comprehen-
• Bank angle greater than 45 deg. sive training package that airlines can present to
• Within the above parameters, but flying at air- their flight crews in a combination of classroom
speeds inappropriate for the conditions. and simulator programs. It is structured to be a
baseline tool to incorporate into existing programs
Accidents that result from loss of airplane control or to customize by the operator to meet its unique
have been and continue to be a major contributor requirements.
to fatalities in the worldwide commercial aviation
industry. Industry statistical analysis indicates there There will be additional costs associated with
were 22 in-flight, loss-of-control accidents between airplane upset recovery training; however, it is
1998 and 2007.1 These accidents resulted in more anticipated that the return on investment will be a
than 2051 fatalities. Data also suggests there are reduction in airplane accidents. An operator will
an even larger number of “incidents” where air- find the implementation of this training package to
planes were upset. There were many reasons for be principally a change in emphasis, not a replace-
the control problems; problems have been attrib- ment of existing syllabi. Some of the training may
uted to environment, equipment, and pilots. These be conducted in conjunction with existing training
data suggest that pilots need training to cope with requirements, which may reduce the additional
airplane upsets. Research by some operators has costs. Except in unique instances where training
indicated that most airline pilots rarely experience devices may need upgrading to address significant
airplane upsets during their line flying careers. preexisting limitations, there should be virtually no
It has also indicated that many pilots have never hardware costs associated with this upset recovery
been trained in maximum-performance airplane training.
maneuvers, such as aerobatic maneuvers, and those
pilots who have been exposed to aerobatics lose Airplane upsets happen for a variety of reasons.
their skills over time. Some are more easily prevented than others.
Improvement in airplane design and equipment
Several operators have reacted to this situation by de- reliability continues to be a goal of airplane
veloping and implementing pilot training programs manufacturers and others. The industry has seen
that include academic and simulator training. Some improvements to the point that airplane upsets
government regulatory agencies are encouraging happen so infrequently that pilots are not always
airlines to provide education and training to better prepared or trained to respond correctly. Airplane

1. Source: “Statistical Summary of Commercial Jet Airplane Accidents, Worldwide Operations, 1998–2007,” Airplane
Safety Engineering, Boeing Commercial Airplane Group (Seattle, Washington, USA: July 2008).
1.1
SECTION 1

upsets that are caused by environmental factors are of flight dynamic fundamentals for recovering an
difficult to predict; therefore, training programs airplane that has been upset. The guide is a highly
stress avoidance of such phenomena, but this is readable, concise treatment of pilot issues, written
not always successful. The logical conclusion is by pilots—for pilots. It is intended for self-study
that pilots should be trained to safely recover an or classroom use.
airplane that has been upset. For this training to be
implemented, it needs to be supported by the top Section 3. The “Example Airplane Upset Recov-
management within all airplane operators. Many ery Training Program” is a stand-alone resource
operators are now conducting Airplane Upset Re- designed to serve the needs of a training depart-
covery Training. The unanimous consensus from ment. An example academic training program and
operations and training managers indicates this a simulator training program are both included.
training better prepares crews for these uninten- Academic training provides pilots with the founda-
tional situations. tion for avoiding airplane upsets that are within their
control and also provides information about flight
dynamics associated with airplane recovery. The
1.1 General Goal and Objectives flight simulator scenarios are designed to provide
The goal of the Airplane Upset Recovery Training the opportunity for pilots to apply the knowledge
Aid is to increase the pilot’s ability to recognize and gained in the academic program and improve their
avoid situations that can lead to airplane upsets and skills in recovery from airplane upset.
improve the pilot’s ability to recover control of an
airplane that has exceeded the normal flight regime. Section 4. This section consists of references for
This can be accomplished by increasing awareness additional reading on subjects associated with
of potential upset situations and knowledge of flight airplane upsets and recovery.
dynamics and by the application of this knowledge
during simulator training scenarios. Video Program. Airplane Upset Recovery is
intended for use in an academic program in con-
Objectives to support this goal include the fol- junction with the “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset
lowing: Recovery.”
a. Establishment of an industrywide consensus
on a variety of effective training methods for CD-ROM. Document and video.
pilots to recover from airplane upsets.
b. Development of appropriate educational
materials. 1.3 Industry Participants
c. Development of an example training program, The following organizations participated in the
providing a basis from which individual opera- development of this training aid:
tors may develop tailored programs.
ABX Air, Inc.
A.M. Carter Associates
(Institute for Simulation & Training)
1.2 Documentation Overview
Air Transport Association
In addition to the Overview for Management, the
Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid package Airbus
consists of the following: Air Line Pilots Association
a. Section 2: “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset AirTran Airways
Recovery.” Alaska Airlines, Inc.
b. Section 3: “Example Airplane Upset Recovery All Nippon Airways Co., Ltd.
Training Program.” Allied Pilots Association
c. Section 4: “References for Additional Infor-
Aloha Airlines, Inc.
mation.”
d. Video: Airplane Upset Recovery. American Airlines, Inc.
American Trans Air, Inc.
Section 2. The “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Ansett Australia
Recovery” briefly reviews the causes of airplane Bombardier Aerospace Training Center
upsets; fundamental flight dynamics of flight for (Regional Jet Training Center)
large, swept-wing airplanes; and the application British Airways

1.2
 SECTION 1

Calspan Corporation and efficient program.

Cathay Pacific Airways Limited
Cayman Airways, Ltd. The allocation of training time within recurrent
Civil Aviation House and transition programs will vary from operator
to operator.
Continental Airlines, Inc.
Delta Air Lines, Inc.
Deutsche Lufthansa AG 1.5 Conclusion
EVA Airways Corporation This document and video are designed to assist
Federal Aviation Administration operators in creating or updating airplane upset
FlightSafety International recovery training programs. While this training aid
Flight Safety Foundation stresses the importance of avoiding airplane upsets,
those upsets that are caused by the environment
Hawaiin Airlines
or airplane equipment failures can be difficult, if
International Air Transport Association not impossible, for the pilot to avoid. Therefore,
Japan Airlines Co., Ltd. management is encouraged to take appropriate
Lufthansa German Airlines steps to ensure that an effective airplane upset re-
Midwest Express Airlines, Inc. covery training program is in place for pilots. The
National Transportation Safety Board reduction of loss-of-control accidents is a targeted
Northwest Airlines, Inc. meaningful improvement in aviation safety. Results
Qantas Airways, Ltd. can be gained by training in this area. In competi-
tion with other items demanding resources, such
SAS Flight Academy
as security, safety should always be considered
Southwest Airlines paramount to success.
The Boeing Company
Trans World Airlines, Inc.
United Air Lines, Inc.
Upset Doamain Training Institute
US Airways, Inc.
Veridian

Many meetings were held, during which consensus

was gained among the participants concerning the
goal and objectives for the training aid. Several
review cycles were conducted, in which comments
and recommendations were considered for inclusion
in the final material.

1.4 Resource Utilization

This document has been designed to be of maximum
utility, both in its current form and as a basis for
an operator to design or modify an airplane upset
program as it sees fit.

Both academic and practical simulator training

should be employed to achieve a well-balanced,
effective training program. For some operators, the
adoption of the Airplane Upset Recovery Training
Aid into their existing training programs may not
entail much change. For those operators that are
in the process of creating a complete training pro-
gram, the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid
will readily provide the foundation of a thorough

1.3
SECTION 1

1.4
Section 2
 SECTION 2

Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery

Table of Contents

Section Page
2
2.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................2.1

2.1 Objectives...............................................................................................................................2.1

2.2 Definition of Airplane Upset..................................................................................................2.1

2.3 The Situation..........................................................................................................................2.2

2.4 Causes of Airplane Upsets......................................................................................................2.2

2.4.1 Environmentally InducedAirplane Upsets.........................................................................2.3
2.4.1.1 Turbulence.......................................................................................................................2.3
2.4.1.1.1 Clear Air Turbulence....................................................................................................2.4
2.4.1.1.2 Mountain Wave............................................................................................................2.4
2.4.1.1.3 Windshear....................................................................................................................2.4
2.4.1.1.4 Thunderstorms.............................................................................................................2.4
2.4.1.1.5 Microbursts..................................................................................................................2.5
2.4.1.2 Wake Turbulence.............................................................................................................2.6
2.4.1.3 Airplane Icing..................................................................................................................2.8
2.4.2 Systems-Anomalies-Induced Airplane Upsets...................................................................2.8
2.4.2.1 Flight Instruments...........................................................................................................2.9
2.4.2.2 Autoflight Systems..........................................................................................................2.9
2.4.2.3 Flight Control and Other Anomalies...............................................................................2.9
2.4.3 Pilot-Induced Airplane Upsets..........................................................................................2.10
2.4.3.1 Instrument Cross-Check................................................................................................2.10
2.4.3.2 Adjusting Attitude and Power.......................................................................................2.10
2.4.3.3 Inattention.2.10
2.4.3.4 Distraction From PrimaryCockpit Duties.....................................................................2.11
2.4.3.5 Vertigo or Spatial Disorientation...................................................................................2.11
2.4.3.6 Pilot Incapacitation........................................................................................................2.11
2.4.3.7 Improper Use of Airplane Automation..........................................................................2.11
2.4.3.8 Pilot Techniques—PIO Avoidance/Recovery................................................................2.12
2.4.4 Combination of Causes.....................................................................................................2.12

2.5 Swept-Wing Airplane Fundamentals for Pilots....................................................................2.12

2.5.1 Flight Dynamics...............................................................................................................2.13
2.5.2 Energy States....................................................................................................................2.13
2.5.3 Load Factor.......................................................................................................................2.14
2.5.4 Aerodynamic Flight Envelope..........................................................................................2.17
2.5.5 Aerodynamics...................................................................................................................2.18
2.5.5.1 Angle of Attack and Stall..............................................................................................2.18
2.5.5.2 Camber..........................................................................................................................2.21
2.5.5.3 Control Surface Fundamentals......................................................................................2.22
2.5.5.3.1 Spoiler-Type Devices.................................................................................................2.22
2.5.5.3.2 Trim...........................................................................................................................2.23
2.5.5.4 Lateral and Directional Aerodynamic Considerations..................................................2.24
2.5.5.4.1 Angle of Sideslip.......................................................................................................2.24
2.5.5.4.2 Wing Dihedral Effects...............................................................................................2.25
2.5.5.4.3 Pilot-Commanded Sideslip........................................................................................2.26

2.i
SECTION 2
SECTION 1

Section Page
2.5.5.4.4 Crossover Speed........................................................................................................2.26
2.5.5.5 Stability.........................................................................................................................2.27
2.5.5.6 Maneuvering in Pitch....................................................................................................2.27
2.5.5.7 Mechanics of Turning Flight.........................................................................................2.29
2.5.5.8 Lateral Maneuvering.....................................................................................................2.30
2.5.5.9 Directional Maneuvering...............................................................................................2.31
2.5.5.10 Flight at Extremely Low Airspeeds...............................................................................2.34
2.5.5.11 High-Altitude Characteristics........................................................................................2.34
2.5.5.11.1 Regulatory Issues.......................................................................................................2.36
2.5.5.11.2 Aerodynamic Principles of High Altitude Operations...............................................2.36
2.5.5.11.2.1 L/D Max.................................................................................................................2.36
2.5.5.11.2.2 Crossover Altitude .................................................................................................2.37
2.5.5.11.2.3 Optimum Altitude...................................................................................................2.37
2.5.5.11.2.4 Optimum Climb Speed Deviations.........................................................................2.37
2.5.5.11.2.5 Thrust Limited Condition and Recovery................................................................2.37
2.5.5.11.2.6 Maximum Altitude..................................................................................................2.37
2.5.5.11.2.7 Maneuvering Stability............................................................................................2.37
2.5.5.11.3 Weight & Balance Effects on Handling Characteristics............................................2.39
2.5.5.11.4 Mach Tuck and Mach Buffet.....................................................................................2.39
2.5.5.11.5 Buffet-Limited Maximum Altitude............................................................................2.39
2.5.5.11.6 Stalls..........................................................................................................................2.40
2.5.5.11.7 Icing ..........................................................................................................................2.40
2.5.5.11.8 Primary Flight Display Airspeed Indications............................................................2.41
2.5.5.11.9 Automation During High Altitude Flight..................................................................2.41
2.5.5.11.10 Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets.................................................................2.42
2.5.5.11.11 Additional Considerations ........................................................................................2.42
2.5.5.11.11.1 Multi-Engine Flame Out.........................................................................................2.42
2.5.5.11.11.2 Core Lock...............................................................................................................2.43
2.5.5.11.11.3 Rollback..................................................................................................................2.43
2.5.5.12 Flight at Extremely High Speeds..................................................................................2.43
2.5.5.13 Defensive, Aggressive Maneuvers................................................................................2.44

2.6 Recovery From Airplane Upsets..........................................................................................2.44

2.6.1 Situation Awareness of anAirplane Upset........................................................................2.44
2.6.2 Miscellaneous Issues Associated With Upset Recovery..................................................2.45
2.6.2.1 Startle Factor.................................................................................................................2.45
2.6.2.2 Negative G Force..........................................................................................................2.45
2.6.2.3 Use of Full Control Inputs.............................................................................................2.46
2.6.2.4 Counter-Intuitive Factors..............................................................................................2.46
2.6.2.5 Previous Training inNonsimilar Airplanes....................................................................2.46
2.6.2.6 Potential Effects on Engines..........................................................................................2.46
2.6.2.7 Post Upset Conditions...................................................................................................2.46
2.6.3 Airplane Upset RecoveryTechniques...............................................................................2.46
2.6.3.1 Stall................................................................................................................................2.47
2.6.3.2 Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques...........................................................2.47
2.6.3.3 Nose-Low, Wings-LevelRecovery Techniques.............................................................2.48
2.6.3.4 High-Bank-AngleRecovery Techniques........................................................................2.49
2.6.3.5 Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques...........................................2.49

2.ii
 SECTION 2

Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery

2.0 Introduction 2.2 Definition of Airplane Upset

2
The “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery” is Research and discussions within the commercial
one part of the Airplane Upset Recovery Training aviation industry indicated that it was necessary
Aid. The other parts include an “Overview for to establish a descriptive term and definition in
Management” (Sec. 1), “Example Airplane Upset order to develop this training aid. Terms such as
Recovery Training Program” (Sec. 3), “Refer- “unusual attitude,” “advanced maneuver,” “se-
ences for Additional Information” (Sec. 4), and a lected event,” “loss of control,” “airplane upset,”
two-part video. and others are terms used within the industry. The
team decided that “airplane upset” was appropriate
The goal of this training aid is to increase the abil-
for this training aid. It is important to be clear on
ity of pilots to recognize and avoid situations that
two factors. First is the notion of unintentional. In
can lead to airplane upsets and to improve their
other words, the aircraft is not doing what it was
ability to recover control of an airplane that has
being commanded to do and is approaching unsafe
exceeded the normal flight regime. This will be
parameters. Second is the fact that a pilot must not
accomplished by increasing awareness of potential
wait until the airplane is in a fully developed and
upset situations and knowledge of aerodynamics and
definable upset before taking corrective action to
by application of this knowledge during simulator
return to stabilized flight path parameters. Therefore,
training scenarios.
in order to identify acceptable references that define
The education material and the recommendations a developed upset condition, the following values
provided in the Airplane Upset Recovery Training were agreed upon. An airplane upset is defined as
Aid were developed through an extensive review an airplane in flight unintentionally exceeding the
process by a large industry group in order to achieve parameters normally experienced in line operations
a consensus of the air transport industry. or training. In other words, the airplane is not doing
what it was commanded to do and is approaching
Because of the infinite variables that comprise
unsafe parameters.
upset situations, the industry group unanimously
agrees that airplane upset recovery education must
While specific values may vary among airplane
not include simulator testing criteria. By definition,
models, the following unintentional conditions
testing implies procedure demonstration and objec-
generally describe an airplane upset:
tive assessment of performance. The goal of upset
• Pitch attitude greater than 25 deg, nose up.
recovery is to regain aircraft flight path control. A
• Pitch attitude greater than 10 deg, nose down.
testing environment could lead to similar negative
• Bank angle greater than 45 deg.
learning conclusions that can currently exist with
• Within the above parameters, but flying at air-
approach to stall performance when measured
speeds inappropriate for the conditions.
against minimum loss of altitude.
It should be emphasized that recovery to a sta-
2.1 Objectives bilized flight path should be initiated as soon as
The objectives of the “Pilot Guide to Airplane a developing upset condition is recognized. The
Upset Recovery” are to provide pilots with amount and rate of control input to counter a de-
• Knowledge to recognize situations that may lead to veloping upset must be proportional to the amount
airplane upsets so that they may be prevented. and rate of pitch, roll and/or yaw experienced. This
• Basic airplane aerodynamic information. preventive action may alleviate what might have
• Airplane flight maneuvering information and become a more serious event.
techniques for recovering airplanes that have
been upset.
It is intended that this information be provided
to pilots during academic training and that it be
retained for future use.

2.1
 SECTION 2

2.3 The Situation 2.4 Causes of Airplane Upsets

The commercial aviation industry has not specifi- Airplane upsets are not a common occurrence.
cally tracked airplane upset incidents that meet this This may be for a variety of reasons. Airplane
training aid’s precise definition; therefore, safety design and certification methods have improved.
data do not directly correlate to the upset parameters Equipment has become more reliable. Perhaps
established for this training aid. However, the data training programs have been effective in teach-
that are available suggest that loss of control is a ing pilots to avoid situations that lead to airplane
problem that deserves attention. Figure 1 shows upsets. While airplane upsets seldom take place,
that loss of control in flight accounted for many there are a variety of reasons why they happen.
fatalities during the indicated time period. Figure 2 shows incidents and causes from NASA
Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) reports.
The National Transportation Safety Board analysis
of 20 transport-category loss-of-control accidents
from 1986 to 1996 indicates that the majority were
caused by the airplane stalling (Fig. 3). This section
provides a review of the most prevalent causes for
airplane upsets.

Figure 1 103
Worldwide Commercial 2,131
Jet Fleet Fatalities Total fatalities: 7492
Classified by 2003 fatalities = 484 (483 onboard)
Type of Event, 121
1994 to 2003 1,701

Fatalities

420
339
119
231 225 192
139 121 1
244
85 37 29 12 3 2
Loss of CFIT* Mid- In- Fuel Structure Takeoff Landing Runway Wind- Misc. Fuel RTO** Turbulence Unknown
control air flight tank configuration incursion shear fatality exhaustion
in flight collision fire explotion

Number
of fatal 32 24 2 2 2 1 3 16 3 1 8 3 1 2 5
accidents
(105 total)
* CFIT = Controlled Flight Into Terrain Note: Accidents involving multiple, non-onboard fatalities are included.
** RTO = Refused Takeoff Accidents involving single. non-onboard fatalities are excluded.
Fatalities/accidents are placed in one category only.

2.2
 SECTION 2

2.4.1 Environmentally Induced 2.4.1.1 Turbulence

Airplane Upsets “Turbulence, when extreme, can lead to airplane
The predominant number of airplane upsets are upsets, and/or structural damage. These incidents
caused by various environmental factors (Fig. 2). of turbulence can cause large airspeed, altitude, or
Unfortunately, the aviation industry has the least attitude deviations. The aircraft may be momentarily
amount of influence over the environment when out of control. Severe or extreme turbulence can
compared to human factors or airplane-anomaly- be associated with CAT (Clear Air Turbulence),
caused upsets. The industry recognizes this dilemma mountain waves, windshear, thunderstorms, and
and resorts to training as a means for avoiding envi- wake turbulence.” 2
ronmental hazards. Separate education and training
aids have been produced through an industry team Turbulent atmosphere is characterized by a large
process that addresses turbulence, windshear, and variation in an air current over a short distance.
wake turbulence. The main causes of turbulence are jet streams,
convective currents, obstructions to wind flow,
Avoidance of environmentally induced upsets and windshear. Turbulence is categorized as
is the best course of action. Pilots should monitor “light,” “moderate,” “severe,” and “extreme.”
the environmental conditions and avoid high risk Refer to an industry-produced Turbulence Educa-
situations. tion and Training Aid for more information about
80

72 Figure 2
72 Multiengine Turbojet
64 Loss-of-Control
56 335 citations based on 416 incidents Incidents,
January 1996 to
48
54 August 2002, ASRS
Number 47
of 40
42
citations
32 34 33
24

16 20
17
8 10
6
0
Wake Severe Autopilot Windshear Aircraft Flaps Aileron Rudder Yaw Microburst
turbulence weather icing Damper
•Data references ASRS reports that have received full-form analysis and include the reporters' narrative.
•Categories are not mutually exclusive; therefore, a single incident may be coded by ASRS analysts as
involving more than one citation. As an example, a pilot may experrience severe weather, wake
turbulence, and icing in the same incident.
•Data are based on inflight loss of aircraft control reports containing any reference to those categories
in the reporters' narratives.

Figure 3
6 Loss-of-Control
Accidents (Transport
Number Category)
of 4
accidents

0
Stall Flight controls/ Icing Microburst Crew Other/
systems/structure disorientation unknown
Causes of loss-of-control accidents, 1986 to 1996

2. Source: Turbulence Education and Training Aid, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Air
Transport Association of America, The Boeing Company, National Technical Information Services (Seattle, Washington,
USA: May 1997).
2.3
SECTION 2

turbulence. This aid is available from the National Severe turbulence is defined as that which causes
Technical Information Service or The Boeing large, abrupt changes in altitude or attitude. It usu-
Company. Only limited information is presented ally causes large variation in indicated airspeed.
in this section for a short review of the subject. The airplane may be momentarily out of control.
Knowledge of the various types of turbulence as- Severe turbulence can be expected in mountainous
sists in avoiding it and, therefore, the potential for areas where wind components exceeding 50 kn are
an airplane upset. perpendicular to and near the ridge level; in and near
developing and mature thunderstorms; occasionally,
In one extreme incident, an airplane encountered in other towering cumuliform clouds; within 50
severe turbulence that caused the number 2 engine to 100 mi on the cold side of the center of the jet
to depart the airplane. The airplane entered a roll 50 stream; in troughs aloft; and in lows aloft where
deg left, followed by a huge yaw. Several pitch and vertical windshears exceed 10 kn per 1000 ft and
roll oscillations were reported. The crew recovered horizontal windshears exceed 40 kn per 150 nm.
and landed the airplane.
Extreme turbulence is defined as that in which
the airplane is violently tossed around and practi-
2.4.1.1.1 Clear Air Turbulence cally impossible to control. It may cause struc-
Clear air turbulence (CAT) is defined by the tural damage. Extreme turbulence can be found
Aeronautical Information Manual as “high-level in mountain-wave situations, in and below the
turbulence (normally above 15,000 ft above sea level of well-developed rotor clouds, and in severe
level) not associated with cumuliform cloudiness, thunderstorms.
including thunderstorms.”

Although CAT can be encountered in any layer of 2.4.1.1.3 Windshear

the atmosphere, it is almost always present in the Wind variations at low altitude have long been
vicinity of jet streams. A number of jet streams recognized as a serious hazard to airplanes dur-
(high-altitude paths of winds exceeding velocities ing takeoff and approach. These wind variations
of 75 to 100 kn) may exist at any given time, and can result from a large variety of meteorological
their locations will vary constantly. CAT becomes conditions, such as topographical conditions, tem-
particularly difficult to predict as it is extremely perature inversions, sea breezes, frontal systems,
dynamic and does not have common dimensions strong surface winds, and the most violent forms
of area or time. In general, areas of turbulence of wind change—thunderstorms and rain showers.
associated with a jet stream are from 100 to 300 Thunderstorms and rain showers may produce
mi long, elongated in the direction of the wind; 50 an airplane upset, and they will be discussed in
to 100 mi wide; and 2000 to 5000 ft deep. These the following section. The Windshear Training
areas may persist from 30 min to 1 day. CAT near Aid provides comprehensive information on
the jet stream is the result of the difference in windshear avoidance and training. This aid is
wind- speeds and the windshear generated between available from the National Technical Information
points. CAT is considered moderate when the ver- Service or The Boeing Company.
tical windshear is 5 kn per 1000 ft or greater and
the horizontal shear is 20 kn per 150 nm, or both.
Severe CAT occurs when the vertical shear is 6 kn 2.4.1.1.4 Thunderstorms
per 1000 ft and the horizontal shear is 40 kn per There are two basic types of thunderstorms: airmass
150 nm or greater, or both. and frontal. Airmass thunderstorms appear to be
randomly distributed in unstable air, and they de-
velop from localized heating at the Earth’s surface
2.4.1.1.2 Mountain Wave (Fig. 4). The heated air rises and cools to form
Mountains are the greatest obstructions to wind flow. cumulus clouds. As the cumulus stage continues to
This type of turbulence is classified as “mechanical” develop, precipitation forms in high portions of the
because it is caused by a mechanical disruption of cloud and falls. Precipitation signals the beginning
wind. Over mountains, rotor or lenticular clouds of the mature stage and the presence of a downdraft.
are sure signs of turbulence. However, mechani- After approximately an hour, the heated updraft
cal turbulence may also be present in air too dry creating the thunderstorm is cut off by rainfall. Heat
to produce clouds. Light to extreme turbulence is is removed and the thunderstorm dissipates. Many
created by mountains. thunderstorms produce an associated cold- air gust

2.4
 SECTION 2

front as a result of the downflow and outrush of the heated updraft, permitting a much longer storm
rain-cooled air. These gust fronts are usually very development period. Resulting airflows within the
turbulent, and they can create a serious airplane storm accelerate to much higher vertical velocities,
upset, especially during takeoff and approach. which ultimately results in higher horizontal wind
velocities at the surface. The downward moving
Frontal thunderstorms are usually associated with column of air, or downdraft, of a typical thunder-
weather systems line fronts, converging wind, and storm is fairly large, about 1 to 5 mi in diameter.
troughs aloft (Fig. 5). Frontal thunderstorms form in Resultant outflows may produce large changes in
squall lines; last several hours; generate heavy rain, windspeed.
and possibly hail; and produce strong gusty winds,
and possibly tornadoes. The principal distinction
in formation of these more severe thunderstorms 2.4.1.1.5 Microbursts
is the presence of large, horizontal wind changes Identification of concentrated, more powerful
(speed and direction) at different altitudes in the downdrafts—known as microbursts—has resulted
thunderstorm. This causes the severe thunderstorm from the investigation of windshear accidents and
to be vertically tilted. Precipitation falls away from from meteorological research. Microbursts can oc-

Dissipating stage
Mature stage
Figure 4
Airmass
Thunderstorm
Life Cycle
Cumulus stage

Gust
front

Rain Light rain

Localized surface = Airflow/circulation Surface cooling

heating

Anvil Figure 5
Severe Frontal
Updraft Thunderstorm
Anatomy
Wind
Downdraft

Airflow
circulation

Heavy rain
and hail

Surface heating

2.5
SECTION 2

cur anywhere convective weather conditions occur. It is vital to recognize that some microbursts
Observations suggest that approximately 5% of all cannot be successfully escaped with any known
thunderstorms produce a microburst. Downdrafts techniques.
associated with microbursts are typically only a
few hundred to 3000 ft across. When a downdraft
reaches the ground, it spreads out horizontally and 2.4.1.2 Wake Turbulence
may form one or more horizontal vortex rings around Wake turbulence is the leading cause of airplane
the downdraft (Fig. 6). Microburst outflows are not upsets that are induced by the environment.
always symmetric. Therefore, a significant airspeed However, a wake turbulence penetration does not
increase may not occur upon entering outflows, or necessarily mean an airplane will become upset.
it may be much less than the subsequent airspeed The phenomenon that creates wake turbulence
loss experienced when exiting the microburst. Wind- results from the forces that lift the airplane. High-
speeds intensify for about 5 min after a microburst pressure air from the lower surface of the wings
initially contacts the ground and typically dissipate flows around the wingtips to the lower pressure
within 10 to 20 min after ground contact. region above the wings. A pair of counterrotating
vortices are thus shed from the wings: the right

Figure 6
Symmetric
Microburst—An
airplane transiting
the microburst
would experience
equal headwinds Cloud Base
and tailwinds.

Virga or Downdraft
rain
Outflow
front
Horizontal
vortex

1000 ft
Approximate
scale
0 1000 ft

Outflow

2.6
 SECTION 2

wing vortex rotates counterclockwise, and the left An encounter with wake turbulence usually results
wing vortex rotates clockwise (Fig. 7). The region in induced rolling or pitch moments; however, in
of rotating air behind the airplane is where wake rare instances an encounter could cause structural
turbulence occurs. The strength of the turbulence damage to the airplane. In more than one instance,
is determined predominantly by the weight, wing- pilots have described an encounter to be like “hit-
span, and speed of the airplane. Generally, vortices ting a wall.” The dynamic forces of the vortex can
descend at an initial rate of about 300 to 500 ft/min exceed the roll or pitch capability of the airplane to
for about 30 sec. The descent rate decreases and overcome these forces. During test programs, the
eventually approaches zero at between 500 and wake was approached from all directions to evaluate
900 ft below the flight path. Flying at or above the the effect of encounter direction on response. One
flight path provides the best method for avoidance. item was common to all encounters: with little to
Maintaining a vertical separation of at least 1000 ft no control input from the pilot, the airplane would
when crossing below the preceding aircraft may be be expelled from the wake and an airplane upset
considered safe. This vertical motion is illustrated could result.
in Figure 8. Refer to the Wake Turbulence Train-
ing Aid for comprehensive information on how to Opposing the roll moment using normal roll control
avoid wake turbulence. This aid is available from (aileron and roll spoiler) is usually effective and
the National Technical Information Service or The induced roll is minimal in cases where the wingspan
Boeing Company. and ailerons of the encountering airplane extend

Figure 7
Wake Turbulence
Formation

Flight path Figure 8

Vertical Motion Out
of Ground Effect
500 to 900 ft

Levels off in approximately

5 nm in approach configuration

2.7
SECTION 2

beyond the rotational flowfield of the vortex (Fig. 9). 2.4.2 Systems-Anomalies-Induced Air-
It is more difficult for airplanes with short wingspan plane Upsets
(relative to the generating airplane) to counter the
Airplane designs, equipment reliability, and flight
imposed roll induced by the vortex flow.
crew training have all improved since the Wright
brothers’ first powered flight. Airplane certification
Avoiding wake turbulence is the key to avoiding
processes and oversight are rigorous. Airlines and
many airplane upsets. Pilot and air traffic control
manufacturers closely monitor equipment failure
procedures and standards are designed to accom-
rates for possible redesign of airplane parts or modi-
plish this goal, but as the aviation industry expands,
fication of maintenance procedures. Dissemination
the probability of an encounter also increases.
of information is rapid if problems are detected.
Improvement in airplane designs and equipment
2.4.1.3 Airplane Icing components has always been a major focus in the
aviation industry. In spite of this continuing effort,
Technical literature is rich with data showing the
there are still failures. Some of these failures can
adverse aerodynamic effects of airfoil contamina-
lead to an airplane upset. That is why flight crews
tion. Large degradation of airplane performance can
are trained to overcome or mitigate the impact of
result from the surface roughness of an extremely
the failures. Most failures are survivable if correct
small amount of contamination. These detrimental
responses are made by the flight crew.
effects vary with the location and roughness, and
they produce unexpected airplane handling char-
An airplane was approaching an airfield and ap-
acteristics, including degradation of maximum lift
peared to break off to the right for a left down-
capability, increased drag, and possibly unantici-
wind to the opposite runway. On downwind at
pated changes in stability and control. Therefore,
approximately 1500 ft, the airplane pitched up to
the axiom of “keep it clean” for critical airplane
nearly 60 deg and climbed to an altitude of nearly
surfaces continues to be a universal requirement.
4500 ft, with the airspeed deteriorating to almost

Counter-
Figure 9 control Wak
Induced Roll e vo
rt
ex
flo
wfie
ld

Typical small
business jet
wingspan

2.8
 SECTION 2

0 kn. The airplane then tail-slid, pitched down, did the flight crew mention a comparison among
and seemingly recovered. However, it continued the three systems. The flight recorders indicated the
into another steep pitchup of 70 deg. This time airplane was out of control for almost 2 min until
as it tail-slid, it fell off toward the right wing. As impact. Experts determined that the anomalies cor-
it pitched down and descended again, seemingly responded to conditions equal to an obstruction in
recovering, the airplane impacted the ground in the captain’s airspeed sensors (pitot head).
a flat pitch, slightly right wing down. The digital
flight data recorder indicated that the stabilizer trim
was more than 13 units nose up. The flight crew 2.4.2.2 Autoflight Systems
had discussed a trim problem during the descent Autoflight systems include the autopilot, auto-
but made no move to cut out the electric trim or to throttles, and all related systems that perform flight
manually trim. The accident was survivable if the management and guidance. The systems integrate
pilot had responded properly. information from a variety of other airplane sys-
tems. They keep track of altitude, heading, airspeed,
and flight path with unflagging accuracy. The pilot
2.4.2.1 Flight Instruments community has tended to develop a great deal of
The importance of reliable flight instruments has confidence in the systems, and that has led to com-
been known from the time that pilots first began to placency in some cases. As reliable as the autoflight
rely on artificial horizons. This resulted in continual systems may be, they can, and have, malfunctioned.
improvements in reliability, design, redundancy, Because of the integration of systems, it may even
and information provided to the pilots. be difficult for the pilot to analyze the cause of the
anomaly, and airplane upsets have occurred. Since
However, instrument failures do infrequently advanced automation may tend to mask the cause of
occur. All airplane operations manuals provide the anomaly, an important action in taking control
flight instrument system information so that when of the airplane is to reduce the level of automation.
failures do happen, the pilot can analyze the im- Disengaging the autopilot, the autothrottles, or both,
pact and select the correct procedural alternatives. may help in analyzing the cause of the anomaly by
Airplanes are designed to make sure pilots have at putting the pilot in closer touch with the airplane
least the minimum information needed to safely and perhaps the anomaly.
control the airplane.

In spite of this, several accidents point out that 2.4.2.3 Flight Control and Other Anomalies
pilots are not always prepared to correctly analyze Flight control anomalies, such as flap asymmetry,
the alternatives, and an upset takes place. During spoiler problems, and others, are addressed in
the takeoff roll, a check of the airspeed at 80 kn airplane operations manuals. While they are rare
revealed that the captain’s airspeed was not function- events, airplane certification requirements ensure
ing. The takeoff was continued. When the airplane that pilots have sufficient information and are
reached 4700 ft, about 2 min into the flight, some trained to handle these events. However, pilots
advisory messages appeared informing the crew should be prepared for the unexpected, especially
of flight control irregularities. Comments followed during takeoffs. Engine failure at low altitudes while
between the pilots about confusion that was occur- the airplane is at a low-energy condition is still a
ring between the airspeed indication systems from demanding maneuver for the pilot to handle. An
the left-side airspeed indication system, affecting erroneous stall warning on takeoff or shortly after
the indication of the left-side airspeed autopilot and takeoff could be a situation that allows the airplane
activation of the overspeed warning. The airplane to become upset.
continued flying with the autopilot connected and
receiving an erroneous indication in the captain’s A stall warning during takeoff could be the result
airspeed. Recorded sounds and flight data indicated of an incorrect V speed, incorrect flap or stabilizer
extreme conditions of flight, one corresponding position, a malfunctioning stall warning system, or
to overspeed and the other to slow speed (stick a shift in cg during rotation. If an aircraft rotates
shaker). The captain initiated an action to correct at the wrong speed or in the wrong configuration,
the overspeed, and the copilot advised that his air- or when a malfunctioning stall warning system
speed indicator was decreasing. The airplane had activates, care must be taken to adjust the flight
three airspeed indicating systems, and at no time profile so that airspeed and altitude will increase.

2.9
SECTION 2

Remember that if the airplane flies too slow, induced 2.4.3.2 Adjusting Attitude and Power
drag will increase and it may be necessary to reduce A satisfactory instrument cross-check is only one
the pitch attitude in order to accelerate. If a shift of part of the equation. It is necessary for the pilot to
cargo occurs, it may be helpful to leave the flaps and make the correct adjustments to pitch, bank, and
slats extended until approaching the limit speeds, power in order to control the airplane. Airplane
where the horizontal tail has more pitch authority. upsets have occurred when the pilot has made
For more information on the subject, refer to Sec- incorrect adjustments. This can happen when the
tion 2.6.3.2, “Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery pilot is not familiar with the airplane responses to
Techniques.” power adjustments or control inputs. A pilot’s con-
trol inputs are usually based upon understanding of
what the outcome will be. This is called airmanship.
2.4.3 Pilot-Induced Airplane Upsets On the other hand, if the pilot’s control inputs are
We have known for many years that sensory inputs reactionary, unplanned, and excessive, the airplane
can be misleading to pilots, especially when they reaction may be a complete surprise. A continued
cannot see the horizon. To solve this problem, divergence from what is expected due to excessive
airplanes are equipped with flight instruments to control inputs can lead to an upset. There have
provide the necessary information for controlling also been instances when two pilots have applied
the airplane. opposing inputs simultaneously.

2.4.3.1 Instrument Cross-Check 2.4.3.3 Inattention

Pilots must cross-check and interpret the instru- A review of airplane upsets shows that inattention
ments and apply the proper pitch, bank, and power or neglecting to monitor the airplane performance
adjustments. Misinterpretation of the instruments can result in minor excursions from normal flight
or slow cross-checks by the pilot can lead to an regimes to extreme deviations from the norm. Many
airplane upset. of the minor upsets can be traced to an improper
instrument cross-check; for example, neglecting to
An important factor influencing cross-check tech- monitor all the instruments or fixating on certain
nique is the ability of the pilot: “All pilots do not instrument indications and not detecting changes
interpret instrument presentations with the same in others. Some instrument indications are not as
speed; some are faster than others in understanding noticeable as others. For example, a slight head-
and evaluating what they see. One reason for this ing change is not as eye-catching as a 1000-ft/min
is that the natural ability of pilots varies. Another change in vertical velocity indication.
reason is that the experience levels are different.
Pilots who are experienced and fly regularly will There are many extreme cases of inattention by
probably interpret their instruments more quickly the flight crew that have resulted in airplane upset
than inexperienced pilots.” 3 accidents. In one accident, a crew had discussed a
recurring autothrottle problem but continued to use
Because situations change rapidly during high work- the autothrottle. On level-off from a descent, one
load periods, it is crucial for both pilots to monitor throttle remained at idle and the other compensated
the flight path and instruments. In a low workload by going to a high power setting. The resulting
environment, one pilot can usually monitor the asymmetric thrust exceeded the autopilot authority
aircraft as there is normally little change. Since it is and the airplane began to roll. At approximately 50
difficult to stay focused on monitoring during low deg of bank, full pro-roll lateral control wheel was
workload periods, it may be beneficial for pilots to applied. The airplane rolled 168 deg into a steep
alternate this responsibility. The important thing to dive of 78 deg, nose low, and crashed.
remember is that at least one pilot must monitor the
aircraft at all times. Effective monitoring allows a
pilot to take control of the aircraft before an upset
occurs. Some airlines refer to the pilot not flying
as the “pilot monitoring” to add emphasis to the
importance of this role.

3. Source: Instrument Flight Procedures. Air Force Manual 11-217, Vol. 1 (1 April 1996).

2.10
 SECTION 2

2.4.3.4 Distraction From Primary There are several situations that may lead to visual
Cockpit Duties illusions and then airplane upsets. A pilot can experi-
“Control the airplane first” has always been a guiding ence false vertical and horizontal cues. Flying over
principle in flying. Unfortunately, it is not always sloping cloud decks or land that slopes gradually
followed. In this incident, both pilots were fully upward into mountainous terrain often compels
qualified as pilot-in-command and were supervis- pilots to fly with their wings parallel to the slope,
ing personnel. The captain left the left seat, and the rather than straight and level. A related phenomenon
copilot set the airplane on autopilot and went to work is the disorientation caused by the aurora borealis in
on a clipboard on his lap. At this point the autopilot which false vertical and horizontal cues generated
disengaged, possibly with no annunciator light by the aurora result in attitude confusion.
warning. The airplane entered a steep, nosedown,
right spiral. The copilot’s instrument panel went It is beyond the scope of this training aid to expand
blank, and he attempted to use the pilot’s artificial on the physiological causes of spatial disorientation,
horizon. However, it had tumbled. In the meantime, other than to alert pilots that it can result in loss
the captain returned to his station and recovered the of control of an airplane. It should be emphasized
airplane at 6000 ft using needle and ball. This is just that the key to success in instrument flying is an
one of many incidents where pilots have become efficient instrument cross-check. The only reliable
distracted. Many times, the distraction is caused aircraft attitude information, at night or in IMC, is
by relatively minor reasons, such as caution lights provided by the flight instruments. Any situation
or engine performance anomalies. or factor that interferes with this flow of informa-
tion, directly or indirectly, increases the potential
for disorientation. The pilot’s role in preventing
2.4.3.5 Vertigo or Spatial Disorientation airplane upsets due to spatial disorientation essen-
Spatial disorientation has been a significant factor tially involves three things: training, good flight
in many airplane upset accidents. The definition planning, and knowledge of procedures. Both pilots
of spatial disorientation is the inability to correctly must be aware that it can happen, and they must be
orient oneself with respect to the Earth’s surface. A prepared to control the airplane if the other person
flight crew was climbing to about 2000 ft at night is disoriented.
during a missed approach from a second instrument
landing system (ILS) approach. The weather was
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)— 2.4.3.6 Pilot Incapacitation
ceiling: 400 ft, visibility: 2 mi, rain, and fog. The A first officer fainted while at the controls en route
airplane entered a spiral to the left. The captain to the Azores, Portugal. He slumped against the
turned the controls over to the first officer, who was controls, and while the rest of the flight crew was
unsuccessful in the recovery attempt. The airplane removing him from his flight position, the airplane
hit trees and was destroyed by ground impact and pitched up and rolled to over 80 deg of bank. The
fire. [NTSB/AAR-92-05] airplane was then recovered by the captain. While
this is a very rare occurrence, it does happen, and
All pilots are susceptible to sensory illusions while pilots need to be prepared to react properly. Another
flying at night or in certain weather conditions. rare possibility for airplane upset is an attempted
These illusions can lead to a conflict between actual hijack situation. Pilots may have very little control
attitude indications and what the pilot “feels” is the in this critical situation, but they must be prepared
correct attitude. Disoriented pilots may not always to recover the airplane if it enters into an upset.
be aware of their orientation error. Many airplane
upsets occur while the pilot is busily engaged in
some task that takes attention away from the flight 2.4.3.7 Improper Use of Airplane Automation
instruments. Others perceive a conflict between The following incident describes a classic case
bodily senses and the flight instruments but allow of improper use of airplane automation. “During
the airplane to become upset because they cannot an approach with autopilot 1 in command mode,
resolve the conflict. Unrecognized spatial disorien- a missed approach was initiated at 1500 ft. It is
tation tends to occur during task-intensive portions undetermined whether this was initiated by the pi-
of the flight, while recognized spatial disorientation lots; however, the pilot attempted to counteract the
occurs during attitude-changing maneuvers. autopilot-commanded pitchup by pushing forward

2.11
SECTION 2

on the control column. Normally, pushing on the susceptible to PIO when they put in rapid inputs
control column would disengage the autopilot, but under stress, such as during upset recoveries. The
automatic disconnect was inhibited in go-around net effect is that pilot inputs may produce unpredict-
mode in this model airplane. As a result of the able aircraft motion with accompanied pitch or roll
control column inputs, the autopilot trimmed the oscillations. Sometimes, the pilot flying may be so
stabilizer to 12 deg, nose up, in order to maintain involved in regaining control, he may not be aware
the programmed go-around profile. Meanwhile, of this oscillatory motion. In this case, the pilot not
the pilot-applied control column forces caused the flying may need to verbalize the PIO condition. In
elevator to deflect 14 deg, nose down. The inappro- any case, the oscillations/coupling can be stopped
priate pilot-applied control column forces resulted by neutralizing, or releasing, the controls for a long
in three extreme pitchup stalls before control could enough period to break the cycle.
be regained. The airplane systems operated in ac-
cordance with design specifications.” [FSF, Flight
Safety Digest 1/92] 2.4.4 Combination of Causes
A single cause of an airplane upset can be the ini-
The advancement of technology in today’s modern tiator of other causes. In one instance, a possible
airplanes has brought us flight directors, autopilots, inadvertent movement of the flap/slat handle re-
autothrottles, and flight management systems. All sulted in the extension of the leading edge slats. The
of these devices are designed to reduce the flight captain’s initial reaction to counter the pitchup was
crew workload. When used properly, this technology to exert forward control column force; the control
has made significant contributions to flight safety. force when the autopilot disconnected resulted in
But technology can include complexity and lead to an abrupt airplane nosedown elevator command.
trust and eventual complacency. The systems can Subsequent commanded elevator movements to cor-
sometimes do things that the flight crew did not rect the pitch attitude induced several violent pitch
intend for them to do. Industry experts and regulators oscillations. The captain’s commanded elevator
continue to work together to find the optimal blend movements were greater than necessary because of
of hardware, software, and pilot training to ensure the airplane’s light control force characteristics. The
the highest possible level of system performance— oscillations resulted in a loss of 5000 ft of altitude.
which centers on the human element. The maximum nose-down pitch attitude was greater
than 20 deg, and the maximum normal accelerations
were greater than 2 g and less than 1 g.
2.4.3.8 Pilot Techniques—PIO Avoidance/
Recovery This incident lends credence to the principle used
All aircraft are developed and certified so as to throughout this training aid: Reduce the level of
ensure that their control is easy and well-behaved automation while initiating recovery; that is,
throughout their operating envelope. Testing to disconnect the autopilot and autothrottle, and do
ensure these good handling characteristics assumes not let the recovery from one upset lead to another
that pilots are utilizing typical piloting techniques by excessive use of the controls.
during routine line operations. In some circum-
stances, however, a pilot may find that his own
control inputs can cause unwanted aircraft motion 2.5 Swept-Wing Airplane Fundamentals
that could lead to an upset or loss of control. Known for Pilots
as pilot-induced oscillations (PIO), this condition Aircraft are designed, tested, and certified based
occurs when a pilot’s commands become out of on accepted assumptions of how pilots will oper-
phase with the aircraft’s motion. ate them, together with various environmental and
technical constraints (e.g., gusts, engine failure
There could be a number of technical or human dynamics). These assumptions drive the regulatory
factors causes for this condition. Examples may certification requirements and are validated through
include, an over-speed, an out-of-trim condition, in-service experience. The certification flight test
or some flight control system failures. To the pilot, process examines the entire flight envelope of the
all of the causes result in the aircraft not responding aircraft, including that area beyond which the air-
as quickly or as aggressively as the pilot desires. line pilot normally operates. Examples would be
This leads to pilot inputs that grow increasingly out a fully stalled aircraft or airspeed exceeding Vmo.
of phase with the aircraft response. Pilots are most The process even explores how the aircraft could

2.12
 SECTION 2

possibly be inappropriately operated; however, The term “energy state” describes how much of
the testing assumes fundamental flying skills are each kind of energy the airplane has available at
known and understood. A primary assumption any given time. Pilots who understand the air-
regarding pilot inputs is that they are based on plane energy state will be in a position to know
control inputs that are measured (the result of instantly what options they may have to maneu-
experience), analyzed, then fine-tuned to achieve ver their airplane. The three sources of energy
a desired result. Exaggerated rates and amounts of available to the pilot are
control deflection (overcontrolling) may cause an a. Kinetic energy, which increases with increas-
accelerating divergence of flight path control until ing airspeed.
the input is countered. b. Potential energy, which is proportional
to altitude.
c. Chemical energy, from the fuel in the tanks.
2.5.1 Flight Dynamics
In understanding the flight dynamics of large, The airplane is continuously expending energy;
swept-wing transport airplanes, it is important to in flight, this is because of drag. (On the ground,
first understand what causes the forces and mo- wheel brakes and thrust reversers, as well as fric-
ments acting on the airplane and then move to what tion, dissipate energy.) This drag energy in flight is
kinds of motion these forces cause. Finally, with usually offset by using some of the stored chemical
this background, one can gain an understanding of energy—by burning fuel in the engines.
how a pilot can control these forces and moments
in order to direct the flight path. During maneuvering, these three types of energy
can be traded, or exchanged, usually at the cost
Pilots are expected to make control inputs based on of additional drag. This process of consciously
desired aircraft reaction. Control deflections at one manipulating the energy state of the airplane is
point in the flight envelope might not be appropriate referred to as “energy management.” Airspeed can
in another part of the flight envelope. Pilots must be traded for altitude, as in a zoom-climb. Altitude
have a fundamental understanding of flight dynam- can be traded for airspeed, as in a dive. Stored
ics in order to correctly make these choices. They energy can be traded for either altitude or airspeed
should not make mechanical control deflections and by advancing the throttles to command more thrust
rote reactions to dynamic situations that require an than required for level flight. The trading of energy
understanding of these flight fundamentals. must be accomplished, though, with a view toward
the final desired energy state. For example, while
Newton’s first law states that an object at rest will altitude can be traded for airspeed by diving the
tend to stay at rest, and an object in motion will tend airplane, care must be taken in selecting the angle
to stay in motion in a straight line, unless acted on of the dive so that the final desired energy state
by an external force. This definition is fundamental will be captured.
to all motion, and it provides the foundation for all
discussions of flight mechanics. A careful examina- This becomes important when the pilot wants to
tion of this law reveals an important subtlety, which generate aerodynamic forces and moments to ma-
is the reference to motion in a straight line. If an neuver the airplane. Only kinetic energy (airspeed)
airplane in motion is to deviate from a straight line, can generate aerodynamic forces and maneuver
there must be a force, or a combination of forces, capability. Kinetic energy can be traded for poten-
imposed to achieve the desired trajectory. The gen- tial energy (climb). Potential energy can only be
eration of the forces is the subject of aerodynamics converted to kinetic energy. Chemical energy can
(to be discussed later). The generation of forces be converted to either potential or kinetic energy,
requires energy. but only at specified rates. These energy relation-
ships are shown in Figure 10.

2.5.2 Energy States High-performance jet transport airplanes are de-

A pilot has three sources of energy available signed to exhibit very low drag in the cruise con-
to manage or manipulate to generate aerody- figuration. This means that the penalty for trading
namic forces and thus control the flight path of an airspeed for altitude is relatively small. Jet transport
airplane. airplanes are also capable of gaining speed very
rapidly in a descent. The pilot needs to exercise

2.13
SECTION 2

considerable judgment in making very large energy applied forces, and it is also governed by Newton’s
trades. Just as the level flight acceleration capability laws. Airplanes of larger mass generally take longer
is limited by the maximum thrust of the engines, to change orientation than do smaller ones. The
the deceleration capability is limited by the ability longer time requires the pilot to plan ahead more in
to generate very large drag increments. For high- a large-mass airplane and make sure that the actions
performance jet transport airplanes, the ability to taken will achieve the final desired energy state.
generate large decelerating drag increments is often
limited. The pilot always should be aware of these
limitations for the airplane being flown. A very 2.5.3 Load Factor
clean airplane operating near its limits can easily Load factor in the realm of flight mechanics is a
go from the low-speed boundary to and through measure of the acceleration being experienced by
the high-speed boundary very quickly. the airplane. By Newton’s second law,

The objective in maneuvering the airplane is to force = mass x acceleration

manage energy so that kinetic energy stays between
limits (stall and placards), the potential energy Since the airplane has mass, if it is being accelerated
stays within limits (terrain to buffet altitude), and there must be a force acting on it. Conversely, if there
chemical energy stays above certain thresholds is a force acting on an airplane, it will accelerate. In
(not running out of fuel). This objective is espe- this case, acceleration refers to a change in either
cially important during an inadvertent upset and magnitude or direction of the velocity. This defini-
the ensuing recovery. tion of acceleration is much more broad than the
commonplace reference to acceleration as simply
In managing these energy states and trading between “speeding up.” Acceleration has dimensions (length/
the various sources of energy, the pilot does not time2). It is convenient to refer to acceleration by
directly control the energy. The pilot controls the comparing it to the acceleration due to gravity
orientation and magnitude of the various forces (which is 32.2 ft/s2 or 9.81 m/s2). Acceleration is
acting on the airplane. These forces result in accel- expressed in this way as units of gravity (g).
erations applied to the airplane. The result of these
accelerations is a change in the orientation of the In addition, the acceleration (or load factor in
airplane and a change in the direction or magnitude, g’s) is typically discussed in terms of com-
or both, of the flight path vector. Ultimately, velocity ponents relative to the principal axes of the
and altitude define the energy state. airplane:
a. Longitudinal (fore and aft, typically thought of
This process of controlling forces to change ac- as speed change).
celerations and produce a new energy state takes b. Lateral (sideways).
time. The amount of time required is a function of c. Vertical (or normal).
the mass of the airplane and the magnitude of the

Kinetic energy Aerodynamic forces,

Figure 10
maneuver capability
Energy
Relationships

Potential energy

Chemical energy

2.14
 SECTION 2

Frequently, load factor is thought of as being only means that the wing is producing lift equal to 1.0
perpendicular to the floor of the airplane. But the times the weight of the airplane, and it is oriented
force, and thus the acceleration, may be at any in a direction opposed to the gravity vector. In a
orientation to the airplane, and the vertical, or pull-up, the load factor is above 1.0 (Fig. 12).
normal, load factor represents only one component
of the total acceleration. In sideslip, for example, In the example in Figure 12, the load factor is 2.0.
there is a sideways acceleration, and the pilot feels That is, the force generated by the airplane (wings,
pushed out of the seat sideways. In a steep climb fuselage, etc.) is twice that of gravity. Also note that
or a rapid acceleration, the pilot feels forced back the flight path is now curved. Newton’s first law
into the seat. says that an object will continue in a straight line
unless acted on by a force. In this case, the lift force
In level flight, the vertical load factor is one times is acting in a perpendicular direction to the velocity,
the acceleration due to gravity, or 1.0 (Fig. 11). This and the resulting flight path is curved.

Figure 11
Four Forces of
Flight

Lift = 1 x weight
Level flight
path
Drag Thrust
Weight

Figure 12
Airplane in
Pull-Up

Lift > 1 x weight

Flight path
is curved

Weight

2.15
SECTION 2

In a sustained vertical climb along a straight line, Earth that determines the orientation of the gravity
the thrust must be greater than the weight and drag. vector.
The load factor perpendicular to the airplane floor
must be zero (Fig. 13a). Current jet transport airplanes are certificated to
withstand normal vertical load factors from –1.0
If it were anything but zero, the flight path would to 2.5 g in the cruise configuration. Figure 14 is a
not be a straight line (Fig. 13b). typical v-n diagram for a transport airplane (“v”
for velocity, “n” for number of g’s acceleration). In
Note that the acceleration is a result of the sum addition to the strength of the structure, the handling
of all forces acting on the airplane. One of those qualities are demonstrated to be safe within these
forces is always gravity. Gravity always produces limits of load factor. This means that a pilot should
an acceleration directed toward the center of the be able to maneuver safely to and from these load
Earth. The airplane attitude determines the direc- factors at these speeds without needing exceptional
tion of the gravitational force with respect to the strength or skill.
airplane. Aerodynamic forces are produced as a
result of orientation and magnitude of the velocity Pilots should be aware of the various weight, con-
vector relative to the airplane, which is reduced figuration, altitude, and bank angle specifics of the
into angles of attack and sideslip. (Refer to Sec. diagrams for the particular airplane they fly and of
2.5.5, “Aerodynamics”, for a detailed discus- the limitations imposed by them.
sion.) It is the direction and speed of the airplane
through the air that results in aerodynamic forces Design maneuver speed, VA, is identified in the
(e.g., straight ahead or sideways, fast or slow). It is Airplane Flight Manual (AFM). It was a design
the orientation of the airplane to the center of the condition the manufacturer used to demonstrate

Figure 13a
Flight path
Airplane Vertical Flight path
With Forces
vertical
Balanced
not straight

Thrust > weight Thrust

and
drag
Figure 13b
(right)
Airplane Vertical
With Forces
Unbalanced Load factor No force
must be in this Load factor Still no
zero direction more than force
zero in this
direction

Drag Drag

Weight
Weight

2.16
 SECTION 2

the structural capability of the airplane. It is used to 2.5.4 Aerodynamic Flight Envelope
validate design criteria, and because it varies with Airplanes are designed to be operated in well-
altitude, it is of limited use to a pilot. Only single defined envelopes of airspeed and altitude. The
flight control inputs are considered and calculated. operational limits for an airplane—stall speeds,
Control reversals are not considered in design and placarded maximum speeds and Mach numbers,
certification and must be avoided. We recommend and maximum certificated altitudes—are in the
that pilots use turbulence penetration speed as a AFM for each individual airplane. Within these
reference speed above which abrupt control inputs limits, the airplanes have been shown to exhibit
should be avoided. safe flightcharacteristics.
VA should not be confused with minimum or configu- Manufacturing and regulatory test pilots have
ration maneuver speed, which is the recommended evaluated the characteristics of airplanes in con-
minimum speed for maneuvering at various flap/ ditions that include inadvertent exceedances of
slat configurations. On many modern airplanes, these operational envelopes to demonstrate that the
minimum or configuration maneuver speed is the airplanes can be returned safely to the operational
minimum speed that autothrottles/autothrust will envelopes. Figure 15 depicts a typical flight enve-
control to. lope. MMO and VMO are the operational limitations,

3
Flaps up
V = flaps up 1-g stall Figure 14
S1 Load Factor
speed
2
Flaps down Envelope Showing
V = design maneuver Speeds and Load
Load A Factors
speed, flaps up
factor
1 V = design structured
C
cruising speed

V V VC VD V = design dive speed

S1 A D
0
Airspeed

-1 Flaps up

M = maximum operating
MO
Maximum operating altitude Mach number
Figure 15
M DF M = maximum flight- Aerodynamic
DF Flight Envelope
MMO demonstrated Mach
number

Altitude V = maximum operating

MO
airspeed
Stall
speed* V = maximum flight-
DF
demonstrated
airspeed
VMO V DF
* Function of airplane
Airspeed configuration and
load factor.

2.17
SECTION 2

but the figure also shows the relationship to MDF 2.5.5.1 Angle of Attack and Stall
and VDF, the maximum dive speeds demonstrated Most force-generating surfaces on modern jet
in flight test. These are typically 0.05 to 0.07 Mach transport airplanes are carefully tailored to generate
and 50 kn higher than the operational limits. In the lifting forces efficiently. Wings and tail surfaces
region between the operational envelope and the all produce lift forces in the same way. Figure 16
dive envelope, the airplane is required to exhibit shows a cross section of a lifting surface and the
safe characteristics. Although the characteristics familiar definition of angle of attack. The lift force
are allowed to be degraded in that region from in pounds generated by a surface is a function of
those within the operational flight envelope, they the angle of attack, the dynamic pressure (which
are shown to be adequate to return the airplane to is proportional to the air density and the square of
the operational envelope if the airplane is outside the true airspeed) of the air moving around it, and
the operational envelope. the size of the surface.

It is important to understand the dependence of lift

2.5.5 Aerodynamics on angle of attack. Figure 17 shows how lift varies
Aside from gravity and thrust forces, the other forces with angle of attack for constant speed and air den-
acting on an airplane are generated as a result of sity. Important features of this dependency include
the changing pressures produced on the surfaces the fact that at zero angle of attack, lift is not zero.
that result in turn from the air flowing over them. This is because most lifting surfaces are cambered.
A brief review of basic fundamental aerodynamic Further, as angle of attack is increased, lift increases
principles will set the stage for discussion of airplane proportionally, and this increase in lift is normally
upset flight dynamics. quite linear. At higher angles of attack, however,
the lift due to angle of attack behaves differently.

Lift is function of
Figure 16 • Speed
Airfoil at Angle of
Attack
• Density
Angle of • Wing area
attack • Angle of attack
Relative wind

Cho
rd li
ne

Figure 17 Not stalled Stalled

Lift at Angle
of Attack
Maximum
lift

Lift

Critical angle
of attack

Angle of attack

2.18
 SECTION 2

Instead of increasing with an increase in angle of Angle of attack can sometimes be confusing
attack, it decreases. At this critical angle of attack, because there is not typically an angle-of-attack
the air moving over the upper surface can no longer indicator in most commercial jet transport air-
remain attached to the surface, the flow breaks down, planes. The three angles usually referred to in the
and the surface is considered stalled. longitudinal axis are
a. Angle of attack.
It is necessary to understand that this breakdown b. Flight path angle.
of the flow and consequent loss of lift is dependent c. Pitch attitude.
only on the angle of attack of the surface. Exceed the
critical angle of attack and the surface will stall, These three angles and their relationships to each
and lift will decrease instead of increasing. This other are shown in Figure 18.
is true regardless of airplane speed or attitude. To
sustain a lifting force on the aerodynamic surfaces, Pitch attitude, or angle, is the angle between the
the pilot must ensure that the surfaces are flown longitudinal axis of the airplane and the horizon.
at an angle of attack below the stall angle, that is, This angle is displayed on the attitude indicator or
avoid stalling the airplane. artificial horizon.

Depending on the context in which it is used, The flight path angle is the angle between the
aerodynamicists use the term “angle of attack” in flight path vector and the horizon. This is also the
a number of ways. Angle of attack is always the climb (or descent angle). On the newest generation
angle between the oncoming air, or relative wind, jet transports, this angle can be displayed on the
and some reference line on the airplane or wing. primary flight display (PFD), as depicted in Figure
Sometimes it is referenced to the chord line at a 18. Flight path angle can also be inferred from the
particular location on the wing; sometimes to an vertical speed indicator (VSI) or altimeter, if the
“average” chord line on the wing; other times it is ground speed is known. Many standard instrument
referenced to a convenient reference line on the departures require knowledge of flight path angle
airplane, like the body reference x axis. Regardless in order to ensure obstacle clearance.
of the reference, the concept is the same as are the
consequences: exceed the critical angle of attack and Angle of attack is also the difference between the
the lifting surfaces and wind will separate, resulting pitch attitude and the flight path angle with no verti-
in a loss of lift on those surfaces. Frequently the term cal wind component. The angle of attack determines
“airplane angle of attack” is used to refer to the angle whether the aerodynamic surfaces on the airplane
between the relative wind and the longitudinal axis are stalled or not.
of the airplane. In flight dynamics, this is frequently
reduced to simply “angle of attack.”

Flight path
vector
Figure 18
Pitch Attitude,
Flight Path Angle,
and Angle of
Angle of attack is the Attack
difference between pitch
attitude and flight path angle
(assumes no wind).

ck
eo f atta
Angl Pitch
y attitude
Velocit
Flight path angle
Horizon

2.19
SECTION 2

The important point is that when the angle of at- Stall speeds are published in the AFM for each
tack is above the stall angle, the lifting capability transport airplane, giving the speeds at which
of the surface is diminished. This is true regard- the airplane will stall as a function of weight.
less of airspeed. An airplane wing can be stalled This information is very important to the pilot,
at any airspeed. An airplane can be stalled in any but it must be understood that the concept of
attitude. If the angle of attack is greater than the stall speed is very carefully defined for specific
stall angle, the surface will stall. Figure 19 indicates conditions:
that regardless of the airspeed or pitch attitude of a. Trim at 1.3 VS.
the airplane, the angle of attack determines whether b. Forward CG.
the wing is stalled. c. Low altitudes.
d. Deceleration rate of 1 kn/s.
A stall is characterized by any or a combination e. Wings level.
of the following: f. Approximately 1-g flight.
a. Buffeting, which could be heavy.
b. Lack of pitch authority. Under normal conditions, the wings are level or near
c. Lack of roll control. level, and the normal load factor is very near 1.0.
d. Inability to arrest descent rate. Under these conditions, the published stall speeds
give the pilot an idea of the proximity to stall. In
These characteristics are usually accompanied conditions other than these, however, the speed at
by a continuous stall warning. A stall must not be stall is not the same as the “stall speed.” Aerody-
confused with an approach-to-stall warning that namic stall depends only on angle of attack, and it
occurs before the stall and warns of an approach- has a specific relationship to stall speed only under
ing stall. An approach to stall is a controlled flight the strict conditions previously noted. Many upsets
maneuver. However, a full stall is an out-of-control are quite dynamic in nature and involve elevated
condition, but it is recoverable. load factors and large speed-change rates. Pilots

High
AOA

Figure 19
Several Pitch
Attitudes and Stall ocity
Angle of Attack Vel
High
Velo AOA
city

The wing only “knows”

angle of attack (AOA).

ocity
Vel
Vel
o
city

High High
AOA AOA

Horizon

2.20
 SECTION 2

should not expect the airplane to remain unstalled 2.5.5.2 Camber

just because the indicated airspeed is higher than Camber refers to the amount of curvature evident in
AFM chart speeds, because the conditions may an airfoil shape. Camber is illustrated in Figure 20.
be different. The mean camber line is a line connecting the mid-
points of upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil. In
All modern jet transports are certified to exhibit contrast, the chord line is a straight line connecting
adequate warning of impending stall to give the the leading and trailing edges.
pilot opportunity to recover by decreasing the
angle of attack. Whether this warning is by natural Technical aerodynamicists have defined camber in
aerodynamic buffet or provided by a stick shaker or a variety of ways over the years, but the reason for
other warning devices, it warns the pilot when the introducing camber has remained the same: airfoils
angle of attack is getting close to stall. Moreover, with camber are more efficient at producing lift than
the warning is required to be in a form other than those without. Importantly, airfoils with specific
visual. The pilot need not look at a particular instru- kinds of camber at specific places are more efficient
ment, gauge, or indicator. The warning is tactile: the than those of slightly different shape.
pilot is able to feel the stall warning with enough
opportunity to recover promptly. Pilots need to Airplanes that must produce lift as efficiently up
be especially cognizant of stall warning cues for as well as down, such as competition aerobatics
the particular airplanes they fly. The onset of stall airplanes, usually employ symmetrical airfoils.
warning should be taken as an indication to not These work well, but they are not as efficient for
continue to increase the angle of attack. cruise flight. Efficient, high-speed airplanes often
employ exotic camber shapes because they have
The angle of attack at which a wing stalls reduces been found to have beneficial drag levels at high
with increasing Mach so that at high Mach (normally, speeds. Depending on the mission the airplane is
high altitude), an airplane may enter an accelerated intended to fly, the aerodynamic surfaces are given
stall at an angle of attack that is less than the angle an optimized camber shape. While both cambered
of attack for stalling at lower Mach numbers. and uncambered surfaces produce lift at angle of
attack, camber usually produces lift more efficiently
than angle of attack alone.

Mean camber line

Figure 20
Camber
Definition
Leading edge
Trailing edge

Chord line
Cambered Airfoil

Symmetrical Airfoil Modern Aft-Cambered Airfoil

2.21
SECTION 2

2.5.5.3 Control Surface Fundamentals 2.5.5.3.1 Spoiler-Type Devices

Trailing edge control surfaces such as ailerons, Spoilers, sometimes referred to as “speedbrakes”
rudders, and elevators provide a way of modulating on large transport airplanes, serve a dual purpose of
the lift on a surface without physically changing the “spoiling” wing lift and generating additional drag.
angle of attack. These devices work by altering the By hinging upwards from the wing upper surface,
camber of the surfaces. Figure 21 shows undeflected they generate an upper surface discontinuity that
and deflected control surfaces. the airflow cannot negotiate, and they separate, or
stall, the wing surface locally. Figure 23 depicts
The aerodynamic effect is that of increasing the spoiler operation with both flaps up and flaps down.
lift at constant angle of attack for trailing edge The effectiveness of spoiler devices depends on
down deflection. This is shown in Figure 22. The how much lift the wing is generating (which the
price paid for this increased lift at constant angle spoiler will “spoil”). If the wing is not producing
of attack is a reduced angle of attack for stall. Note much lift to begin with, spoiling it will not produce
that for larger deflections, even though the lift is much effect. If the wing is producing large amounts
greater, the stall angle of attack is lower than that of lift, as is the case with the flaps extended and
at no deflection. at moderate angles of attack, the spoilers become
very effective control devices because there is
The important point is that increasing camber more lift to spoil.
(downward deflection of ailerons, for example)
lowers the angle of attack at which stall occurs. Because spoilers depend on there being some lift to
Large downward aileron deflections at very high “spoil” in order to be effective, they also lose much
angles of attack could induce air separation over of their effectiveness when the wing is in a stalled
that portion of the wing. Reducing the angle of at- condition. If the flow is already separated, putting a
tack before making large aileron deflections will spoiler up will not induce any more separation. As
help ensure that those surfaces are as effective as was the case with aileron control at high angles of
they can be in producing roll. attack, it is important to know that the wing must

Effective mean camber line

Figure 21
Deflected
Surfaces

Control surface
deflection

Angle of
attack
Figure 22
Lift Characteristics Relative wind
for Deflected Trailing
Edge Surfaces

on trol Stall Control surface

Lift e dc deflection
lect
coefficient Def
ion
ef lect
N od

Angle of attack

2.22
 SECTION 2

be unstalled in order for the aerodynamic controls In the case of the fixed stabilizer/trim tab configura-
to be effective. tion, the required tail load is generated by deflecting
the elevator. The trim tab is then deflected in such
a way as to get the aerodynamics of the tab to hold
2.5.5.3.2 Trim the elevator in the desired position. The airplane
Aerodynamicists refer to “trim” as that condition is then in trim (because the required load on the
in which the forces on the airplane are stabilized tail has been achieved) and the column force trim
and the moments about the center of gravity all add condition is met as well (because the tab holds the
up to zero. Pilots refer to “trim” as that condition elevator in the desired position). One side effect
in which the airplane will continue to fly in the of this configuration is that when trimmed near
manner desired when the controls are released. In one end of the deflection range, there is not much
reality, both conditions must be met for the airplane more control available for maneuvering in that
to be “in trim.” In the pitch axis, aerodynamic, or direction (Fig. 24).
moment, trim is achieved by varying the lift on the
horizontal tail/elevator combination to balance the In the case of the all-flying tail, the entire stabilizer
pitching moments about the center of gravity. Once moves as one unit in response to column com-
the proper amount of lift on the tail is achieved, mands. This changing of the angle of attack of the
means must be provided to keep it constant. Tra- stabilizer adjusts the tail lift as required to balance
ditionally, there have been three ways of doing the moments. The tail is then held in the desired
that: fixed stabilizer/trim tab, all-flying tail, and position by an irreversible flight control system
trimmable stabilizer. (usually hydraulic). This configuration requires
a very powerful and fast-acting control system to

Separation Separation
Spoiler deflected region Spoiler deflected region
Figure 23
Spoiler Devices

Flaps Up Flaps Down

Smaller additional
deflection available,
Figure 24
this direction Typical
Maximum deflection Trimmable Tails

Deflected trim tab

holds surface away from
neutral position

Larger additional
deflection available,
this direction

Maximum deflection

2.23
SECTION 2

move the entire tail in response to pilot inputs, but danger of becoming too close to surface stops.
it has been used quite successfully on commercial
jet transport airplanes.
2.5.5.4 Lateral and Directional Aerodynamic
In the case of the trimmable stabilizer, the proper Considerations
pitching moment is achieved by deflecting the el- Aerodynamically, anti-symmetric flight, or flight
evator and generating the required lift on the tail. in sideslip, can be quite complex. The forces and
The stabilizer is then moved (changing its angle moments generated by the sideslip can affect motion
of attack) until the required tail lift is generated by in all three axes of the airplane. As will be seen,
the stabilizer with the elevator essentially at zero sideslip can generate strong aerodynamic rolling
deflection. A side effect of this configuration is that moments as well as yawing moments. In particular,
from the trimmed condition, full elevator deflection the magnitude of the coupled roll-due-to-sideslip
is available in either direction, allowing a much is determined by several factors.
larger range of maneuvering capability. This is
the configuration found on most high-performance
airplanes that must operate through a very wide 2.5.5.4.1 Angle of Sideslip
speed range and that use very powerful high-lift Just as airplane angle of attack is the angle between
devices (flaps) on the wing. the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the relative
wind as seen in a profile view, the sideslip angle
Knowing that in the trimmed condition the elevator is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the
is nearly faired or at zero deflection, the pilot in- airplane and the relative wind, seen this time in the
stantly knows how much control power is available plan view (Fig. 25). It is a measure of whether the
in either direction. This is a powerful tactile cue, and airplane is flying straight into the relative wind.
it gives the pilot freedom to maneuver without the

Left rudder,
“Cross-
right aileron/ controlled”
spoiler

Figure 25
Angle of Sideslip

Sideslip
angle
city
elo

ind
ev

ew
ind

lan

ativ
ew

Airp

Rel
ativ
Rel

Spoilers up

Aileron down Aileron up

Rudder deflected left

to hold sideslip angle

2.24
 SECTION 2

With the exception of crosswind landing consid- dihedral is so powerful in producing lateral stabil-
erations requiring pilot-commanded sideslip, com- ity, it is used as a “common denominator term” of
mercial transport airplanes are typically flown at or the lateral stability contribution of other airplane
very near zero sideslip. This usually results in the components, such as rudder and wing sweep. In
lowest cruise drag and is most comfortable for pas- other words, the term “dihedral effect” is used when
sengers, as the sideways forces are minimized. describing the effects of wing sweep and rudder on
lateral stability and control.
For those cases in which the pilot commands a
sideslip, the aerodynamic picture becomes a bit A swept-wing design used on jet transport airplanes
more complex. Figure 25 depicts an airplane in a is beneficial for high-speed flight, since higher flight
commanded nose-left sideslip. That is, the velocity speeds may be obtained before components of speed
vector is not aligned with the longitudinal axis of perpendicular to the leading edge produce critical
the airplane, and the relative wind is coming from conditions on the wing. In other words, wing sweep
the pilot’s right. will delay the onset of compressibility effects. This
wing sweep also contributes to the dihedral effect.
One purpose of the vertical tail is to keep the nose When the swept-wing airplane is placed in a sideslip,
of the airplane “pointed into the wind,” or make the wing into the wind experiences an increase in
the tail follow the nose. When a sideslip angle is lift, since the effective sweep is less, and the wing
developed, the vertical tail is at an angle of attack away from the wind produces less lift, since the
and generates “lift” that points sideways, tending effective sweep is greater (Fig. 25). The amount
to return the airplane to zero sideslip. Commercial of contribution, or dihedral effect, depends on the
jet transport airplanes are certificated to exhibit amount of sweepback and lift coefficient of the
static directional stability that tends to return the wing. The effect becomes greater with increasing
airplane to zero sideslip when controls are released lift coefficient and wing sweep. The lift coefficient
or returned to a neutral position. In order to hold a will increase with increasing angle of attack up to the
sideslip condition, the pilot must hold the rudder in a critical angle. This means that any sideslip results
deflected position (assuming symmetrical thrust). in more rolling moment on a swept-wing airplane
than on a straight-wing airplane. Lateral controls on
swept-wing airplanes are powerful enough to control
2.5.5.4.2 Wing Dihedral Effects large sideslip angles at operational speeds.
Dihedral is the positive angle formed between the
lateral axis of an airplane and a line that passes Rudder input produces sideslip and contributes
through the center of the wing, as depicted in Figure to the dihedral effect. The effect is proportional
26. Dihedral contributes to the lateral stability of an to the angle of sideslip. (That is, roll increases
airplane, and commercial jet transport airplanes are with sideslip angle; therefore, roll increases with
certificated to exhibit static lateral stability. A wing increasing rudder input.) Precise contol of roll angle
with dihedral will develop stable rolling moments using this technique is very difficult, and therefore,
with sideslip. If the relative wind comes from the not recommended. The next section discusses this
side, the wing into the wind is subject to an increase area in more detail. When an airplane is at a high
in lift. The wing away from the wind is subject to a angle of attack, aileron and spoiler roll controls
decrease in angle of attack and develops a decrease become less effective. At the stall angle of attack,
in lift. The changes in lift effect a rolling moment, the rudder is still effective; therefore, it can produce
tending to raise the windward wing; hence, dihedral large sideslip angles, which in turn produces roll
contributes a stable roll due to sideslip. Since wing because of the dihedral effect.

Figure 26
Wing Dihedral Angle

Dihedral angle

2.25
SECTION 2

2.5.5.4.3 Pilot-Commanded Sideslip Another way is to examine the slip-skid indicator

The rudders on modern jet transport airplanes are and keep the ball in the center. Pilots should de-
sized to counter the yawing moment associated velop a feel for the particular airplanes they fly and
with an engine failure at very low takeoff speeds understand how to minimize sideslip angle through
and to ensure yaw control throughout the flight coordinated use of flight controls.
envelope, using up to maximum pedal input. This
very powerful rudder is also capable of generating
large sideslips. An inappropriate rudder input can 2.5.5.4.4 Crossover Speed
produce a large sideslip angle, which will generate a Crossover speed is a recently coined term that de-
large rolling moment that requires significant lateral scribes the lateral controllability of an airplane with
control input to stop the airplane from rolling. The the rudder at a fixed (up to maximum) deflection.
rudder should not normally be used to induce roll It is the minimum speed (weight and configuration
through sideslip because the transient sideslip can dependent) in a 1-g flight, where maximum aileron/
induce very rapid roll rates with significant time spoiler input (against the stops) is reached and
delay. The combination of rapid roll rates and time the wings are still level or at an angle to maintain
delay can startle the pilot, which in turn can cause directional control. Any additional rudder input or
the pilot to overreact in the opposite direction. The decrease in speed will result in an unstoppable roll
overreaction can induce abrupt yawing moments into the direction of the deflected rudder or in an
and violent out-of-phase roll rates, which can lead inability to maintain desired heading. Crossover
to successive cyclic rudder deflections, known as speed is very similar in concept to Vmca, except that
rudder reversals. Large aggressive control reversals instead of being Vmc due to a thrust asymmetry, it is
can lead to loads that can exceed structural design Vmc due to full rudder input. This crossover speed
limits. Figure 27 shows sideslip response to abrupt is weight and configuration dependent. However,
cyclic rudder input. Except in crosswind takeoff it is also sensitive to angle of attack. With weight
and landing, keeping the sideslip as close to zero and configuration held constant, the crossover
as possible will ensure that the maximum amount speed will increase with increased angle of attack
of lateral control is available for maneuvering. On and will decrease with decreased angle of attack.
modern jet airplanes, the specific deflection combi- Thus, in an airplane upset due to rudder deflection
nations of ailerons and spoilers, with yaw dampers with large and increasing bank angle and the nose
and turn coordinators, are usually designed to make rapidly falling below the horizon, the input of ad-
adverse yaw undetectable to the pilot; hence the use ditional nose-up elevator with already maximum
of rudder is virtually eliminated during normal roll input of aileron/spoilers will only aggravate the
conditions. In any case, use of coordinated rudder situation. The correct action in this case is to unload
in combination with ailerons/spoilers is to eliminate the airplane to reduce the angle of attack, which
yaw and not to supplement or induce roll. will regain aileron/spoiler effectiveness and allow
recovery. This action may not be intuitive and will
One way to determine the sideslip state of the air- result in a loss of altitude.
plane is to “feel” the lateral acceleration; it feels as
if the pilot is being pushed out of the seat sideways. Note: The previous discussion refers to the aerody-

Cyclic Pedal Input

Over Yaw Sequential Over Yaw

Sideslip
Angle

Figure 27
Sideslip Response
to Abrupt Cyclic
Rudder Input
Time

2.26
 SECTION 2

namic effects associated with rudder input; however, Mach trim to provide this function. Similarly,
similar aerodynamic effects are associated with commercial airplanes are stable with respect to
other surfaces. load factor. When a gust or other disturbance gen-
erates a load factor, the airplane is certificated to
be stable: it will return to its initial trimmed load
2.5.5.5 Stability factor (usually 1.0). This “maneuvering stability”
Positive static stability is defined as the initial requires a sustained pull force to remain at elevated
tendency to return to an undisturbed state after a load factors—as in a steep turn.
disturbance. This concept has been illustrated by
the “ball in a cup” model (Fig. 28). One important side effect of stability is that it al-
lows for some unattended operation. If the pilot
All transport airplanes demonstrate positive stability releases the controls for a short period of time,
in at least some sense. The importance here is that stability will help keep the airplane at the condition
the concept of stability can apply to a number of at which it was left.
different parameters, all at the same time. Speed
stability, the condition of an airplane returning to Another important side effect of stability is that
its initial trim airspeed after a disturbance, is fa- of tactile feedback to the pilot. On airplanes with
miliar to most pilots. The same concept applies to static longitudinal stability, for example, if the
Mach number. This stability can be independent of pilot is holding a sustained pull force, the speed is
airspeed if, for example, the airplane crosses a cold probably slower than the last trim speed.
front. When the outside air temperature changes, the
Mach number changes, even though the indicated
airspeed may not change. Airplanes that are “Mach 2.5.5.6 Maneuvering in Pitch
stable” will tend to return to the original Mach Movement about the lateral axis is called “pitch,”
number. Many jet transport airplanes incorporate as depicted in Figure 29.

Stable Unstable Neutral

When ball is displaced, When ball is displaced, When ball is displaced,
it returns to its original it accelerates from its it neither returns, nor
position. original position. accelerates away—it Figure 28
just takes up a new Static Stability
position.

al
din
Late g itu s
ral a n i
xis Lo ax

Center of
Vertical axis

gravity Figure 29
Pitch Reference Axis
Definitions

2.27
SECTION 2

Controlling pitching motions involves control- force associated with it; it is a pure torque.
ling aerodynamic and other moments about the
center of gravity to modulate the angle of attack. Figure 30 shows many of the important components
Aside from the pitching moment effects of thrust of pitching moment about the center of gravity of an
when engines are offset from the center of gravity airplane. Weight acts through the center of gravity
(discussed below), the pilot controls the pitching and always points toward the center of the Earth.
moments (and therefore the angle of attack) by In steady (unaccelerated) flight, the moments about
means of the stabilizer and elevator. The horizontal the center of gravity, as well as the forces, are all
stabilizer should be thought of as a trimming device, balanced: the sum is zero. Since, in general, there
reducing the need to hold elevator deflection, while is a pitching moment due to the wing and body and
the elevator should be thought of as the primary the lift is not generally aligned with the center of
maneuvering control. This is true because the hori- gravity—and the thrust of the engines is also offset
zontal stabilizer has only limited rate capability—it from the center of gravity— there is usually some
cannot change angle very quickly. Maneuvering, load on the horizontal tail required to balance the
or active pilot modulation of the pitch controls, is rest of the moments, and that load is generally in
usually accomplished by the elevator control, which the downward direction, as shown in the figure.
is designed to move at much faster rates. To get a
better understanding of how these components work Essentially, the pilot controls the amount of lift
together, the following discussion will examine the generated by the horizontal tail (by moving the
various components of pitching moment. elevator), which adjusts the angle of attack of the
wing and therefore modulates the amount of lift
“Moments” have dimensions of force times distance. that the wing generates. Similarly, since engines are
Pilots are familiar with moments from working rarely aligned with the center of gravity, changing
weight and balance problems. In the case of pitch- the thrust will be accompanied by a change in the
ing moment, we are concerned with moments about pitching moment around the center of gravity. The
the center of gravity. So the pitching moment due pilot then adjusts the lift on the tail (with the eleva-
to wing lift, for example, is the wing lift times tor) to again balance the pitching moments.
the distance between the center of gravity and the
center of the wing lift. Since weight acts through As long as the angle of attack is within unstalled
the center of gravity, there is no moment associated limits and the airspeed is within limits, the aerody-
with it. In addition, there is a moment associated namic controls will work to maneuver the airplane
with the fact that the wing is usually cambered and in the pitch axis as described. This is true regardless
with the fact that the fuselage is flying in the wing’s of the attitude of the airplane or the orientation of
flowfield. This wing-body moment does not have a the weight vector.

Lift

Figure 30
Airplane Pitching
Moments
Wing-body
moment

Drag

Tail lift
Tail distance Thrust
Wing distance Engine
distance

Weight

Total
(Moment) + (Moment) + (Moment) + (Moment) = pitching
Tail Lift Thrust Wing-body moment
Total
Tail
lift
Tail
* distance + Wing
lift
Wing
* distance + Thrust
*
Engine
distance
+ (Moment)
Wing-body = pitching
moment

2.28
 SECTION 2

Recall that the object of maneuvering the airplane is at about 20 deg, noseup pitch attitude on a takeoff
to manipulate the forces on the airplane in order to climb. Conversely, at nosedown pitch attitudes,
manage the energy state. The aerodynamic forces are the weight vector contributes to thrust. Since the
a function of how the pilot manipulates the controls, magnitude of the weight vector is on the order of
changing angle of attack, for example. Similarly, 3 times the available thrust, pilots need to be very
the thrust forces are commanded by the pilot. The careful about making large pitch attitude changes.
weight vector always points toward the center of the When procedures call for a pitch attitude reduction
Earth. The orientation with respect to the airplane, to accelerate and clean up after takeoff, one aspect
though, is a function of the airplane attitude. The of that maneuver is getting rid of the weight com-
weight vector is a very powerful force. Recall that ponent in the drag direction, allowing the airplane
transport airplanes are certificated to 2.5 g. That to gain speed.
means that the wing is capable of generating 2.5
times the airplane weight. In contrast, engine thrust
is typically on the order of 0.3 times the airplane 2.5.5.7 Mechanics of Turning Flight
weight at takeoff weights. Recalling that Newton’s laws dictate that an object
in motion will continue in a straight line unless
To get an appreciation for the magnitude of the acted on by an external force, consider what is
weight vector and the importance of its ori- required to make an airplane turn. If a pilot wants
entation, consider the very simple example of to change the course of an airplane in flight, a force
Figure 31. perpendicular to the flight path in the direction of
the desired turn must first be generated. Usually
In a noseup pitch attitude, the component of the this is accomplished by banking the airplane. This
weight vector in the drag direction (parallel to the points the lift vector off to the side, generating a
airplane longitudinal axis) equals the engine thrust horizontal component of lift (Fig. 32). This is not

Component of weight Component of weight

in drag direction in thrust direction Figure 31
Contributions of
Weight Vector

ust
Thr
Thru
st

Weight

Horizontal component
produces curved
flight path = turn Figure 32
Additional
Mechanics of
lift required Turning Flight
so that vertical Lift
component
still equals
weight

Weight

2.29
SECTION 2

the only way to generate a sideways-pointing force, maneuver. This orients the lift vector away from
but it is the typical method. the gravity vector so that the forces acting on the
airplane can be managed in a controlled way.
When the lift vector is tilted to generate the horizon-
tal component, the vertical component gets smaller. Knowledge of these relationships is useful in other
Since the acceleration due to gravity still points situations as well. In the event that the load factor
toward the Earth, there is now an imbalance in the is increasing, excess lift is being generated, and
vertical forces. Unless the lift vector is increased the pilot does not want speed to decrease, bank
so that its vertical component equals the weight of angle can help to keep the flight path vector below
the airplane, the airplane will begin to accelerate the horizon, getting gravity to help prevent loss of
toward the Earth—it will begin to descend. To airspeed. In this situation, the excess lift can be
maintain altitude in a banked turn, the lift produced oriented toward the horizon and, in fact, modulated
by the airplane must be more than the weight of up and down to maintain airspeed.
the airplane, and the amount is a function of bank
angle (Fig. 33).
2.5.5.8 Lateral Maneuvering
All of this is well known, but it bears reiteration in the Motion about the longitudinal axis (Fig. 34) is
context of recovery from extreme airplane upsets. called “roll.” Modern jet transport airplanes use
If the objective is to arrest a descent, maneuvering combinations of aileron and spoiler deflections as
in pitch if the wings are not level will only cause primary surfaces to generate rolling motion. These
a tighter turn and, depending on the bank angle, deflections are controlled by the stick or wheel, and
may not contribute significantly to generating a lift they are designed to provide precise maneuvering
vector that points away from the ground. Indeed, capability. On modern jet airplanes, the specific
Figure 35 indicates that to maintain level flight at deflection combinations of ailerons and spoilers,
bank angles beyond 66 deg requires a larger load with yaw dampers and turn coordinators, are usually
factor than that for which transport airplanes are designed to make adverse yaw undetectable to the
certificated. pilot; hence, the use of rudder is virtually eliminated
during normal roll control. Supplementing normal
In early training, many pilots are warned about the roll control with rudder may induce uncoordinated
“Graveyard Spiral.” The Graveyard Spiral maneu- turning moments, because the pilot inputs will be in
ver is one in which the airplane is in a large bank addition to the aircraft system inputs, therefore, pilot
angle and descending. The unknowing pilot fixates rudder pedal inputs to augment turn coordination
on the fact that airspeed is high and the airplane is functions (if available) are not recommended.
descending. In an attempt to arrest both the speed
and sinkrate, the pilot pulls on the column and ap- As described in Section 2.5.5, “Aerodynamics,”
plies up-elevator. However, at a large bank angle, trailing edge control surfaces lose effectiveness in
the only effect of the up-elevator is to further tighten the downgoing direction at high angles of attack.
the turn. It is imperative to get the wings close to Similarly, spoilers begin to lose effectiveness as
level before beginning any aggressive pitching the stall angle of attack is exceeded.

Figure 33
Bank Versus Load 3
Factor (g’s) for
Level Flight Load
2
factor, g's

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Bank angle, deg

2.30
 SECTION 2

Transport airplanes are certificated to have positive wings not level, the lift vector is not aligned with
unreversed lateral control up to a full aerodynamic gravity, and the flight path will be curved. In addi-
stall. That is, during certification testing, the airplane tion, if load factor is not increased beyond 1.0, that
has been shown to have the capability of producing is, if lift on the wings is not greater than weight,
and correcting roll up to the time the airplane is the vertical flight path will become curved in the
stalled. However, beyond the stall angle of attack, downward direction, and the airplane will begin to
no generalizations can be made. For this reason descend. Hypothetically, with the airplane inverted,
it is critical to reduce the angle of attack at the lift and gravity point in the same direction: down.
first indication of stall so that control surface ef- The vertical flight path will become curved and
fectiveness is preserved. the airplane will accelerate toward the earth quite
rapidly. In this case, the pilot must find a way to
The apparent effectiveness of lateral control, that is, orient the lift vector away from gravity. In all cases,
the time between the pilot input and when the air- the pilot should ensure that the angle of attack is
plane responds, is in part a function of the airplane’s below the stall angle and roll to upright as rapidly
inertia about its longitudinal axis. Airplanes with as possible.
very long wings, and, in particular, airplanes with
engines distributed outboard along the wings, tend
to have very much larger inertias than airplanes with 2.5.5.9 Directional Maneuvering
engines located on the fuselage. This also applies Motion about the vertical axis is called “yaw”
to airplanes in which fuel is distributed along the (Fig. 35). The character of the motion about the
wing span. Early in a flight with full wing (or tip) vertical axis is determined by the balance of mo-
tanks, the moment of inertia about the longitudinal ments about the axis (around the center of gravity).
axis will be much larger than when those tanks are The principal controller of aerodynamic moments
nearly empty. This greater inertia must be overcome about the vertical axis is the rudder, but it is not the
by the rolling moment to produce a roll acceleration only one. Moments about the vertical axis can be
and resulting roll angle, and the effect is a “sluggish” generated or affected by asymmetric thrust, or by
initial response. As discussed before, airplanes of asymmetric drag (generated by ailerons, spoilers,
large mass and large inertia require that pilots be asymmetric flaps, and the like). These asymmetric
prepared for this longer response time and plan moments may be desired (designed in) or unde-sired
appropriately in maneuvering. (perhaps the result of some failure).

From a flight dynamics point of view, the great- Generally, the rudder is used to control yaw in a
est power of lateral control in maneuvering the way that minimizes the angle of sideslip, that is,
airplane—in using available energy to maneuver the the angle between the airplane’s longitudinal axis
flight path—is to orient the lift vector. In particular, and the relative wind. For example, when an engine
pilots need to be aware of their ability to orient the fails on takeoff, the object is to keep the airplane
lift vector with respect to the gravity vector. Upright aligned with the runway by using rudder.
with wings level, the lift vector is opposed to the
gravity vector, and vertical flight path is controlled On modern jet transports with powerful engines
by longitudinal control and thrust. Upright with located away from the centerline, an engine failure

Yaw
Figure 34
(Left)
Roll Axis
l
ina ina
l
Late
ral a i t ud Late ud
xis ng is ral a i t
ng is
Lo ax xis Lo ax

Center of
Vertical axis

Center of Figure 35
Vertical axis

gravity
gravity Yaw Axis

Roll

2.31
SECTION 2

can result in very large yawing moments, and rud- speeds up, the pilot must continue to fully deflect
ders are generally sized to be able to control those the rudder pedal to command full available rudder,
moments down to very low speeds. This means that even though the maximum available rudder deflec-
the rudder is very powerful and has the capability tion has been reduced. This means the pilot will
to generate very large yawing moments. When the have to apply the same force to the rudder pedal
rest of the airplane is symmetric, for example, in a to achieve maximum available rudder deflection
condition of no engine failure, very large yawing throughout the flight envelope. Figure 36a shows
moments would result in very large sideslip angles an example of this type of system.
and large structural loads should the pilot input
full rudder when it is not needed. Pilots need to On other models, as the airplane speeds up, the
be aware of just how powerful the rudder is and rudder authority is limited, but the gearing between
the effect it can have when the rest of the airplane the rudder and the rudder pedal does not change.
is symmetric. Since rudder authority is limited, rudder pedal travel
is also limited (i.e., full rudder pedal deflection is
Many modern airplanes limit the rudder author- not required to get full available rudder deflection).
ity in parts of the flight envelope in which large Rudder pedal force is a function of rudder pedal
deflections are not required, for example, at high deflection, so less force will be required to achieve
speeds. In this way, the supporting structure can be maximum available rudder deflection as airspeed
made lighter. Pilots also need to be aware of such increases (Fig. 36b)
“rudder limiting” systems and how they operate on
airplanes. The implementation of the rudder limiting Airplanes do vary on the amount of rudder pedal
function and associated forces varies from model force and displacement required to achieve maxi-
to model and between manufacturers. The force a mum available rudder as airspeed changes. It is
pilot feels when pushing on the rudder pedals is important that pilots understand their airplane’s
analogous to that of a force generated by a spring. feel and response characteristics to flight control
The more the pedal is displaced the greater the inputs. By understanding and becoming familiar
required force. All modern transport airplanes limit with the airplane’s characteristics, pilots will learn
rudder deflection as airspeed increases. Engine out to apply the appropriate control input in response
takeoff and crosswind landing requirements define to various flight situations.
the maximum rudder deflection (authority). As the
airplane flies faster, less deflection is needed and From a structural capability standpoint, the pilot
rudder authority is therefore reduced. does not have to be concerned about how fast or
how hard to push the rudder pedal in one direc-
Some airplanes have rudder limiters that reduce the tion (from zero to full available pedal deflection)
rudder authority by changing the gearing between throughout the normal flight envelope. However,
the rudder and the rudder pedals. As the airplane it is important to emphasize that limiters do not

Figure 36a
Example 1: V1 250kts FL390 MMO
Rudder Deflection
and Force Pedal Pedal Rudder Pedal Pedal Rudder Pedal Pedal Rudder
Requirements force, travel, deflection, force, travel, deflection, force, travel, deflection,
lb in deg lb in deg lb in deg

50 2.5 30 50 2.5 10 50 2.5 5

Figure 36b
Example 2: V1 250kts FL390 MMO
Rudder Deflection
and Force Pedal Pedal Rudder Pedal Pedal Rudder Pedal Pedal Rudder
Requirements force, travel, deflection, force, travel, deflection, force, travel, deflection,
lb in deg lb in deg lb in deg

50 2.5 30 30 1.5 10 25 1.0 5

2.32
 SECTION 2

protect against the structural loads or excessive higher altitude (less damping) and higher speed
sideslip angles that can be generated from rapid (more directional stability). Therefore, if a pilot
full deflection flight control reversals. encounters a Dutch roll condition, every effort
should be made to “slow down and go down.”
There are a few cases, however, when it is nec- With a properly functioning yaw damper, Dutch rolls
essary to generate sideslip. One of the most will not occur in modern transport aircraft. Transport
common is the crosswind landing. In the slip-to- airplanes are certificated to demonstrate positively
a-landing technique, simultaneous use of rudder damped Dutch roll oscillations. The rudder should
and aileron/spoiler aligns the airplane with the not be used to complement the yaw damper system.
runway centerline and at the same time keeps the If the yaw damper system is inoperative, the rudder
airplane from drifting downwind. The airplane is should not be used to dampen Dutch roll. Refer to
flying “sideways” and the pilot feels the lateral your aircraft’s non-normal section for procedures
acceleration. to deal with yaw damper failure.

Static directional stability is a measure of the The installed systems that can drive the rudder
tendency of an airplane to weathervane into the surface are typically designed in a hierarchical
free stream airmass. The vertical fin and distribu- manner. For example, the yaw damper typically
tion of flat plate area aft of the CG tend to reduce has authority to move the rudder in only a limited
sideslip and add to good directional stability. All deflection range. Rudder trim, selectable by the
conventional airplanes require positive static direc- pilot, has authority to command much larger rudder
tional stability. In simple terms, an airplane with deflections that may be needed for engine failure.
good directional stability always wants to point In most cases, the pilot, with manual control over
directly into the relative wind—zero sideslip. As rudder deflection, is the most powerful element
directional stability increases, the speed at which in the system. The pilot can command deflection
the aircraft returns to zero sideslip after being to the limits of the system, which may be surface
disturbed increases (higher frequency). In order to stops, actuator force limits, or any others that may
minimize overshoots in sideslip, the damping in the be installed (e.g., rudder ratio changers).
directional axis must be increased as the directional
stability is increased. An undesirable characteristic Precise roll control using rudder is difficult and
can develop when the directional damping is not therefore not recommended. The use of up to full
adequate enough to prevent overshoots in sideslip. rudder for control of engine failures and crosswind
A phenomenon known as “Dutch roll” (based on takeoffs and landings is what the system was de-
the similarity with the motions of high-speed ice signed to do. Airplanes do vary on the amount of
skaters) can occur. A Dutch roll occurs when yaw rudder pedal force and displacement required to
rates produce sideslips, which produce roll rates. If achieve maximum available rudder as airspeed
the sideslips are not adequately damped, the aircraft changes. It is important that pilots understand their
nose will swing back and forth with respect to the airplane’s feel and response characteristics to flight
relative wind, and the aircraft will roll right and left control inputs. By understanding and becoming
due to the dihedral effect (the wingsweep results in familiar with the airplane’s response characteristics,
asymmetric lift, depending on the relative wind). pilots will learn to apply the appropriate control input
Airplanes designed to fly at higher Mach numbers in response to various flight situations. Transport
have more wingsweep to control the critical Mach pilots should be aware that certain prior experience
number (the speed at which shock waves begin to or training in military, GA, or other nontransport
form on the wing). As wingsweep increases, the aircraft that emphasizes use of rudder input as a
dihedral effect increases, and if the airplane is not means to maneuver in roll typically does not apply
adequately damped in the directional axis, a Dutch to transport aircraft or operations. When normal
roll might occur if the airplane is upset direction- means of roll control have been unsuccessful,
ally. Yaw dampers were designed to minimize careful rudder input in the direction of the desired
yaw rates, which result in sideslip rates, and are roll should be considered to induce or augment a
very effective in modern transports in damping rolling maneuver or to provide the desired bank
the Dutch roll. However, some transport airplanes angle. A rudder input is never the preferred initial
have a neutral or slightly divergent Dutch roll if response for events such as a wake vortex encounter
the yaw damper is off or inoperative. Conventional or windshear encounter, or to reduce the bank angle
airplanes exhibit more of a Dutch roll tendency at preceding an imminent stall recovery.

2.33
SECTION 2

2.5.5.10 Flight at Extremely Low Airspeeds 2.5.5.11 High-Altitude Characteristics

Stall speed is discussed in Section 2.5.5.1. It is Modern commercial jet transport airplanes are
possible for the airplane to be flown at speeds be- designed to fly at altitudes from sea level to more
low the defined stall speed. This regime is outside than 40,000 ft. There are considerable changes in
the certified flight envelope. At extremely low atmospheric characteristics that take place over that
airspeeds, there are several important effects for altitude range, and the airplane must accommodate
the pilot to know. those changes.

Recall from the discussion of aerodynamics that As a purely practical matter, it is useful to identify
the aerodynamic lift that is generated by wings and high altitude operations as those above flight level
tails depends on both the angle of attack and the 250 (FL250 or 25,000 ft). The great majority of
velocity of the air moving over the surfaces. Angle passengers and freight is now being carried in
of attack alone determines whether the surface is turbojet-powered airplanes, virtually all of which
stalled. At very low airspeeds, even far below the regularly operate at altitudes above FL250 where
strictly defined stall speed, an unstalled surface (one high speeds and best economy are attained. While
at a low angle of attack) will produce lift. However, aerodynamic principles and certain hazards apply
the magnitude of the lift force will probably be at all altitudes, they become particularly significant
very small. For a surface in this condition, the lift with respect to loss of control (or upset) at altitudes
generated will not be enough to support the weight above FL250. For these reasons and others, this
of the airplane. In the case of the lift generated by training aid defines high altitude as any altitude
the tail, at very low airspeeds, it may not be great above FL250.
enough to trim the airplane, that is, to keep it from
pitching. One item of interest to pilots is the air temperature
as altitude changes. Up to the tropopause (36,089 ft
With small aerodynamic forces acting on the air- in a standard atmosphere), the standard temperature
plane, and gravity still pulling towards the earth, decreases with altitude. Above the tropopause, the
the trajectory will be largely ballistic. It may be standard temperature remains relatively constant.
difficult to command a change in attitude until grav- This is important to pilots because the speed of
ity produces enough airspeed to generate sufficient sound in air is a function only of air temperature.
lift­­­—and that is only possible at angles of attack Aerodynamic characteristics of lifting surfaces and
below the stall angle. For this reason, if airspeed entire airplanes are significantly affected by the
is decreasing rapidly it is very important to reduce ratio of the airspeed to the speed of sound. That
angle of attack and use whatever aerodynamic ratio is represented as a Mach number. At high
forces are available to orient the airplane so that a altitudes, large Mach numbers exist at relatively
recovery may be made when sufficient forces are low calibrated airspeeds.
available.
Pilots need to be aware of the Mach number and
When thrust is considered, the situation becomes altitude effects on the stability and handling qualities
only slightly more complicated. With engines offset of their airplanes. Many pilots know that maneuver-
from the center of gravity, thrust produces both ing an airplane at traffic pattern altitudes “feels”
forces and moments. In fact, as airspeed decreases, different than maneuvering at the same calibrated
engine thrust generally increases for a given throttle airspeed at cruise altitude. As mentioned above,
setting. With engines below the center of gravity, altitude and Mach number change the aerodynamic
there will be a noseup moment generated by engine characteristics of the airplane – so it does “feel”
thrust. Especially at high power settings, this may and respond differently. As altitude increases (in a
contribute to even higher noseup attitudes and even standard atmospheric model), air density decreases.
lower airspeeds. Pilots should be aware that as When this occurs, natural aerodynamic damping
aerodynamic control effectiveness diminishes with decreases and the airplane becomes more responsive
lower airspeeds, the forces and moments available to control inputs. Higher Mach numbers may also
from thrust become more evident, and until the adversely affect the stability of the airplane, causing
aerodynamic control surfaces become effective, undesirable characteristics to develop or worsen.
the trajectory will depend largely on inertia and
thrust effects.

2.34
 SECTION 2

As Mach number increases, airflow over parts of the to buffet at a given Mach number, or altitude
airplane begins to exceed the speed of sound. Shock capability at a given Mach number and 1 g. The
waves associated with this local supersonic flow buffet boundaries of various airplanes can differ
can interfere with the normally smooth flow over significantly in their shapes, and these differences
the lifting surfaces, causing local flow separation. contain valuable information for the pilot. Some
Depending on the airplane, as this separation grows airplanes have broad speed margins; some have
in magnitude with increasing Mach number, charac- abrupt high-speed buffet margins; some have nar-
teristics such as pitchup, pitchdown, or aerodynamic row, “peaky” characteristics, as depicted notionally
buffeting may occur. Transport category airplanes in Figure 38. Pilots should become familiar with
are certificated to be free from characteristics that the buffet boundaries. These boundaries let the pilot
would interfere with normal piloting in the normal know how much maneuvering room is available,
flight envelope and to be safely controllable during and they give clues for successful strategies should
inadvertent exceedances of the normal envelope, speed changes become rapid or attitude or flight
as discussed in Section 2.5.4, “Aerodynamic Flight path angles become large.
Envelope.”
For example, the pilot of Airplane A in the figure
The point at which buffeting would be expected has a broad speed range between high- and low-
to occur is documented in the AFM. The Buffet speed buffet onset at 1 g and the current altitude,
Boundary or Cruise Maneuver Capability charts with only a nominal g capability. Airplane B has by
contain a wealth of information about the high- comparison a much smaller speed range between
altitude characteristics of each airplane. A sample high- and low-speed buffet onset, but a generous
of such a chart is shown in Figure 37. g capability at the current Mach number. Airplane
C is cruising much closer to the high- speed buffet
The chart provides speed margins to low-speed boundary than the low-speed boundary, which lets
(stall-induced) and high-speed (shock-induced) the pilot know in which direction (slower) there is
buffet at 1 g, normal load factor or bank angle more margin available.
110
105
100 Figure 37
Sample Buffet
95
Boundary Chart
0

90
00
x1

85
g
,k
ht

80
eig
sw

75
os

70
Gr

65
60
Altitude margin

Low- High-
speed speed
Bank angle,deg

margin margin
Ref. line

35
40

45

50

55

60
15
20
25
30

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
0

Altitude x 1000
0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 10 20 30 40 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
True Mach number (MT) CG percent MAC Normal acceleration to initial buffet, g
Coefficient of lift

Coefficient of lift

Coefficient of lift

Cruise altitude Figure 38

Notional Buffet
Cruise altitude Boundaries
Cruise altitude

Mach Mach Mach

Airplane A Airplane B Airplane C

2.35
 SECTION 2

2.5.5.11.1 Regulatory Issues Slow flight (slower than L/D max) is inherently
The high altitude environment has a number of unstable with respect to speed and thrust settings.
specific references within regulations. These refer- When operating at a constant airspeed with constant
ences include: criteria defining maximum operating thrust setting, any disturbance causing a decrease in
altitude and service ceilings, required high altitude airspeed will result in a further decrease in airspeed
training, flight crew member use of oxygen, pas- unless thrust is increased. As shown in Figure 39,
senger briefings, airspace issues, transponder usage, the lower speed will subject the airplane to increased
and Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) drag. This increase in drag will cause a further
requirements. Although these provide necessary decrease in airspeed, which may ultimately result
knowledge for flight crews, this document will focus in a stalled flight condition. Flight slower than L/D
on the information needed to prevent and recover max at high altitudes must be avoided due to the
from upsets in the high altitude environment. inefficiency and inherent instability of the slow
flight speed range. When operating slower than L/D
max, and where total drag exceeds total thrust, the
2.5.5.11.2 Aerodynamic Principles of High airplane will be unable to maintain altitude and the
Altitude Operations only remaining option to exit the slow flight regime
There are a number of aerodynamic principles that is to initiate a descent.
are necessary to understand to have a good grasp
of high altitude performance. External factors, such as changing winds, increased
drag in turns, turbulence, icing, or internal factors,
such as anti-ice use, auto-throttle rollback, or engine
2.5.5.11.2.1 L/D Max malfunction or failure can cause airspeed decay.
The lowest point on the total drag curve (as indicated Heavily damped auto-throttles, designed for pas-
in Fig. 39) is known as L/D max (or Vmd-minimum senger comfort, may not apply thrust aggressively
drag speed). The speed range slower than L/D max enough to prevent a slowdown below L/D max.
is known as slow flight, which is sometimes referred
to as the “back side of the power-drag curve” or the Slower cruising speeds are an issue. As airplanes
“region of reverse command.” Speed faster than are pushed to more efficient flight profiles to save
L/D max is considered normal flight, or the “front fuel, it may dictate high altitude cruising at lower
side of the power-drag curve.” Mach numbers. The net result is the crew may
have less time to recognize and respond to speed
Normal flight (faster than L/D max) is inherently deterioration at high altitude.
stable with respect to speed. When operating in
level flight at a constant airspeed with constant At all times, pilots must ensure that flight slower than
thrust setting, any airspeed disturbance (such as L/D max is avoided in the high altitude environment.
turbulence) will result in the airspeed eventually Proper flight planning and adherence to published
returning to the original airspeed when the total climb profiles and cruise speeds will ensure that
thrust has not changed. speeds slower than L/D max are avoided.

Speed Instability Speed Stability

Drag
Figure 39
Maximum
Airspeed Versus Drag
in Level Flight thrust

Thrust
Drag
and
thrust Maximum level
flight speed

L/D max (minimum drag speed)

Airspeed

2.36
 SECTION 2

As an airplane climbs and cruises at high altitude, the only available option is to descend.
flight crews should be aware of terms that affect
them.
2.5.5.11.2.6 Maximum Altitude
Maximum altitude is the highest altitude at which
2.5.5.11.2.2 Crossover Altitude an airplane can be operated. In today’s modern
Crossover Altitude is the altitude at which a speci- airplanes it is determined by three basic charac-
fied CAS (Calibrated airspeed) and Mach value teristics which are unique to each airplane model.
represent the same TAS (True airspeed) value. It is the lowest of:
Above this altitude the Mach number is used to • Maximum certified altitude (structural) that is de-
reference speeds. termined during certification and is usually set by
the pressurization load limits on the fuselage.
• Thrust Limited Altitude – the altitude at which
2.5.5.11.2.3 Optimum Altitude sufficient thrust is available to provide a specific
Optimum Altitude is defined as an altitude at which minimum rate of climb.
the equivalent airspeed for a thrust setting will equal • Buffet or Maneuver limited altitude – the altitude
the square root of the coefficient of lift over the at which a specific maneuver margin exists prior
coefficient of drag. In less technical terms, it is to buffet onset.
the best cruise altitude for a given weight and air
temperature. A dramatic increase in temperature Although each of these limits is checked by modern
will change the optimum altitude. Therefore, when flight management computers, the available thrust
flying at optimum altitude, temperature must be may limit the ability to accomplish anything other
monitored to ensure performance capability. than relatively minor maneuvering.

The danger in operating near these ceilings is the

2.5.5.11.2.4 Optimum Climb Speed Deviations potential for the speed and angle of attack to change
Airplane manuals and flight management systems due to turbulence or environmental factors that
produce optimum climb speed charts and speeds. could lead to a slowdown or stall and subsequent
When increased rates of climb are required, ensure high altitude upset.
speed is not decreased below L/D max. Evidence
shows that inappropriate use of vertical speed modes In early turbojet era airplanes, the capability to reach
is involved in the majority of slow speed events what is called absolute ceiling or “coffin corner”
during high altitude climbs. could exist. This is where, if an airplane flew any
slower, it would exceed its stalling angle of attack
and experience low speed buffet. Additionally, if it
2.5.5.11.2.5 Thrust Limited Condition and flew any faster, it would exceed Mmo, potentially
Recovery leading to high speed buffet.
Most jet transport airplanes are thrust limited,
rather than low speed buffet limited, at altitude, All airplanes are equipped with some form of stall
especially in a turn. It is imperative that crews be warning system. Crews must be aware of systems
aware of outside temperature and thrust available. installed on their airplanes (stick pushers, shakers,
To avoid losing airspeed due to a thrust limit, use audio alarms, etc.) and their intended function.
flight management systems/reduced bank angle as a In a high altitude environment, airplane buffet is
routine for en-route flight if it incorporates real-time sometimes the initial indicator of problems.
bank angle protection, or routinely select a bank
angle limit of 10-15 degrees for cruise flight. If a
condition of airspeed decay occurs at altitude, take 2.5.5.11.2.7 Maneuvering Stability
immediate action to recover: For the same control surface movement at constant
• Reduce bank angle airspeed, an airplane at 35,000 ft experiences a
• Increase thrust – select maximum continuous higher pitch rate than an airplane at 5,000 ft because
thrust if the airplane’s auto-throttle system is there is less aerodynamic damping. Therefore, the
maintaining thrust at a lower limit change in angle of attack is greater, creating more
• Descend lift and a higher load factor. If the control system is
If a high drag situation occurs where maximum designed to provide a fixed ratio of control force to
available thrust will not arrest the airspeed decay, elevator deflection, it will take less force to generate

2.37
SECTION 2

the same load factor as altitude increases. pilot approaches maximum altitude. Flying near
maximum altitude will result in reduced bank angle
An additional effect is that, for a given attitude capability; therefore, autopilot or crew inputs must
change, the change in rate of climb is proportional be kept below buffet thresholds. The use of LNAV
to the true airspeed. Thus, for an attitude change will ensure bank angle is limited to respect buffet
for 500 ft per minute (fpm) at 290 knots indicated and thrust margins. The use of other automation
air speed (KIAS) at sea level, the same change in modes, or hand flying, may cause a bank angle that
attitude at 290 KIAS (490 knots true air speed) at results in buffeting. When maneuvering at or near
35,000 ft would be almost 900 fpm. This character- maximum altitude there may be insufficient thrust
istic is essentially true for small attitude changes, to maintain altitude and airspeed. The airplane
such as the kind used to hold altitude. It is also may initially be within the buffet limits but does
why smooth and small control inputs are required not have sufficient thrust to maintain the necessary
at high altitude, particularly when disconnecting airspeed. This is a common item in many high
the autopilot. altitude situations where airplanes slow down to
the lower buffet limits. These situations can be
Operating limits of modern transport category illustrated with performance charts.
airplanes are designed so that operations within
these limits will be free of adverse handling char- Figure 40 shows a typical transport category air-
acteristics. Exceeding these limits can occur for plane optimum and maximum altitude capability.
various reasons and all modern transport airplanes When temperature increases, the maximum altitude
are tested to allow normal piloting skill to recover capability decreases significantly. This is a situation
these temporary exceedences back to the normal where maneuver buffet margins are adequate but
operational envelope. It is imperative to not over- temperature is affecting thrust capability to sustain
react with large and drastic inputs. There is no airspeed at the higher altitudes.
need to take quick drastic action or immediately
disconnect a correctly functioning autopilot. Pilots Figure 41 shows that for normal cruise speeds there
should smoothly adjust pitch and/or power to reduce is excess thrust available at this fixed weight and
speed should an overspeed occur. altitude. When trying to turn using 30 degrees of
bank, the drag exceeds the normal maximum cruise
In the high altitude flight area there is normally thrust limit. If the pilot selects maximum continuous
adequate maneuver margin at optimum altitude. thrust (MCT) then there is enough thrust to maintain
Maneuver margin decreases significantly as the the bank angle in the same situation.

43000

Figure 40
Maximum certified altitude (structural)
Typical Optimum 41000
Versus Maximum Buffet limited
IS max altitude
Altitude A
te (1.3g) (aerodynamic)
39000 m
pe
ra
Optimum altitude (min cost @ econ) tu
re
ch
Altitude 37000 an
ge
Thrust-limted maximum altitude (100 FPM) (in
cr
ea
sin
35000 g)

33000

31000
Gross weight (increasing)
Note: as ISA temperature increases - altitude capability is reduced

2.38
 SECTION 2

2.5.5.11.3 Weight & Balance Effects on Han- will continue to increase with increased speed and
dling Characteristics the aft movement of the shock wave, the wing’s
Weight and Balance limitations must be respected. center of pressure also moves aft causing the start
An airplane that is loaded outside the weight and of a nose-down tendency or “tuck.” Because of
balance envelope will not exhibit the expected level the changing center of lift of the wing resulting
of stability and will result in aircraft handling that from the movement of the shock wave, the pilot
is unpredictable and may not meet certification will experience pitch down tendencies. In mod-
requirements. This is a serious issue, particularly in ern transport airplanes this phenomenon has been
an aft loading situation where stall recovery may be largely eliminated.
severely affected. The problem may be exacerbated
at high altitude.
2.5.5.11.5 Buffet-Limited Maximum Altitude
At high altitude, an aft loaded airplane will be There are two kinds of buffet to consider in flight:
more responsive to control pressures since it is low speed buffet and high speed buffet. As altitude
less stable than a forward loading. Of interest to increases, the indicated airspeed at which low speed
pilots is that the further aft an airplane is loaded, buffet occurs increases. As altitude increases, high
less effort is required by the tail to counteract the speed buffet speed decreases. Therefore, at a given
nose down pitching moment of the wing. The less weight, as altitude increases, the margin between
effort required by the tail results in less induced high speed and low speed buffet decreases.
drag on the entire airplane which results in the
most efficient flight. Some airline load planning Proper use of buffet boundary charts or maneuver
computers attempt to load airplanes as far aft as capability charts can allow the crew to determine
possible to achieve efficiency. Some advanced the maximum altitude that can be flown while still
airplanes use electronic controls to help improve respecting the required buffet margins.
airplane handling with aft loading.
At high altitudes the excess thrust available is lim-
ited. Crews must be aware that additional thrust is
2.5.5.11.4 Mach Tuck and Mach Buffet available by selecting maximum available/continu-
In some airplanes, at speeds above Mmo, a phe- ous thrust at any time. However, in extreme airspeed
nomenon called mach tuck will occur. Above decay situations MCT may be insufficient. Proper
critical Mach number, the speed of an airplane at descent techniques will be necessary in order to
which airflow over any part of the wing first reaches prevent further airspeed decay into an approach to
Mach 1.0, a shock wave will begin to form on the stall and stall situation.
wing and mach buffet will occur. Mach buffet

Figure 41
Max continuous thrust (MCT) Drag Induced
by Bank Versus
Available Thrust
Thrust
Drag produced at 30º bank - exceeds cruise thrust (FMC) capability

Drag Cruise thrust (FMC)

(increasing) Drag - 30º bank

Drag - level flight

Current
airspeed

60 65 70 75 80 85
Mach number

2.39
SECTION 2

2.5.5.11.6 Stalls At high altitudes the upper air currents such as

Fundamental to understanding angle of attack and the jet-stream become significant. Velocities in
stalls is the realization that an airplane wing can be the jet-stream can be very high and can present
stalled at any airspeed and any altitude. Moreover, a beneficial tailwind or a troublesome headwind.
attitude has no relationship to the aerodynamic stall. Windshear at the boundaries of the jet-stream can
Even if the airplane is in descent with what appears cause severe turbulence and unexpected changes
to be ample airspeed, the surface can be stalled. If in airspeed or Mach number. This windshear, or
the angle of attack is greater than the stall angle, other local disturbances, can cause substantial and
the surface will stall. immediate airspeed decreases in cruise, as well as
climb situations. If the airplane is performance
Most pilots are experienced in simulator or even limited due to high altitude and subsequently en-
airplane exercises that involve approach to stall. This counters an area of decreasing velocity due to wind
is a dramatically different condition than a recovery shear, in severe cases the back side of the power
from an actual stall because the technique is not the curve may be encountered. The pilot will have to
same. The present approach to stall technique being either increase thrust or decrease angle of attack to
taught for testing is focused on “powering” out of the allow the airspeed to build back to normal climb/
near-stalled condition with emphasis on minimum cruise speeds. This may require trading altitude
loss of altitude. At high altitude this technique may for airspeed to accelerate out of the backside of
be totally inadequate due to the lack of excess thrust. the power curve region if additional thrust is not
It is impossible to recover from a stalled condition available.
without reducing the angle of attack and that will
certainly result in a loss of altitude, regardless of
how close the airplane is to the ground. Although 2.5.5.11.7 Icing
the thrust vector may supplement the recovery, it Pilots must understand that occasionally icing does
is not the primary control. At stall angles of attack, occur at high altitudes and they must be prepared to
the drag is very high and thrust available may be use anti-ice. Careful monitoring of flight conditions
marginal. Also, if the engine(s) are at idle, the ac- is critical in this decision making.
celeration could be very slow, thus extending the
recovery. At high altitudes, where the available Appropriate and judicious use of anti-ice equipment
thrust is reduced, it is even less of a benefit to the at high altitude is very important. One must be aware
pilot. The elevator is the primary control to recover of the fact that the use of anti-ice has a negative
from a stalled condition because, without reducing effect on the available thrust. In some cases, it may
the angle of attack, the airplane will remain in a not be possible to maintain cruise speed or cruise
stalled condition until ground impact, regardless altitude at high altitude with anti-ice on. Pilots
of the altitude at which it started. should also be aware of the specific flight planning
parameters for their particular flight.
Effective stall recovery requires a deliberate and
smooth reduction in wing angle of attack. The In-flight icing is a serious hazard. It destroys the
elevator is the primary pitch control in all flight smooth flow of air on the airplane, increasing drag,
conditions, not thrust. degrading control authority and decreasing the
ability of an airfoil to produce lift. The airplane
Although stall angle of attack is normally constant may stall at much higher speeds and lower angles
for a given configuration, at high altitudes swept of attack than normal. If stalled, the airplane can
wing turbojet airplanes may stall at a reduced angle roll or pitch uncontrollably, leading to an in-flight
of attack due to Mach effects. The pitch attitude upset situation.
will also be significantly lower than what is expe-
rienced at lower altitudes. Low speed buffet will Even with normal ice protection systems operat-
likely precede an impending stall. Thrust available ing properly, ice accretion on unprotected areas
to supplement the recovery will be dramatically of the airplane may significantly increase airplane
reduced and the pitch control through elevator must weight and drag.
be used. The goal of minimizing altitude loss must
be secondary to recovering from the stall. Flight Activation of an artificial stall warning device, such
crews must exchange altitude for energy. Only as a stick shaker, is typically based on a pre-set angle
after positive stall recovery has been achieved, can of attack. This setting gives a warning prior to actual
altitude recovery be prioritized. stall onset where buffeting or shaking of the airplane

2.40
 SECTION 2

occurs. For a clean airplane, the pilot has adequate 2.5.5.11.8 Primary Flight Display Airspeed
warning of impending stall. However, with ice, Indications
an airplane may exhibit stall onset characteristics Modern airplanes that are equipped with a primary
before stick shaker activation because of the effect of flight display (PFD) provide information that will
ice formations on reducing the stall angle-of-attack. help maintain a safe airspeed margin between the
In this case, the pilot does not have the benefit of a low and high speed limits. Most of these airplanes
stick shaker or other stall warning have an indication of airspeed trending. This is
important because these displays do not indicate
Flight crews must be especially wary of automa- that adequate thrust is available at that altitude
tion during icing encounters. Autopilots and auto- to maintain the current airspeed. Older airplanes
throttles can mask the effects of airframe icing and have charts in the performance section that
this can contribute to ultimate loss of control. There depict adequate speed ranges for a given altitude
have been several accidents in which the autopilot and weight.
trimmed the airplane right to a stall upset situation
by masking heavy control forces. If the autopilot
disengages while holding a large roll command to 2.5.5.11.9 Automation During High Altitude
compensate for an asymmetrical icing condition (or Flight
other similar problem causing roll), an immediate During cruise at high altitude, the autopilot will
large rolling moment ensues for which the pilot be engaged with the pitch in an altitude hold mode
may not be prepared, resulting in a roll upset. Pilots and the throttles in a speed mode. However, it is
have been surprised when the autopilot automati- possible that, due to changing conditions (increas-
cally disconnected with the airplane on the brink ing temperature, mountain wave, etc.) or poor
of a stall. planning, an airplane could be thrust limited and
not be able to maintain the desired altitude and/
Some autopilots are designed with control laws or airspeed. Regardless, the airplane’s automatic
that enable them to continue to operate until they control system will try to maintain this altitude
get to stick shaker. Alternatively, the autopilot may by increasing thrust to its selected limit. When
disconnect early because of excessive roll rates, the thrust is at the maximum limit, the pitch may
roll angles, control surface deflection rates, or continue to increase to maintain altitude and the
forces that are not normal. These autopilots are not airspeed then continues to decay. The only option
malfunctioning; they are working as designed. then is to descend. The pilot’s action should be to
pitch down and increase the airspeed while being
High altitude weather can cause favorable condi- in an automation mode that keeps the throttles at
tions for upsets. Thunderstorms, clear air turbu- maximum thrust. If the autopilot is still engaged,
lence, and icing are examples of significant weather select a lower altitude and use an appropriate mode
that pilots should take into consideration in flight to start the aircraft down. However, if the aircraft
planning. Careful review of forecasts, signifi- is not responding quickly enough you must take
cant weather charts, and turbulence plots are key over manually. Pilots must assess the rate at which
elements in avoiding conditions that could lead vertical speed and airspeed increase is occurring
to an upset. to make this determination. This does not imply
that aggressive control inputs are necessary. The
Once established in cruise flight, the prudent crew autopilot can then be reengaged once the aircraft
will update weather information for the destination is in a stable descent and the commanded speed
and enroute. By comparing the updated information has been reestablished. Do not attempt to override
to the preflight briefing, the crew can more accu- the autopilot. It is always better to disconnect it
rately determine if the forecast charts are accurate. before making manual control inputs. Due to RVSM
Areas of expected turbulence should be carefully considerations and large altitude losses, crews
plotted and avoided if reports of severe turbulence should consider turning off course during descents
are received. Trend monitoring of turbulence areas and monitoring TCAS to reduce the potential for
is also important. Trends of increasing turbulence collisions. Crews should also inform ATC of their
should be noted and if possible avoided. Avoiding altitude deviation.
areas of potential turbulence will reduce the risk
of an upset. The consequences of using Vertical Speed (VS)
at high altitude must be clearly understood. Most
autoflight systems have the same logic for prioritiz-

2.41
SECTION 2

ing flight path parameters. The fundamental aspect reduce airspeed when approaching a low airspeed
of energy management is to manage speed by either stall. As in any emergency situation, if the airplane
elevator or with thrust. When using the VS mode is designed with effective alerting (actual and/or
of the Auto Flight System (AFS), airplane speed is artificial) and the flightcrew is adequately trained
normally controlled by thrust. If a too high vertical to recognize the indicators of the stall, these will
descent rate is selected, the autothrottle will reduce lead to appropriate flight crew recovery actions as
thrust to idle and the airspeed will start to increase discussed in the next paragraph. Equally important
above the command speed. The reverse situation is that crews be familiar with stall warning and
can occur with considerable risk if an excessive recognition devices, such as stick pushers, in order
climb rate is selected. In that case, if the thrust to understand their operation.
available is less than the thrust required for that
selected vertical speed rate the commanded speed Once the pilot recognizes the airplane is in a full
will not be able to be held and a speed decay will aerodynamic stall, immediate corrective actions
result. On some airplanes, improper use of VS can and decisions required for airplane recovery are
result in speed loss and eventually a stall. sometimes delayed by the flightcrew. Some of the
reasons for the delay include 1) lack of situational
Pilots must understand the limits of their airplanes awareness and crew confusion, 2) anxiety associated
when selecting vertical modes. As a general guide- with altitude violations and maintaining separation
line, VS should not be used for climbing at high from other air traffic, 3) previous training emphasiz-
altitudes. Reduced thrust available at high altitudes ing prevention of altitude loss of only a few hundred
means that speed should be controlled through pitch feet even in the case of an impending high altitude
and not with thrust. VS can be used for descent; stall, 4) inadequate experience with high altitude
however, selecting excessive vertical speeds can manual flight control, and 5) concern for passenger
result in airspeed increases into an overspeed condi- and crew safety. While the magnitude of required
tion. Using a mode that normally reduces thrust, flight control input will vary by airplane design for
when the need arises to descend immediately, may recovery, flightcrews should be trained to expect a
not be appropriate for a low speed situation. Either longer recovery time and greater altitude loss, often
disconnect autothrottles, or use a mode that keeps thousands of feet, while the airplane accelerates to
the throttles at maximum available thrust in these gain airspeed following high altitude stall.
situations.
Also, since there is no detailed checklist or procedure
telling the pilot when to start the stall recovery and
2.5.5.11.10 Human Factors and High Altitude how much back pressure should be used for return
Upsets to level flight after stall recovery, these techniques
The flightcrew may be startled by unexpected low need to be adequately trained. For example, during
airspeed stall warnings, dynamic buffeting, and stall recovery, pilots gauge how assertively they
large changes in airplane attitude (design dependent) can pull back by using stick shaker activation to
especially when the airplane is on autopilot. While indicate when to reduce back pressure. Other pilots
flightcrews receive training on systems such as may use angle of attack limit indications on the
stick shakers to alert the pilots of impending stall, attitude indicator (if equipped) to aid in the stall
normally they do not receive realistic training in recovery. Pilots should also be aware that aggres-
actual full stall recovery, let alone stall recovery sive stall recovery and subsequent altitude recapture
at high altitudes. Hence, flight crews are inclined can result in a secondary stall during stall recovery
to respond to high altitude stalls like they have as the pilot discovers the correct level of control
been trained to respond to stall warnings, but the inputs required to recover the airplane. On the other
procedures for the latter are neither effective nor side there is the concern of accelerating into high
proper for stall recovery. Furthermore, unlike the speed buffet during the recovery if the airplane is
conditions for which the flightcrew is trained to allowed to accelerate too much.
respond to stall warnings at lower altitudes, at the
higher altitudes the available thrust is insufficient,
alone, to recover from a stall. The only effective 2.5.5.11.11 Additional Considerations
response is to reduce the angle of attack and trade
altitude for airspeed. Pilots have also reported that 2.5.5.11.11.1 Multi-Engine Flame Out
low airspeed buffet was mistaken for high speed At high altitudes, as a result of very low airspeed,
buffet which prompts an incorrect response to stall conditions, or other occurrences, an all engine

2.42
 SECTION 2

flameout may occur. This is easily detected in consisting of an uncommanded loss of thrust (de-
cruise but may be more difficult to detect during a crease in EPR or N1), which is sometimes accom-
descent. The all engine flameout demands prompt panied by an increase in EGT. Rollback can be
action regardless of altitude and airspeed. After caused by a combination of many events including
recognition, immediate accomplishment of the re- moisture, icing, fuel control issues, high angle of
call items and/or checklist associated with the loss attack disrupted airflow, and mechanical failure and
of all engines is necessary to quickly establish the usually results in flameout or core lockup. Modern
appropriate airspeed (requires a manual pitch down) airplanes alleviate most rollback issues with auto-
and to attempt a windmill relight. It should be noted relight. Additionally, updated progressive main-
that loss of thrust at higher altitudes (above 30,000 tenance programs identify potential problems and
feet) may require driftdown to a lower altitude to help to decrease rollback events. It is conceivable
improve windmill starting capability. Additionally, that pilots would recognize the results of rollback
even though the inflight start envelope is provided rather than the rollback event itself depending on
to identify the region where windmill starts can oc- workload and flight experience. If airspeed stagna-
cur, it is often demonstrated during certification that tion occurs, checking of appropriate thrust levels
this envelope does not define the only areas where is important as well as increasing airspeed in the
a windmill start may be successful. Regardless case where an engine has rolled back.
of the conditions and status of the airplane, strict
adherence to the checklist is essential to maximize
2.5.5.12 Flight at Extremely High Speeds
the probability of a successful relight.
Inadvertent excursions into extremely high speeds,
either Mach number or airspeed, should be treated
2.5.5.11.11.2 Core Lock very seriously. As noted in the section on, high-
Core lock is a phenomenon that could, in theory, altitude aerodynamics (Sec. 2.5.5.11), flight at very
occur in any turbine engine after an abnormal high Mach numbers puts the airplane in a region
thermal event (e.g., a sudden flameout at low of reduced maneuvering envelope (closer to buffet
airspeed) where the internal friction exceeds the boundaries). Many operators opt to fly at very high
external aerodynamic driving forces and the “core” altitudes, because of air traffic control (ATC) and
of the engine stops. When this occurs, differential the greater efficiencies afforded there. But operation
contraction of the cooler outside case clamps down very close to buffet-limiting altitudes restricts the
on the hotter internal components (seals, blade tips, range of Mach numbers and load factors available
etc.) preventing rotation or “locking the core.” This for maneuvering. During certification, all transport
seizure may be severe enough to exceed the driving airplanes have been shown to exhibit safe operat-
force available by increasing airspeed or from the ing characteristics with inadvertent exceedances of
starter. If differential cooling locks the core, only Mach envelopes. These exceedances may be caused
time will allow the temperature difference to equal- by horizontal gusts, penetration of jet stream or cold
ize, reduce the contact friction caused by differential fronts, inadvertent control movements, leveling off
contraction, and allow free rotation. from climb, descent from Mach-limiting to airspeed-
limiting altitudes, gust upsets, and passenger move-
After all engine flameouts, the first critical item ment. This means that the controls will operate
is to obtain safe descent speed. Then flight crews normally and airplane responses are positive and
need to determine engine status. If any of the en- predictable for these conditions. Pilots need to be
gine spools indicate zero, then a situation of core aware that the maneuvering envelope is small and
lock may exist or mechanical engine damage could that prudent corrective action is necessary to avoid
have occurred. If this case applies to all engines, exceeding the other end of the envelope during
crews must obtain best L/D airspeed instead of ac- recovery. Pilots should become very familiar with
celerating to windmill speed to obtain an optimum the high-speed buffet boundaries of their airplane
glide ratio. Crews then should consider their forced and the combinations of weights and altitudes at
landing options. In the event the seized spool(s) which they operate.
begin to rotate, a relight will be contemplated and
windmill airspeed may be necessary. Flight in the high-airspeed regime brings with it
an additional consideration of very high control
power. At speeds higher than maneuver speed VA
2.5.5.11.11.3 Rollback (Fig. 14), a single very large deflection in pitch or
Turbine engine rollback is an uncommon anomaly roll has the potential to generate structural damage

2.43
SECTION 2

or failure. A single full-scale deflection in yaw is flying an airplane. The techniques that are presented
acceptable to at least maximum operating speed. in this section are applicable for most situations. It
At any speed, large aggressive control deflec- must be emphasized that a developing upset will
tion reversals can lead to loads that can exceed define how prompt or aggressive the required control
structural design limits. It is worth a reminder inputs will be to recover from the event. In all cases
that certification flight tests involve control in- the pilot response to an upset must be appropriate
put in a single axis and single direction. Control to arrest and recover the condition. Up to full-scale
reversals will amplify the loads on the aircraft control deflections may be necessary; however,
structures, while possibly leading to overcontrol initiating recovery with arbitrary full-scale control
(and even loss of control) situations. deflections could actually aggravate the situation.
An excessive or inappropriate control input that
In either the Mach or airspeed regime, if speed overshoots the desired response can startle the pilot
is excessive, the first priority should be to reduce and cause one upset to lead to another.
speed to within the normal envelope. Many tools
are available for this, including orienting the lift An overview of actions to take to recover from
vector away from the gravity vector; adding load an upset would encompass three basic activities:
factor, which increases drag; reducing thrust; and Manage the energy, arrest the flight path divergence,
adding drag by means of the speedbrakes. As and recover to a stabilized flight path. These three
demonstrated in Section 2.5.5.7, “Mechanics of activities should be part of every recovery from an
Turning Flight,” the single most powerful force upset and provide an overview of actions taken.
the pilot has available is the wing lift force. The
second largest force acting on the airplane is the
weight vector. Getting the airplane maneuvered 2.6.1 Situation Awareness of an
so that the lift vector points in the desired direc- Airplane Upset
tion should be the first priority, and it is the first In most cases effective situational awareness will
step toward managing the energy available in the avoid an upset from developing in the first place.
airplane. However, it is important that the first actions for
recovering from an airplane upset be correct and
timely. Exaggerated control inputs through reflex
2.5.5.13 Defensive, Aggressive Maneuvers responses must be avoided. It is worth repeating
The result of events of September 11, 2001, have that inappropriate control inputs during one upset
prompted a portion of the Flight Operations commu- recovery can lead to a different upset situation.
nity to consider the use of the aircraft as a defensive Troubleshooting the cause of the upset is secondary
weapon to prevent or slow down a hijacker’s access to initiating the recovery. However, the pilot still
to a transport category aircraft flight deck. Due to must recognize and confirm the situation before
the high probability of injury to passengers/crew a recovery can be initiated. Regaining and then
and the likelihood of an upset and loss of control maintaining control of the airplane is paramount.
or damage to the aircraft, it is not recommended Communication between crew members will assist
other than as a last resort. Even then, random in the recovery actions. At the first indication of an
unplanned maneuvers outside the manufacturer’s unusual occurrence, the pilot should announce what
recommendations must be avoided. is being observed.

It is necessary to use the primary flight instruments

2.6 Recovery From Airplane Upsets and airplane performance instruments when ana-
Previous sections of this training aid review the lyzing the upset situation. Visual meteorological
causes of airplane upsets to emphasize the principle conditions may allow the use of references out-
of avoiding airplane upsets. Basic aerodynamic side the airplane. However, it can be difficult or
information indicates how and why large, swept- impossible to see the horizon because in most
wing airplanes fly. That information provides the large commercial airplanes, the field of view is
foundation of knowledge necessary for recovering restricted due to window geometry and overhead
an airplane that has been upset. This section high- panel placement. For example, the field of view from
lights several issues associated with airplane upset an airplane that exceeds a 25-deg, noseup attitude
recovery and presents basic recommended airplane- probably is limited to a view of the sky. Conversely,
recovery techniques for pilots. There are infinite the field of view is restricted to the ground for a
potential situations that pilots can experience while nose-down pitch attitude that exceeds 10 deg. In

2.44
 SECTION 2

addition, pilots must be prepared to analyze the training. Therefore memory checklists or proce-
situation during darkness and when instrument dural responses performed in training may not be
meteorological conditions (IMC) exist. Therefore, repeatable during an actual upset situation. The
the attitude direction indicator (ADI) is used as a limitations of simulators at the edges of the flight
primary reference for recovery. Compare the ADI envelope can also cause fidelity issues because
information with performance instrument indica- the simulator recovery may or may not have the
tions before initiating recovery. For a nose-low same response characteristics as the aircraft being
upset, normally the airspeed is increasing, altitude flown. However, provided the alpha and beta limits
is decreasing, and the vertical speed indicator (VSI) are not exceeded, the initial motion responses and
indicates a descent. For a nose-high upset, the instrument indications of the simulator should
airspeed normally is decreasing, altitude is increas- replicate airplane responses. The reaction of the
ing, and the VSI indicates a climb. Cross-check simulator is based on given parameters (CG,
other attitude sources, for example, the Standby weight, speeds, etc.). An actual encounter at greatly
Attitude Indicator and the pilot not flying (PNF) different parameters than those practiced in the
instruments. simulator may result in a different aircraft response.
For example, flight controls are more effective at
Pitch attitude is determined from the ADI pitch 250kn than at 150kn. These same realities exist
reference scales (sometimes referred to as pitch for thrust asymmetry, wind shear, stall recovery,
ladder bars). Most modern airplanes also use and the like.
colors (blue for sky, brown for ground) or ground
perspective lines to assist in determining whether
the airplane pitch is above or below the horizon. 2.6.2.1 Startle Factor
Even in extreme attitudes, some portion of the sky It has already been stated that airplane upsets do
or ground indications is usually present to assist the not occur very often and that there are multiple
pilot in analyzing the situation. causes for these unpredictable events. Therefore,
pilots are usually surprised or startled when an
The bank indicator on the ADI should be used to upset occurs. There can be a tendency for pilots to
determine the airplane bank. react before analyzing what is happening or to fix-
ate on one indication and fail to properly diagnose
The situation analysis process is to the situation. Proper and sufficient training is the
a. Communicate with crew members. best solution for overcoming the startle factor. The
b. Locate the bank indicator. pilot must overcome the surprise and quickly shift
c. Determine pitch attitude. into analysis of what the airplane is doing and then
d. Confirm attitude by reference to other implement the proper recovery. Gain control of
indicators. the airplane and then determine and eliminate
e. Assess the energy (refer to Section 2.5.2). the cause of the upset.

Recovery techniques presented later in this section

include the phrase, “Recognize and confirm the 2.6.2.2 Negative G Force
situation.” This situation analysis process is used Airline pilots are normally uncomfortable with
to accomplish that technique. aggressively unloading the g forces on a large pas-
senger airplane. They habitually work hard at being
very smooth with the controls and keeping a positive
2.6.2 Miscellaneous Issues Associated 1-g force to ensure flight attendant and passenger
With Upset Recovery comfort and safety. Therefore, they must overcome
There are issues associated with differences be- this inhibition when faced with having to quickly
tween simulator training and aircraft recoveries. A and sometimes aggressively unload the airplane to
simulator can provide the basic fundamentals for less than 1 g by pushing down elevator.
upset recovery, but some realities such as positive
or negative g’s, startle factor, and environmental Note: It should not normally be necessary to obtain
conditions are difficult or impossible to replicate. less than 0 g.
These limitations in simulation add a degree of
complexity to recovery from an actual aircraft While flight simulators can replicate normal flight
upset because the encounter can be significantly profiles, most simulators cannot replicate sus-
different from that experienced during simulator tained negative-g forces. Pilots must anticipate a

2.45
SECTION 2

significantly different cockpit environment during of a large, commercial, swept-wing airplane.

less-than-1-g situations. They may be floating up Airplanes with electronic flight control systems
against the seat belts and shoulder harnesses. It may may provide protection against entering into many
be difficult to reach or use rudder pedals if they are upset situations. These systems also assist the
not properly adjusted. Unsecured items such as flight airplane to return to normal flight, if necessary.
kits, approach plates, or lunch trays may be flying However, when fly-by-wire airplanes operate in
around the cockpit. These are things that the pilot a degraded mode, flight control inputs and the
must be prepared for when recovering from an upset responses can be similar to non fly-by-wire
that involves forces less than 1-g flight. airplanes.

2.6.2.3 Use of Full Control Inputs 2.6.2.6 Potential Effects on Engines

Utilizing full flight control authority is not a part of Some extreme airplane upset situations may affect
routine airline flying. Pilots must be prepared to use engine performance. Large angles of attack can
full flight control authority if the situation warrants reduce the flow of air into the engine and result in
it. In normal conditions, flight control inputs be- engine surges or compressor stalls. Additionally,
come more effective with increased speed/reduced large and rapid changes in sideslip angles can cre-
angle of attack. Conversely, at speeds approaching ate excessive internal engine side loads, which may
the critical angle of attack, larger control inputs damage an engine.
are needed for given aircraft reactions. Moreover,
during certain abnormal situations (partial high lift
devices, thrust reverser in flight) large or full-scale 2.6.2.7 Post Upset Conditions
control inputs may be required. Attitude and flight Pilots and operations managers need to consider the
path changes can be very rapid during an upset and physiological and psychological aspects that exist
in responding to these sorts of upset conditions, large after recovering from an upset. Initially, there will
control inputs may be necessary. It is important to be a tendency to overcontrol the airplane because
guard against control reversals. There is no situation of the large deviations and control inputs previously
that will require rapid full-scale control deflections experienced. Pilots need to dampen out these ex-
from one side to the other. cursions if they happen. There could be confusion
on the flight deck as to what exactly happened
to cause the original upset. Care should be taken
2.6.2.4 Counter-Intuitive Factors not to take action that could cause a repeat of the
Pilots are routinely trained to recover from previous upset or let the airplane progress into a
approach to stalls. The recovery usually requires an different kind of upset. Pilots may not be able to
increase in thrust and a relatively small reduction recall the forces experienced or the extent of the
in pitch attitude. Therefore, it may be counter- maneuvers performed to any great detail. If large
intuitive to use greater unloading control forces g-forces are experienced, then an aircraft inspec-
or to reduce thrust when recovering from a high tion would be appropriate. Pilots and operations
angle of attack, especially at lower altitudes. If managers should consider all the aspects of the
the airplane is stalled while already in a nosedown upset recovery to determine if continued flight or
attitude, the pilot must still push the nose down in crew changes are required.
order to reduce the angle of attack. Altitude can-
not be maintained and should be of secondary
importance. 2.6.3 Airplane Upset Recovery
Techniques
An Airplane Upset Recovery Team comprising
2.6.2.5 Previous Training in representatives from airlines, pilot associa-
Nonsimilar Airplanes tions, airplane manufacturers, and government
Aerodynamic principles do not change, but air- aviation and regulatory agencies developed the
plane design creates different flight characteris- techniques presented in this training aid. These
tics. Therefore, training and experience gained techniques are not necessarily procedural. Use
in one model or type of airplane may or may of both primary and secondary flight controls to
not be transferable to another. For example, the effect the recovery from an upset are discussed.
handling characteristics of a fighter-type air- Individual operators must address procedural
plane cannot be assumed to be similar to those application within their own airplane fleet

2.46
 SECTION 2

structure. The Airplane Upset Recovery Team assesses the energy and trend. This includes but
strongly recommends that techniques for initial is not limited to altitude, airspeed, attitude, load
recovery emphasize the use of primary flight factor, power setting, position of flight controls,
controls (aileron, elevator, and rudder). Second- position of drag and high-lift devices, and the rate of
ary control devices, such as stabilizer trim, change. This analysis may cause the crew to make
thrust, and speed-brakes, may be considered appropriate changes, such as use of speed brakes
incrementally to supplement primary flight or lowering the landing gear for drag as necessary
control inputs. Flight crews need to manage the to aid in the recovery. In other words, manage the
energy, arrest the flight path divergence, and energy.
recover to a stabilized flight path.

For instructional purposes, several different 2.6.3.1 Stall

airplane upset situations are discussed. These The recovery techniques assume the airplane is
include the following: not stalled. An airplane is stalled when the angle
• Nose high, wings level. of attack is beyond the stalling angle. A stall is
• Nose low, wings level. characterized by any of, or a combination of, the
-- Low airspeed. following:
-- High airspeed. a. Buffeting, which could be heavy at times.
• High bank angles. b. A lack of pitch authority.
-- Nose high. c. A lack of roll control.
-- Nose low. d. Inability to arrest descent rate.
This provides the basis for relating the aerodynamic These characteristics are usually accompanied by
information and techniques to specific situations. a continuous stall warning.
At the conclusion of this recovery techniques
section, recommended recovery techniques are A stall must not be confused with a stall warn-
summarized into two basic airplane upset situa- ing that occurs before the stall and warns of an
tions: nose high and nose low. Consolidation of approaching stall. Recovery from an approach to
recovery techniques into these two situations is done stall warning is not the same as recovering from
for simplification and ease of retention. a stall. An approach to stall is a controlled flight
maneuver. A stall is an out-of-control condition,
 Following several situations, where appropriate, but it is recoverable. To recover from the stall,
abbreviated techniques used for recovery are angle of attack must be reduced below the stalling
indicated by the solid diamond shown here. angle—apply nosedown pitch control and main-
Airplanes that are designed with electronic flight tain it until stall recovery. Under certain conditions,
control systems, commonly referred to as “fly-by- on airplanes with underwing-mounted engines, it
wire” airplanes, have features that should minimize may be necessary to reduce thrust to prevent the
the possibility that the airplane would enter into an angle of attack from continuing to increase. If the
upset and assist the pilot in recovery, if it becomes airplane is stalled, it is necessary to first recover
necessary. But, when fly-by-wire airplanes are in from the stalled condition before initiating upset
the degraded flight control mode, the recovery recovery techniques.
techniques and aerodynamic principles discussed
in this training aid are appropriate. Some envi- 2.6.3.2 Nose-High, Wings-Level
ronmental conditions can upset any airplane. But Recovery Techniques
the basic principles of recognition and recovery
Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more than
techniques still apply, independent of flight control
25 deg, nose high, and increasing.
architecture.
Airspeed decreasing rapidly.
Airplane autopilots and autothrottles are intended Ability to maneuver decreasing.
to be used when the airplane is within its nor-
mal flight regime. When an airplane has been Start by disengaging the autopilot and autothrottle
upset, the autopilot and autothrottle must be and recognize and confirm the situation. Next, apply
disconnected as a prelude to initiating recovery nosedown elevator to achieve a nosedown pitch rate.
techniques. Situational analysis of the energy This may require as much as full nosedown input.
state of the aircraft is also required. This analysis If a sustained column force is required to obtain the

2.47
SECTION 2

desired response, consider trimming off some of the Nose-high, wings-level recovery:
control force. However, it may be difficult to know  Recognize and confirm the situation.
how much trim should be used; therefore, care must  Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.
be taken to avoid using too much trim. Do not fly
the airplane using pitch trim, and stop trimming  Apply as much as full nosedown elevator.
nosedown as the required elevator force lessens. If  Use appropriate techniques:
at this point the pitch rate is not immediately under • Roll to obtain a nosedown pitch rate.
control, there are several additional techniques that • Reduce thrust (underwing-mounted
may be tried. The use of these techniques depends on engines).
the circumstances of the situation and the airplane
 Complete the recovery:
control characteristics.
• Approaching horizon, roll to wings level.
• Check airspeed, adjust thrust.
Pitch may be controlled by rolling the airplane to a
• Establish pitch attitude.
bank angle that starts the nose down. The angle of
bank should not normally exceed approximately 60
deg. Continuous nosedown elevator pressure will 2.6.3.3 Nose-Low, Wings-Level
keep the wing angle of attack as low as possible, Recovery Techniques
which will make the normal roll controls effective. Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally
With airspeed as low as the onset of the stick shaker, more than 10 deg, nose low.
or lower, up to full deflection of the ailerons and Airspeed low.
spoilers can be used. The rolling maneuver changes
the pitch rate into a turning maneuver, allowing the Recognize and confirm the situation. Disengage
pitch to decrease. (Refer to Fig. 33.) In most situa- the autopilot and autothrottle. Even in a nose-low,
tions, these techniques should be enough to recover low-speed situation, the airplane may be stalled at a
the airplane from the nose-high, wings-level upset. relatively low pitch. It is necessary to recover from
However, other techniques may also be used to the stall first. This may require nosedown elevator,
achieve a nosedown pitch rate. which may not be intuitive. Once recovered from
the stall, apply thrust. The nose must be returned to
If altitude permits, flight tests have shown that an the desired pitch by applying noseup elevator. Avoid
effective method for getting a nosedown pitch rate is a secondary stall, as indicated by stall warning or
to reduce the power on underwing-mounted engines. airplane buffet. Airplane limitations of g forces and
(Refer to Sec. 2.5.5.11, “Flight at Extremely Low airspeed must be respected. (Refer to Sec. 2.5.2,
Airspeeds.”) This reduces the upward pitch moment. “Energy States.”)
In fact, in some situations for some airplane models,
it may be necessary to reduce thrust to prevent the Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more
angle of attack from continuing to increase. This than 10 deg, nose low.
usually results in the nose lowering at higher speeds Airspeed high.
and a milder pitchdown. This makes it easier to
Recognize and confirm the situation. Disengage
recover to level flight.
the autopilot and autothrottle. Apply noseup eleva-
tor. Then it may be necessary to cautiously apply
If control provided by the ailerons and spoilers is
stabilizer trim to assist in obtaining the desired
ineffective, rudder input may be required to induce
noseup pitch rate. Stabilizer trim may be necessary
a rolling maneuver for recovery. Only a small
for extreme out-of-trim conditions. Reduce thrust,
amount of rudder input is needed. Too much rud-
and, if required, extend speedbrakes. The recovery
der applied too quickly or held too long may result
is completed by establishing a pitch, thrust, and air-
in loss of lateral and directional control. Caution
plane configuration that corresponds to the desired
must be used when applying rudder because of
airspeed. (Refer to Sec. 2.5.2, “Energy States.”)
the low-energy situation. (Refer to Sec. 2.5.5.10,
Remember that a very clean airplane can quickly
“Directional Maneuvering.”)
exceed its limits. When applying noseup elevator,
there are several factors that the pilot should con-
To complete the recovery, roll to wings level, if
sider. Obviously, it is necessary to avoid impact
necessary, as the nose approaches the horizon.
with the terrain. Do not enter into an accelerated
Recover to slightly nose-low attitude to reduce the
stall by exceeding the stall angle of attack. Airplane
potential for entering another upset. Check airspeed,
limitations of g forces and airspeed should also be
and adjust thrust and pitch as necessary.

2.48
 SECTION 2

respected. thrust may be necessary. It may be necessary to

unload the airplane by decreasing backpressure
Nose-low, wings-level recovery: to improve roll effectiveness. If the airplane has
 Recognize and confirm the situation. exceeded 90 deg of bank, it may feel like “push-
 Disengage autopilot and autothrottle. ing” in order to unload. It is necessary to unload
to improve roll control and to prevent pointing
 Recover from stall, if necessary. the lift vector towards the ground. Full aileron
 Recover to level flight: and spoiler input may be necessary to smoothly
establish a recovery roll rate toward the nearest
• Apply noseup elevator.
horizon. It is important that positive g force not
• Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary.
be increased or that nose-up elevator or stabilizer
• Adjust thrust and drag, as necessary.
trim be used until the airplane approaches wings
2.6.3.4 High-Bank-Angle level. If the application of full lateral control (ai-
Recovery Techniques lerons and spoilers) is not satisfactory, it may be
Bank angles can exceed 90 deg. In high-bank situ- necessary to apply rudder in the direction of the
ations, the primary objective is to roll the airplane desired roll. Only a small amount of rudder input
in the shortest direction to near wings level. How- is needed. Too much rudder applied too quickly
ever, if the airplane is stalled, it is first necessary or held too long may result in loss of lateral and
to recover from the stall. directional control and cause structural damage.
As the wings approach level, extend speedbrakes, if
Situation: Bank angle greater than 45 deg. required. Complete the recovery by establishing a
pitch, thrust, and airplane drag device configuration
Pitch attitude greater than 25 deg, that corresponds to the desired airspeed. In large
nose high. transport-category airplanes, do not attempt to roll
Airspeed decreasing. through (add pro-roll controls) during an upset in
order to achieve wings level more quickly. Roll in
A nose-high, high-angle-of-bank attitude requires the shortest direction to wings level.
deliberate flight control inputs. A large bank angle
is helpful in reducing excessively high pitch at-
titudes. (Refer to Sec. 2.5.5.8, “Mechanics of 2.6.3.5 Consolidated Summary of Airplane
Turning Flight.”) Recognize and confirm the Recovery Techniques
situation. Disengage the autopilot and autothrottle. These summaries incorporate high-bank-angle
Unload (reduce the angle of attack) and adjust the techniques.
bank angle, not to exceed 60 deg, to achieve a
nosedown pitch rate. Maintain awareness of Nose-high recovery:
energy management and airplane roll rate. To  Recognize and confirm the situation.
complete the recovery, roll to wings level as the
nose approaches the horizon. Recover to a slightly  Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.
nose-low attitude. Check airspeed and adjust thrust  Apply as much as full nosedown elevator.
and pitch as necessary.  Use appropriate techniques:
• Roll (adjust bank angle) to obtain a nosedown
Situation: Bank angle greater than 45 deg. pitch rate.
Pitch attitude lower than 10 deg, • Reduce thrust (underwing-mounted en-
nose low. gines).
Airspeed increasing.  Complete the recovery:
• Approaching the horizon, roll to wings
A nose-low, high-angle-of-bank attitude requires level.
prompt action, because altitude is rapidly being • Check airspeed, adjust thrust.
exchanged for airspeed. Even if the airplane is at • Establish pitch attitude.
an altitude where ground impact is not an immedi- Nose-low recovery:
ate concern, airspeed can rapidly increase beyond  Recognize and confirm the situation.
airplane design limits. Recognize and confirm the
situation. Disengage the autopilot and autothrottle.  Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.
Simultaneous application of roll and adjustment of  Recover from stall, if necessary.

2.49
SECTION 2

 Roll in the shortest direction to wings level—

bank angle more than 90 deg, unload and roll.
 Recover to level flight:
• Apply noseup elevator.
• Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary.
• Adjust thrust and drag as necessary.

After recovering the aircraft, flight crews should

assess any damage that may have occurred and the
present situation. Crews may consider methods to
further improve controllability (shifting CG, adjust-
ing flaps or gear or speedbrake, trim, descending,
control wheel breakouts, differential thrust, non-
normal procedures, etc.) as the situation dictates.
Crews should use the guidance available, consider
the issues, and in some cases, validate performance
by checks of controllability.

2.50
Section 3
 SECTION 3

Example Airplane Upset

Recovery Training Program

Section
Table of Contents
Page
3
3.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................3.1

3.1 Academic Training Program...................................................................................................3.1

3.1.1 Training Objectives............................................................................................................3.2
3.1.2 Academic Training Program Modules................................................................................3.2
3.1.3 Academic Training Syllabus...............................................................................................3.2
3.1.4 Additional Academic Training Resources..........................................................................3.3

3.2 Simulator Training Program...................................................................................................3.3

3.2.1 Simulator Limitations.........................................................................................................3.3
3.2.2 Training Objectives............................................................................................................3.4
3.2.3 Simulator Training Syllabus...............................................................................................3.4
3.2.4 Pilot Simulator Briefing......................................................................................................3.4
3.2.5 Simulator Training..............................................................................................................3.5

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Syllabus.........................................................................................3.7

Simulator Training Exercises..............................................................................................................3.11

Exercise 1. Nose-High Characteristics (Initial Training)....................................................................3.13

Exercise 1. Iteration One—Use of Nosedown Elevator.....................................................................3.13
Exercise 1. Iteration Two—Use of Bank Angle..................................................................................3.14
Exercise 1. Iteration Three—Thrust Reduction (Underwing-Mounted Engines)...............................3.15
Exercise 1. Practice—Practice Using All Techniques........................................................................3.15

Exercise 2. Nose-Low Characteristics (Initial Training)....................................................................3.17

Exercise 2. Iteration One—Nose-Low Recovery...............................................................................3.17
Exercise 2. Iteration Two—Accelerated Stall Demonstration............................................................3.18
Exercise 2. Iteration Three—High Bank Angle/Inverted Flight.........................................................3.19

Exercise 3. Optional Practice Exercise...............................................................................................3.21

Exercise 3. Instructions for the Simulator Instructor..........................................................................3.21

Exercise 4: High Altitude Stall Warning.............................................................................................3.23

Recurrent Training Exercises..............................................................................................................3.26

Appendix 3-A, Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery Questions........................................App. 3-A.1

Appendix 3-B, Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing..................................................................App. 3-B.1

Appendix 3-C, Video Script: Airplane Upset Recovery..........................................................App. 3-C.1

Appendix 3-D, Flight Simulator Information..........................................................................App. 3-D.1

Appendix 3-E, High Altitude Operations Presentation............................................................. App. 3-E.i

3.i
SECTION 2
SECTION 31
 SECTION 3

Example Airplane Upset

Recovery Training Program

3.0 Introduction The Simulator Training Program includes a simula-

3
The overall goal of the Airplane Upset Recovery tor briefing outline and simulator exercises. These
Training Aid is to increase the ability of pilots to exercises are designed for pilots to analyze upset
recognize and avoid situations that may lead to situations and properly apply recovery techniques.
airplane upsets and improve the pilots’ ability to A methodical building block approach is used so
recover control of an airplane that has exceeded the that pilots can learn the effect of each recovery
normal flight regime. This may be accomplished by technique and develop the required piloting skills
increasing awareness of potential upset situations in applying them. The recommended exercises are
and knowledge of aerodynamics and by applica- the minimum that pilots should accomplish. Opera-
tion of this knowledge during simulator training tors are encouraged to develop additional exercises
scenarios. Therefore, an academic and training and scenarios. Recurrent training should, to the
program is provided to support this goal. maximum extent possible, use real-time situation-
integrated presentations with various levels of auto-
This “Example Airplane Upset Recovery Training mation. Over several recurrent cycles, flight crews
Program” is structured to stand alone, but it may should be presented with upsets involving various
be integrated into existing initial, transition, and levels of pilot and automation interface. Good
recurrent training and check programs, if desired. communication, crew coordination, and other skills
The Academic Training Program is designed to associated with crew resource management should
improve awareness by increasing the pilot’s ability be an integral part of recurrent training in upset
to recognize and avoid those situations that cause recovery. Use of airplane systems, flight control, or
airplanes to become upset. The academic program engine malfunctions to accomplish these objectives
also provides aerodynamic information associated is encouraged. However, training scenarios should
with large, jet, swept- wing airplanes. This informa- not exceed the limitations of simulator engineering
tion provides the basis for understanding aircraft data or mechanical operation. Use of simulators
behavior in order to avoid upsets and for under- beyond their mechanical or engineering data ca-
standing why various upset recovery techniques pabilities can lead to counterproductive learning
are recommended. Finally, airplane upset recovery and should be avoided. Operators are encouraged
techniques are provided for pilots to use to return an to assess the capabilities of their simulators and
airplane to the normal flight regime once it has been improve them, if necessary, to conduct this training.
upset. Because of the infinite variables that comprise Simulator engineering information is provided in
upset situations, the Industry group unanimously Appendix 3-D. The purpose of this information is
agree that airplane upset recovery education must to aid operators in assessing simulators.
not include simulator testing criteria. By definition,
testing implies procedure demonstration and objec-
3.1 Academic Training Program
tive assessment of performance. The goal of upset
recovery is to regain aircraft flight path control. A The Academic Training Program focuses on the
testing environment could lead to similar negative elements that are important to preventing an air-
learning conclusions that can currently exist with plane from being upset and recovery techniques
approach to stall performance when measured available for returning an airplane to the normal
against minimum loss of altitude. flight regime.

3.1
SECTION 3

3.1.1 Training Objectives Pilot Guide Questions. A set of questions based

on the material contained in the Pilot Guide is
The objectives of the training program are to
contained in Appendix 3-A. These questions are
provide the pilot with the following:
designed to test the pilot’s knowledge of each
a. Aerodynamic principles of large, swept-wing section of the Pilot Guide. In an airplane upset
airplanes. recovery curriculum, these questions may be used
b. The ability to recognize situations that may in one of two ways:
lead to airplane upsets so that they may be a. As part of a pilot’s review of the Pilot Guide.
prevented.
b. As an evaluation to determine the effective-
c. Airplane flight maneuvering information and ness of the pilot’s self-study prior to subse-
techniques for recovering from an airplane quent academic or simulator training for upset
upset. recovery.
d. Skill in using upset recovery techniques.
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing. A paper copy
A suggested syllabus is provided, with the knowl- of viewfoils with descriptive words for each one
edge that no single training format or curriculum that can be used for a classroom presentation is
is best for all operators or training situations. All contained in Appendix 3-B. The briefing supports
training materials have been designed to “stand a classroom discussion of the Pilot Guide.
alone.” As a result, some redundancy of the subject
material occurs. However, using these materials Video (optional). Airplane Upset Recovery—This
together in the suggested sequence will enhance video is in two parts. Part One is a review of causes
overall training effectiveness. of the majority of airplane upsets. It emphasizes
awareness as a means of avoiding these events.
Part One also presents basic aerodynamic informa-
3.1.2 Academic Training Program tion about large, swept-wing airplanes. This part
Modules of the video provides the background necessary
for understanding the principles associated with
The following academic training modules are
recovery techniques. Part Two presents airplane
available for preparing an academic training
upset recovery techniques for several different upset
curriculum.
situations. Part Two is excellent as an academic
portion of recurrent training.
Pilot Guide. The “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset
Recovery” (Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid,
Sec. 2) is a comprehensive treatment of prevention 3.1.3 Academic Training Syllabus
and lessons learned from past upset accidents and
All or part of the suggested Academic Training
incidents. The pilot guide is designed as a document
Program can be presented. The most effective
that should be reviewed by an individual pilot at
method is a combination of all of the previous
any time before formal upset recovery academic
academic training modules into a comprehensive
or simulator training.
training syllabus. The information provided in this

Figure 1 Training Module Method of Presentation

Suggested Academic
Training Program
Pilot Guide (Section 2) Self-study/classroom: The pilot can either study
and review section 2 or a presentation can be given
using Appendix 3-B.

Pilot Guide Questions (Section 3-A) Self-study/classroom: The pilot can study and review
section 3A or a standup briefing from an instructor
can be conducted.

Video (Section 3-C) Classroom: The video can be presented after or

before self-study/classroom.

3.2
 SECTION 3

training guide can be utilized as recommended or Instructors may be called on to maneuver the simula-
can be configured into e-based training if desired. tor to assist the pilot-in-training in order to obtain
Figure 1 shows a suggested Academic Training the desired parameters and learning objectives.
Program. The instructors need to be properly trained to avoid
nonstandardized or ineffective training.

3.1.4 Additional Academic Training

Resources 3.2.1 Simulator Limitations
The Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid is Simulator capabilities have evolved to provide ac-
provided in CD-ROM DOS format. The complete curate duplication of airplane characteristics within
document and the two-part video are included in the normal operating envelope. Since the normal
this format. This allows for more flexible training working environment of the airline pilot does
options and makes the information readily available not encompass vertical or lateral load transients,
to pilots. For example, the Pilot Guide (Sec. 2 of simulator limitations in that area are negligible.
the document) may be printed from the CD-ROM However, airplane upsets often will involve g load
format and distributed to all pilots. excursions and these cannot be duplicated within
the simulator environment. They have not been
designed for the purpose of replicating upsets, and
3.2 Simulator Training Program as such, whenever maneuvering involves vertical
The Simulator Training Program addresses tech- or lateral loading, the realism degrades. This is a
niques that pilots should use to recover an airplane very important point for both the trainee and the
that has been upset. Training and practice are pro- instructor. Instructional content must acknowledge
vided to allow the pilot to, as a minimum, recover this limitation and fortify instructional content based
from nose-high and nose-low airplane upsets. The upon the trainee’s prior flight experience with g
exercises have been designed to meet the follow- load excursions. Without this instructional input,
ing criteria: a positive learning goal can be transformed into a
negative learning experience.
a. Extensive simulator engineering modification
will not be necessary. Simulator fidelity relies on mathematical models
b. All exercises will keep the simulator within and data provided by the airplane manufacturer.
the mathematical models and data provided The simulator is updated and validated by the
by the airplane manufacturer. manufacturer using flight data acquired during the
flight test program. Before a simulator is approved
c. Exercises will not result in negative or coun- for crew training, it must be evaluated and qualified
terproductive training. by a regulatory authority. This process includes a
quantitative comparison to actual flight data for
To be most effective, simulator training requires the certain test conditions, such as those specified
pilot-in-training to be familiar with the material in in the International Civil Aviation Organization
the Academic Training Program. (ICAO) Manual of Criteria for the Qualification of
Flight Simulators. These flight conditions represent
Simulator training exercises are developed so that airplane operation within the normal operating
an operator needs only minimum training capability envelope.
to encourage the implementation of an effective air-
plane upset recovery training program. The training When properly accomplished, the training recom-
exercises may be initiated by several means: mended in this training aid should be within the
a. Manual maneuvering to the demonstration normal operating envelope for most simulators.
parameters. However, operators must assess their simulators
to ensure their ability to support the exercises.
b. Automated simulator presets. This assessment should include, at a minimum,
aerodynamic math models; their associated data
c. Stabilizer trim to induce the demonstration as tables; and the performance capabilities of visual,
best suits the pilot-in-training requirements. flight instrument, and motion systems to support
d. Other appropriate airplane-system, flight- maneuvers performed in the simulator.
control, or engine malfunctions.

3.3
SECTION 3

Appendix 3-D, “Flight Simulator Information,” was result from control input during certain recovery
developed to aid operators and training organiza- situations.
tions in assessing their simulators. The information
is provided by airplane manufacturers and based on The importance of providing feedback to a pilot
the availability of information. Simulator manufac- when control inputs would have exceeded airframe,
turers are another source for information. physiological, or simulator model limits must be
recognized and addressed. Some simulator operators
The simulation may be extended to represent regions have effectively used a simulator’s “crash” mode
outside the typical operating envelope by using to indicate limits have been exceeded. Others have
reliable predictive methods. However, flight data chosen to turn the visual system red when given
are not typically available for conditions where parameters have been exceeded. Simulator opera-
flight testing would be very hazardous. From an tors should work closely with training departments
aerodynamic standpoint, the regimes of flight that in selecting the most productive feedback method
are not generally validated fully with flight test data when selected parameters are exceeded.
are the stall region and the region of high angle of
attack with high-sideslip angle. While numerous
approaches to a stall or stalls are flown on each 3.2.2 Training Objectives
model (available test data are normally matched The objective of the Simulator Training Program
on the simulator), the flight controls are not fully is to provide pilots with the necessary experience
exercised during an approach to stall, or during and skills to
a full stall, because of safety concerns. Training
maneuvers in this regime of flight must be carefully a. Recognize and confirm airplane upset.
tailored to ensure that the combination of angle of b. Gain confidence and understanding in maneu-
attack and sideslip angle reached in the maneuver vering the airplane during upsets.
do not exceed the range of validated data or ana-
lytical/extrapolated data supported by the airplane c. Successfully apply proper airplane upset
manufacturer. The values of pitch, roll, and heading recovery techniques.
angles, however, do not affect the aerodynamics of
the simulator or the validity of the training as long
as angle of attack and sideslip angles do not exceed 3.2.3 Simulator Training Syllabus
values supported by the airplane manufacturer. For The training given during initial, transition, and
example, a full 360-deg roll maneuver conducted recurrent phases of training should follow a building
without exceeding the valid range of the angle of block approach. The first time an upset is introduced,
attack and sideslip angle will be correctly replicated it should be well briefed and the pilot should have
from an aerodynamic standpoint. However, the general knowledge of how the airplane will react.
forces imposed on the pilot and the ratio of control Since full limits of control forces may be necessary
forces to inertial and gravity forces will not be during a recovery from an upset, it may be appropri-
representative of the airplane. ate to allow the pilot opportunity for maneuvering
using all flight control inputs.
Simulator technology continues to improve, which
allows more training opportunities. However, Exercises are initiated by the instructor pilot. Once
trainers and pilots must understand that simula- the desired upset situation is achieved, the pilot-
tors still cannot replicate all things. For example, in-training then applies appropriate techniques to
sustained g forces, both negative and positive, return the airplane to its normal flight regime or
are not replicated. This means that a pilot cannot to maneuver the airplane during certain demon-
rely on complete sensory feedback that would be strations, depending on the exercise. It may take
available in an actual airplane. Additionally, such several iterations before the pilot-in-training has the
things as loose items that would likely be floating required skills for recovering the airplane.
in the cockpit during a negative-g situation are
clearly not replicated in the simulator. However,
a properly programmed simulator should provide 3.2.4 Pilot Simulator Briefing
accurate control force feedback (absent any sus- Pilots should be familiar with the material in the
tained g loading), and the motion system should Ground Training Program before beginning Air-
provide airframe buffet consistent with the aerody- plane Upset Recovery Training. However, a briefing
namic characteristics of the airplane which could should be given to review the following:

3.4
 SECTION 3

a. Situation analysis process:

1. Callout of the situation.
2. Location of the bank indicator.
3. Determination of the pitch attitude.
4. Confirmation of attitude by reference to other
indicators.
5. Assessment of the energy.
b. Controlling the airplane before determining
the cause of the upset.
c. Use of full control inputs.
d. Counter-intuitive factors.
e. G-force factors.
f. Use of automation.
g. Recovery techniques for nose-high and
nose-low upsets.
h. Limitations of simulator
1. Angle of attack, sideslip, and fidelity
2. Forces experienced

3.2.5 Simulator Training

The following is a sample lesson description and
instructor notes that can be used by an operator
to conduct airplane upset recovery training in the
simulator.

Before flying the simulator training exercises, it is

highly recommended that the pilot be exposed to the
handling characteristics and airplane responses to
the primary and secondary flight control and thrust
inputs that will be used to effect recovery from an
airplane upset. The sample lesson describes the
preexercise preparation. The proficiency and skill
of the pilot-in-training should be considered in
determining the amount of preexercise preparation.
Operators may select the events described or may
develop others, depending on airplane model.

During simulator training exercises for upset rec-

ognition and recovery, it is recommended that the
instructor be in a position to fully view the control
inputs applied during recovery. This ensures the
instructor has the ability to assess the control inputs
being used and likewise the ability to make timely
and relevant critique of the recovery event. Should
the necessity arise, the instructor should be capable
of demonstrating proper recovery technique.

3.5
SECTION 3

3.6
 SECTION 3

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Syllabus

Lesson Summary
3
This lesson is a flight from Grant County International Airport. The crew does not perform a complete
preflight. Overhead panel, MCP, IRS alignment, and engines are the responsibility of the IP. The student(s)
will load the FMC. A normal takeoff will be conducted, followed by exercises in handling characteristics,
airplane responses to primary and secondary flight control, and thrust inputs that will be used to effect
recovery from an airplane upset. The preexercise preparation events are flown with the pilot-in-training
at the controls. The intent is to allow the pilots to gain confidence in their ability to fly the airplane when
it is outside its normal flight regime. This preparation provides the opportunity for pilots to develop
recovery decision-making skills and become familiar with the use of operator procedures. This in turn
prepares the pilot for completing the nose-high and nose-low follow-on exercises. During recovery
practice, the student will experience three nose-high and three nose-low airplane upsets. Each of these
maneuvers requires the pilot to return the airplane to a normal flight condition. The expectation is that
the student learns to manage the energy, arrest the flight path divergence, and recover to a stabilized
flight path. A random nose high and nose-low exercise will be given after the training maneuvers.

The nose-high recovery will be set up so that at least a 40-deg noseup condition is reached. For the
nose- low recovery, at least a 20-deg nose-low attitude will be reached. In all cases the instructor will
attempt to maintain the airplane within the fidelity of the simulator motion and capability.

Lesson Objectives
• Attain better understanding of the aerodynamic principles of large, swept-wing airplanes.
• Have a thorough understanding of application of flight controls in reference to roll rate, pitch rate, and
the interrelationship with thrust, particularly for underwing-mounted engines.
• Be able to recognize situations that may lead to airplane upsets so that they may be prevented.
• Recognize and confirm airplane upset.
• Gain confidence and understanding in maneuvering the airplane during upsets.
• Develop skill for recovery from a nose-high airplane upset.
• Demonstrate low-speed and high-speed accelerated stall recovery.
• Develop skill for recovery from a nose-low airplane upset.

Route of Flight
ORIGIN KMWH, Hold Short of Runway
ROUTE EPH, direct ELN, direct MWH
DEPARTURE Radar Vectors
DESTINATION Grant County International Airport (KMWH)
ALTERNATE Spokane International Airport (KGEG)
FLIGHT NUMBER TRAINER XX

3.7
SECTION 3

Performance
GROSS WT: Max Landing Weight FLAPS Appropriate for runway (use
average operational flap setting).
CG: Mid-Range

FUEL: 2+ hours
ZFW: Appropriate for conditions WIND 230/10
RESERVES: 1 Hour SLOPE 0
CRZ ALT 3000 ft EO ACCEL HT 1000 ft
COST INDEX Appropriate for conditions ACCEL HT 1000 ft
THRUST LIM TO 2 or 49°C THR REDUCTION 1500 ft

Weather
MWH Clear / 20 miles // Temperature 59°F (15°C) / D.P. 50°F (10°C) // Wind 230 / 10 // QNH 29.92
HG (1013 MB) // ILS RWY 32R in use / Landing and departing RWY 32R.

Clearance
Trainer xx is cleared to the Grant County International Airport, Direct EPH, Direct ELN, Direct MWH,
Departure control frequency 128.5 squawk 1444.

Preflight
Student and Instructor should setup through the after start checklist. Begin with Before Takeoff
Checklist.

T/O
Climb initially to 3000 ft, stabilize at a speed and configuration the aircraft would have just prior to
gear lowering on approach. It is recommended not accomplish these exercises at high altitude because
pitch attitudes may be unachievable.

Handling Characteristics/Airplane Response

1. Roll rate with full aileron/spoiler input: controls.
Student should roll to 60 deg of bank, neutral-
ize the controls at 60 deg, then rapidly roll 2. Roll rate with rudder input: Student should
in the opposite direction to 60 deg of bank, roll using only rudder to 15 deg of bank, neu-
neutralize the controls at 60 deg, and then tralize the controls at 15 deg, then rapidly roll
return to level flight. Maintain approximately in the opposite direction to 15 deg of bank,
level flight and constant airspeed. During the neutralize the controls at 15 deg, and then
training exercise, the student will practice us- return to level flight. Maintain approximately
ing full rates of aileron authority. A common level flight and constant airspeed. Large
student error is trying to be too smooth or swept-wing transport aircraft are normally not
not using full control authority when needed. maneuvered with the rudder except for non-
With large roll rates the student should notice normal flight control conditions, takeoff and
the increased drag. The student should note landing crosswinds, or when there are asym-
the rate of roll and the controllability. Do not metric thrust requirements. It is very easy for
let the student do rapid cyclic reversals of the the airplane to exceed normal bank conditions

3.8
 SECTION 3

when rudder is used to roll the airplane during lized condition, rapidly retard one engine to
these conditions. The instructor may suggest idle. Recover when reaching 30 deg of bank.
that the student put his hands on the column Note the rapid onset of roll without autopilot
only to maneuver in pitch. In this exercise, input.
the student will practice using the rudder at
different amounts of rudder displacement and 8. Approach to stall recovery (PLI/Stick Shaker)
rates to see how the airplane reacts. The stu- using only pitch control: Reduce thrust from
dent should note the roll rate and the control- a stabilized condition and maintain altitude
lability difficultly. The student should note the until stick shaker or airplane buffet is noted.
delay of roll and nose movement when rudder Recover to previous stabilized airspeed using
is applied and then the roll due to sideslip. pitch control only. Although not a recom-
Do not allow the student to reverse the rudder mended technique for recovery, the student
inputs in a cyclic manner. will note the importance of controlling the
angle of attack in order to recover. Note re-
3. Pitch change with use of only stabilizer trim: covery pitch attitude and altitude loss.
Adjust stabilizer trim nose high and nose low
and note the rate of pitch change and forces. Fly-by-wire qualities (if applicable): Demonstrate
Pitch rate change occurs slowly because the fly-by-wire safety features that enhance control-
stabilizer trim change is slow. Column forces lability and help prevent upsets.
can be considerable after large stabilizer
movements. During a low speed condition, Exploring Jet Upset Parameters: In this exercise
or a very high-speed condition, there may not the student will fly the airplane beyond the defined
be enough elevator authority to recover the upset parameters (e.g., pitch attitude greater than
airplane to a stable condition. 25 deg, nose up; pitch attitude greater than 10 deg,
nose down, bank angle greater than 45 deg). This
4. Pitch change with the use of thrust adjust- familiarizes the pilot-in-training with the picture of
ments: From a stabilized power setting, an upset situation. It allows practice in recogniz-
rapidly add full power and note the pitch ing an upset and applying the correct maneuver to
change at return to normal flight regime, helps to incorporate
this low speed. From a stabilized power proper control inputs, including primary and sec-
setting, reduce thrust rapidly to idle. Under- ondary controls and thrust, as well as integrate the
wing-mounted engines will induce a signifi- procedural steps for upset recovery (e.g., recogniz-
cant ing and confirming the situation, disengaging the
noseup pitch with power addition on most autopilot and autothrottle, etc.)
models. This pitch up would be even more
significant at an even lower speed and less Accelerate to within 25 kn of Vmo while maintaining
significant at higher speeds. 3000 ft. Repeat the above conditions as necessary
5. Pitch change with the use of speedbrakes: and within high-speed maneuvering limitations.
From a stabilized condition, rapidly deploy Note the differences that exist at the high-speed
the flight spoilers. Normally, deployment of condition.
speedbrakes will cause the airplane to pitch
up. This usually becomes more pronounced as The instructor should identify common pilot-
speed increases. in-training errors during the preexercise prepa-
ration. Examples of these errors include the
6. Yaw motion and resultant roll due to asym- following:
metric thrust with autopilot: From a stabilized
a. Initiating the roll in the wrong direction.
condition with the autopilot on, reduce thrust
rapidly to idle on one engine. Note the yaw b. Applying elevator backpressure when over
and resultant roll. Note the autopilot’s attempt 90 deg of bank.
to control roll and the decaying condition
with airspeed reducing. Note the forces and c. Failure to use up to full control inputs when
necessary inputs to recover after disconnect- required.
ing autopilot. d. Failure to use established operator techniques
7. Yaw motion and resultant roll due to asym- or procedures.
metric thrust without autopilot: From a stabi-

3.9
SECTION 3

3.10
 SECTION 3

Simulator Training Exercises

Exercise 1. Nose-High Characteristics

3
Objective
• Develop skills for recovery from a nose-high airplane upset.

Exercise 2. Nose-Low Characteristics

Objectives
• Demonstrate low-speed and high-speed accelerated stalls.
• Develop skills for recovery from a nose-low airplane upset.

Exercise 3. Optional Practice Exercise

Objectives
• Develop skills for recovery from a nose-high, low-energy airplane upset.
• Expose the pilot to a realistic airplane upset that requires disengaging the autopilot and autothrottle.

Exercise 4. High Altitude Stall Warning Exercise

3.11
SECTION 3

3.12
 SECTION 3

Exercise 1. Nose-High Characteristics (Initial Training)

Objective
Develop skills for recovery from a nose-high airplane upset.

General Description
This exercise should be used for initial training. The pilot is exposed to airplane nose-high aerodynamic
characteristics. The exercise is designed to allow the pilot-in-training to develop proficiency in techniques
for recovering from a nose-high airplane upset. Specifically, the pilot-in-training is required to recover
from a minimum of a 40-deg, nose-high upset by recognizing and confirming the situation, verifying
that the autopilot and autothrottle are disengaged, and applying appropriate recovery techniques. The
first iteration requires the pilot-in-training to use up to full nose-down elevator. The second iteration
requires the pilot-in-training to roll the airplane as a technique for reducing the pitch. The third itera-
tion requires the pilot-in-training to use thrust reduction as a pitch-reduction recovery technique, if the
airplane model has underwing-mounted engines. All iterations require the pilot to complete the recovery
by rolling to wings level, if necessary, and, at the appropriate time, checking airspeed and establishing
a final recovery pitch attitude.

Initial Conditions
Altitude: 1000 to 5000 ft above ground level.
Center of gravity: Midrange.
Airspeed: Maneuvering plus 50 kn.
Autopilot: Disengaged.
Autothrottle: Disengaged.
Attitude: 40-deg, noseup pitch, wings level.

Exercise 1. Iteration One—Use of Nosedown Elevator

Instructions for the Instructor Pilot

1. Establish initial conditions. Briefly point out or discuss the pitch-angle scale for various pitch at-
titudes. Have the pilot-in-training note the pitch attitude for the initial conditions.
2. Initiate the exercise by the following means:
a. Manual maneuvering to the demonstration parameters. Add full power and slowly pitch up
wings level to slightly greater than 40 deg nose up. The instructor should add noseup trim as
much as possible during the pitch up so that the airplane will want to pitch up further upon the
exchange of control to the pilot-in-training. Slightly reduce power just prior to exchange
of control.
b. Automated simulator presets.
3. Transfer airplane control to the pilot-in-training.
4. As the airplane pitch attitude passes approximately 40 deg, instruct the pilot-in-training to initiate
recovery by simulating disengaging the autopilot and autothrottle and countering pitch: by use of
up to full nosedown elevator and, if required, by using stabilizer trim to relieve elevator control
pressure. A steady nosedown pitch rate should be achieved and it should be noted that the airplane
would be near zero g and the associated characteristics of such.
5. The pilot-in-training completes the recovery when approaching the horizon by checking airspeed,
adjusting thrust, and establishing the appropriate pitch attitude and stabilizer trim setting for level
flight.

3.13
SECTION 3

Common Instructor Pilot Errors

a. Achieves inadequate airspeed at entry.
b. Attains stall angle of attack because of a too aggressive pull-up.
c. Does not achieve full parameters before transfer of airplane control to the pilot-in-training.

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors

a. Fails to simulate disengaging the autopilot and autothrottle.
b. Hesitates to use up to full control input.
c. Overtrims nosedown stabilizer.
d. Fails to induce noseup stablilizer trim.

Exercise 1. Iteration Two—Use of Bank Angle

Instructions for the Instructor Pilot
1. Establish initial conditions.
2. Initiate the exercise by the following means:
a. Manual maneuvering to the demonstration parameters. Add full power and slowly pitch up
wings level to slightly greater than 40 deg nose up. The instructor should add noseup trim
as much as possible during the pitch up so that the airplane will want to pitch up further upon
the exchange of control to the pilot-in-training. Slightly reduce power just prior to exchange
of control.
b. Automated simulator presets.
3. Slowly release the control column.
4. Have the pilot-in-training roll the airplane until a nosedown pitch rate is achieved. Some forward
column pressure may be required. 30 to 60 deg roll should be sufficient to establish a nosedown
pitch rate. Avoid bank angles in excess of 60 deg.

Common Instructor Pilot Errors

a. Too low of speed at entry (not enough energy).
b. Stalls the airplane before pull-up is completed.
c. Fails to induce noseup stablilizer trim.

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors

a. Achieves the required roll too slowly, which allows the nose to drop too slowly and airspeed to
become excessively low.
b. Continues the roll past what is required to achieve a nosedown pitch rate; therefore, the difficulty
of recovery is unnecessarily increased.
c. Rolls out at a pitch attitude that is too high for conditions and encounters an approach to stall.

3.14
 SECTION 3

Exercise 1. Iteration Three—Thrust Reduction (Underwing-Mounted Engines)

Instructions for the Instructor Pilot
1. Establish initial conditions.
2. Initiate the exercise by the following means:
a. Manual maneuvering to the demonstration parameters. Add full power and slowly pitch up
wings level to slightly greater than 40 deg nose up. The instructor should keep the airplane
neutrally trimmed up to the exchange of control to the pilot-in-training.
b. Automated simulator presets.
3. Slowly release the control column.
4. Transfer airplane control to the pilot-in-training.
5. Instruct the pilot-in-training to initiate recovery by reducing thrust to approximately midrange
until a detectable nosedown pitch rate is achieved.
6. The pilot-in-training completes the recovery when approaching the horizon by checking airspeed,
adjusting thrust, and establishing the appropriate pitch attitude and stabilizer trim setting for level
flight.

Common Instructor Pilot Errors

a. Fails to keep trim neutral.
b. Fails to achieve entry parameters.
c. Stalls the airplane before pull-up is completed.

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors

a. Fails to simulate disengaging the autopilot and autothrottle.
b. Fails to reduce thrust sufficiently to obtain nosedown pitch.
c. Reduces thrust excessively.

Exercise 1—Practice Using All Techniques

If training time permits, the instructor should allow the pilot-in-training to use all three techniques to
effect a recovery. The instructor should place the airplane in a position similar to the previous iterations
with some small bank angle already achieved. Stabilizer trim should be as much nose up as possible.
Allow the student to use all available techniques to recover the airplane.

3.15
SECTION 3

3.16
 SECTION 3

Exercise 2. Nose-Low Characteristics (Initial Training)

Objectives
• Demonstrate low-speed and high-speed accelerated stalls.
• Develop skills for recovery from a nose-low airplane upset.

General Description
This exercise should be used for initial training. Selected iterations should also be used for recurrent
training as determined by the operator. The pilot is exposed to airplane nose-low aerodynamic char-
acteristics. The exercise is designed to demonstrate what an approach to accelerated stall is and how
to recover from it. The pilot-in-training is required to recover from a minimum of a 20-deg nose-low
upset. High-bank-angle (up to inverted flight), nose-low upset iterations are used. To recover, the
pilot-in-training recognizes and confirms the situation and verifies that the autopilot and autothrottle
are disengaged. Thrust is adjusted for the appropriate energy condition. For a satisfactory nose-low
recovery, the pilot-in-training must avoid ground impact and accelerated stall and respect g-force and
airspeed limitations. The pilot-in-training is required to recover to stabilized flight with a pitch, thrust,
and airplane configuration that corresponds to the desired airspeed.

Initial Conditions

Altitude: 5000 to 10000 ft above ground level.

Center of gravity: Midrange.

Airspeed: Flaps up maneuvering speed.

Autopilot: Disengaged.

Autothrottle: Disengaged.

Attitude: Level flight.

Exercise 2. Iteration One—Nose Low Recovery

Instructions for the Instructor Pilot

1. Begin the exercise while in level unaccellerated flight at flaps up maneuver speed.
2. Have the pilot-in-training pull up gently to 20 deg nose up and then start to slowly roll the aircraft
while allowing the nose to drop.
3. Have the pilot-in-training observe the nose drop and airspeed increase and the outside view
change to mostly ground with just a 10- to 20-deg nose-low altitude.
4. Shoot for approximately 20 deg nose low and 60 to 70 deg of bank before initiating recovery.
5. Instruct the pilot-in-training to recover by recognizing and confirming the situation; verifying that
the autopilot and autothrottle are disengaged; rolling to approaching wings level, then applying
noseup elevator; applying stabilizer trim, if necessary; and adjusting thrust and drag as necessary.

Common Instructor Pilot Errors

• Allowing airplane to exceed limits of the simulator or past the airspeed limits of the airplane thus
causing negative training.

3.17
SECTION 3

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors

a. Forgets to disengage the autopilot and or autothrottle.
b. Fails to use full control inputs.
c. Initiates pull-up before approaching wings level.
d. Attempts to precisely obtain wings level and delays pull-up.
e. Enters secondary stall.
f. Exceeds positive g force during pull-up.
g. Fails to reduce thrust to idle for high speed.
h. Fails to use speedbrakes, if required.
i. Achieves inadequate pull-up to avoid ground impact.

Exercise 2. Iteration Two—Accelerated Stall Demonstration

Instructions for the Instructor Pilot

1. Establish initial conditions.

2. Initiate the exercise by the following means:
The instructor should apply noseup elevator and some small amount of noseup stabilizer trim
to slowly achieve approximately a 20-deg noseup pitch. Do not change the entry thrust. Upon
reaching approximately a 20-deg noseup pitch, roll the airplane to approximately 90 deg of bank
and allow the nose to fall. Tell pilot-in-training to maintain this bank for the first accelerated stall
recovery.
3. Have the pilot-in-training note the reduced ability to visually detect the horizon once below
10 deg, nose low.
4. Transfer airplane control to the pilot-in-training.
5. When slightly nose low and at minimal airspeed, have the pilot-in-training apply sufficient
backpressure until achieving stick shaker. Note the airspeed then unload to eliminate stick shaker.
Emphasis should be that recovery should then be conducted but for demonstration purposes (to
show both high- and low-speed accelerated stalls) the bank will be maintained and airspeed al-
lowed to increase. At a high airspeed, once again have the student apply sufficient backpressure
until achieving stick shaker. Note the airspeed, then unload and initiate recovery.
6. Recovery is accomplished by recognizing and confirming the situation and verifying that the au-
topilot and autothrottle are disengaged. The pilot-in-training rolls to approaching wings level and
then recovers to level flight by applying noseup elevator and noseup stabilizer trim, if necessary,
and adjusting thrust and drag as necessary.

Common Instructor Pilot Errors

a. Allows airspeed to become excessive for final recovery.
b. Allows the pilot-in-training to pull to stick shaker too quickly, and angle of attack
exceeds simulator fidelity.
c. Allows the pilot-in-training to reduce bank angle and pitch before final recovery.

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors

a. Too aggressive of a pull results in aggravated stall and lack of simulator realism.

3.18
 SECTION 3

b. Fails to sufficiently unload the aircraft.

c. Rolls to wings level while simultaneously applying large amounts of backpressure.
d. Adjusts bank angle when near wings level to achieve wings level and delays pull-up.
e. Fails to retard thrust and deploy speedbrakes as needed.

Exercise 2. Iteration Three—High Bank Angle/Inverted Flight

Instructions for the Instructor Pilot

1. Establish initial conditions.

2. Initiate the exercise by the following means:
a. Manual maneuvering to the demonstration parameters.
b. Automated simulator presets.
Note: For manual maneuvering to the demonstration parameters, the instructor pilot applies noseup
elevator assisted with small amounts of noseup stabilizer trim to slowly achieve approximately
a 20-deg noseup pitch. Do not change entry thrust.
3. Instructor should roll the airplane slowly to achieve approximately 110 to 120 deg of bank and
approximately 20 deg nose low.
4. Transfer airplane control to the pilot-in-training.
5. Have the pilot-in-training note the reduced ability to visually detect the horizon.
6. When approximately 20 deg below the horizon, the pilot-in-training recovers by recognizing and
confirming the situation and verifying that the autopilot and autothrottle are disengaged. The pilot-
in-training must unload and roll. The pilot-in-training, when approaching wings level, recovers
to level flight by applying noseup elevator and noseup stabilizer trim, if necessary, and adjusting
thrust and drag as necessary.

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors

a. Forgets to disengage the autopilot or autothrottle.
b. Fails to unload.
c. Fails to use sufficient control inputs.
d. Initiates pull-up before approaching wings level.
e. Attempts to precisely obtain wings level and delays pull-up.
f. Exceeds positive g-force limits during pull-up.
g. Fails to reduce thrust to idle for high speed.
h. Fails to use speedbrakes, if required.
i. Achieves inadequate pull-up to avoid ground impact.

Common Instructor Pilot Errors

a. Allows airspeed to become excessive for final recovery.
b. Allows the pilot-in-training to pull to stick shaker too quickly
and exceed stall angle of attack or g-force limit.
c. Fails to notice improper control inputs.

3.19
SECTION 3

3.20
 SECTION 3

Exercise 3. Optional Practice Exercise

Objectives
• Develop skills for recovery from a nose-high, low-energy airplane upset.
• Expose the pilot to a realistic airplane upset that requires disengaging the autopilot and autothrottle.

General Description
This exercise may be used for initial training modified for the airplane model. It is a good example for a
recurrent training scenario. The instructor pilot is not required to occupy a pilot position. No additional
training time is required, since a normal takeoff and departure is continued. The pilots are exposed to
a nose-high, low-energy situation. It allows the pilot-in-training to experience a challenging airplane
upset recovery. The focus of this exercise is on the entry and recovery from an airplane upset, not on
the engine thrust reduction. Malfunction analysis or nonnormal procedure accomplishment should not
be done. A normal takeoff is made. During the second segment climb with the autopilot and autothrottle
engaged at 1000 ft above ground level, thrust is reduced to idle on one engine (the outboard engine for
airplanes with more than two engines). The intent is to create a nose-high, significant yaw and roll con-
dition with decreasing airspeed. The instructor should be the one who reduces the throttle and informs
the crew to wait to react to the condition. When the bank angle is approximately 45 deg, the instructor
pilot informs the pilot-in-training to recover by using appropriate recovery techniques. After recovery,
normal thrust is restored.

Initial Conditions
Altitude: 1000 ft above ground level and climbing.

Center of gravity: Midrange.

Airspeed: Second segment climb airspeed.

Autopilot: Engaged.

Autothrottle: Engaged.

Thrust: As required.

Target parameters: 45-deg bank angle.

Autopilot and autothrottle engaged.
Minimum of 1000 ft above ground level.

Exercise 3. Instructions for the Simulator Instructor

1. Establish initial conditions.
2. Maintain thrust on other engine(s). Instructor may have to hold throttle in idle against autothrottle
commands until recovery initiated. In certain envelope protected airplanes, certain features may
have to be disabled to allow this scenario to work.
3. Have the pilot-in-training observe the developing yaw and roll condition and decreasing airspeed.
4. Upon passing 45 deg of bank, instruct the pilot-in-training to recover by assessing the energy, dis-
engaging the autopilot and autothrottle, and applying appropriate recovery techniques. Roll control
may require as much as full aileron and spoiler input and use of coordinated rudder.
5. After recovery, normal thrust is used and training continues.

3.21
SECTION 3

Common Instructor Pilot Errors

a. Autopilot and autothrottle are not engaged at 1000 ft above ground level.
b. Has the pilot-in-training initiate recovery before allowing the autopilot to fly to 45 deg of
bank angle.

Common Pilot-in-Training Errors

a. Forgets to disengage the autopilot or autothrottle.
b. Fails to unload.
c. Fails to use full control inputs.
d. Fails to complete the recovery before ground impact.

Common Student Errors

a. Student fails to/or is slow to disconnect autopilot and autothrottle.
b. Student fails to use full roll control during recovery.
c. Student fails to manage pitch during roll upset, resulting in ground contact or approach to stall.
d. Student fails to input rudder after recovery for asymmetric thrust condition.

3.22
 SECTION 3

Exercise 4. High Altitude Stall Warning

Lesson: High Altitude Stall Warning Performance Package: TBD
Lesson Type: Train to Proficiency Pre-Brief Time: TBD
Minimum Device: Full Flight Simulator Preparation Time: TBD
Sim Time TBD
Preparations Time: TBD
De-Brief Time: TBD
Introduction: The purpose of this LOFT training aid is to assist operators of high altitude
jet airplanes. The high altitude slowdown to an approach to stall represents
a threat that has resulted in accidents and incidents when mismanaged. This
simulator training is to assist crews in managing this threat. The exercise is not
intended to train an actual jet upset or full stall, it only has the airplane reach
the indications of an approach to stall before a recovery is initiated. Operators
should consider a number of factors to determine how realistic their simulator
will respond to this training scenario. Operators should determine the optimum
manner to set up this scenario to achieve the goals of the training.
Goals of Training: 1. Reinforce understanding of applicable high altitude characteristics
2. Assess how to determine cruise altitude capability
3. Reinforce acceptable climb techniques and acknowledge the risks associ-
ated with various climb scenarios and in particular vertical speed
4. Recognize cues of an approach to stall and indications observable prior to
that point
5. Discuss automation factors such as mode protections, hazards of split
automation (where either autopilot or autothrottle is disconnected) and
inappropriate modes
6. Address intuitive and incorrect reactions to stall warning indications
7. Develop procedures that are widely accepted to recover from impending
high altitude stall conditions with and without auto-flight systems
Introductory The crew begins this lesson in cruise flight with an airplane at an altitude of
Notes: FL250 or above in a near maximum altitude situation. The airplane weight
should be at or near the maximum for that altitude based upon company or
manufacturer’s procedures. The crew should discuss performance capability
and reference applicable resources to determine what the maximum altitude is
for the weight and environmental conditions. These references could include
cruise charts, FMS optimum and FMS maximum altitudes with various mode
protections (lateral and vertical) available. Buffet margins should be referenced
and discussed based on the altitude. Alternative climbing modes and their as-
sociated hazards should be understood. Common errors include complacency
with climb and cruise procedures as well as a lack of knowledge with cruise
charts.

3.23
SECTION 3

Setup and The simulator will then be either positioned or flown inappropriately to a situation where
Limitations: with an increase in ISA temperature will cause the airplane to be behind the power curve
due to changing ambient conditions. The early addition of maximum available thrust
should be discussed as a necessity to prevent this situation from occurring. However, in
this situation maximum thrust is not enough to keep from slowing down while maintaining
altitude. Certain airplane features, either with automation or without, may prevent an
approach to stall from occurring. However, indications of such an impending situation
should be discussed. These include airspeed trends, symbology/warning changes, low
speed indications, trim changes, etc. Auto thrust or autopilot may have to be discon-
nected to provide the approach to stall indications, but the goal should be to keep those
modes in operation if possible to simulate a real scenario. Instructors should discuss the
system degradation that results in this situation and the associated hazards. If unable to
produce desired effect, reducing thrust may be necessary.

Recognition and Brief interactive discussions of impending stall warning recovery methods followed
Recovery by an actual stall warning recovery. Instructors should ensure the crews recover at the
first indication of an approach to stall (mode reversions, aural; shaker, pusher warnings,
buffet, etc). Do not allow the airplane to stall or the situation to progress to an upset
situation because simulator realism may be compromised in this condition. Emphasis
should be placed that the recovery requires maximum thrust and the reduction of pitch
to lower the angle of attack and allowing the airplane to accelerate. At these altitudes
and weight/temperature combinations, a descent will be required. If the autoflight sys-
tems are used, appropriate modes should be used that meet the objectives of maximum
thrust and a smooth decrease in pitch and a descent to an appropriate altitude that allows
acceleration to normal and sustainable cruise speed. If manual flight is used, smooth
control inputs avoiding abrupt control actions and maximum thrust are necessary. Pilots
should be aware that with the increased true airspeed larger changes will occur for the
same amount of pitch change as used at lower altitudes. Common errors include incor-
rect recovery technique. Repeat scenario as necessary time permitting.

3.24
 SECTION 3

The crew begins this lesson in cruise flight with an airplane at an altitude of FL250 or above. The
airplane weight should be at or near the maximum for that altitude based upon company or manufac-
turer’s procedures. Ensure crew references applicable cruise charts to determine what the maximum
altitude is for the weight and environmental conditions. IOS: Instructor operating system or simulator
control panel

1. IOS»POSITION SET»FL 250 or ABOVE

2. IOS»AIRPLANE SET»
Gross weight: MAX appropriate

3. IOS»ENVIRONMENT SET»
Weather: As desired
DAY or NIGHT
29.92 or STANDARD
Winds: As desired
OAT»ISA or as initially required for scenario

Element Information / Check for

• Ask crew if they can take the next higher flight level (take note of VNAV max
altitude)
• Review the use of vertical speed/ other climb modes in climbs and what are the
caveats
• Ensure crew understands how to determine MAX cruise altitude from Flight
Management System (if applicable) as well as supporting documents or manuals
Cruise Flight (e.g. Performance Manual, QRH, FCOM, etc.)
• Ensure crew understands what their buffet margin is for the current altitude and
weight combination.
• Review different scenarios leading to high altitude stalls and upset conditions. For
each scenario, review recovery procedures.
• Set or maneuver simulator to situation that is behind the power curve such that a
slowdown will occur regardless of thrust setting, with increased ISA
IOS» Take a “snap shot” or save the current phase and position of flight
if available to permit repetition of conditions and training
IOS»Increase OAT as appropriate to simulate flight into warmer conditions
• Ask crew to disengage auto thrust (only if applicable/required).
• Instructor may have remove power from certain aircraft specific systems (e.g.
flight computers) to permit aircraft to encounter a stall warning. Autopilot use
may be lost.
• Instructor may have to set thrust that produces, along with temperature increase,
Airspeed a slow loss in airspeed.
Decay • Explain to crew how the aircraft reacts with the Autopilot on and its attempt to
maintain altitude.
• Point out airspeed trend and instrument indications (low speed indications/sym-
bology if applicable)
• Explain what the aircraft specific threats that will be encountered with various
automation situations (split automation, LNAV vs. heading select modes, etc.)

• Explain to crew what the stall warning system uses to set off warning and in what
Stall Warning progression the alerts will take place (visual, aural, shaker, pusher, buffet, etc.).
• Make sure crew understands that recovery will begin at first level of warning.

3.25
SECTION 3

• Crew should command a desirable (down) vertical speed into the auto-flight
system. E.g. (-1000ft/min)
• Speed should be crew selected to avoid any thrust reduction by auto-flight system
Recovery • Ensure thrust DOES NOT reduce to idle or below desired setting
(Autoflight) • Monitor TCAS and SCAN for traffic conflicts
• Notify ATC
• Crew should determine appropriate new cruising altitude (a descent of at least
1000 feet is recommended to achieve adequate acceleration).

• Crew should disengage auto-flight systems (if applicable)

• Pitch aircraft down smoothly to establish descent, AVOID ABRUPT CONTROL
INPUTS, Pilots should be aware that with the increased true airspeed larger changes
will occur for the same amount of pitch change as used at lower altitudes
Recovery • Set thrust to MAX (MAX appropriate to aircraft)
(Manual)
• Accelerate to appropriate airspeed
• Monitor TCAS and SCAN for traffic conflicts
• Notify ATC
• Crew should determine appropriate new cruising altitude

Recurrent Training Exercises

The pilot-in-training should be given the opportu- perhaps the pilot-in-training closing his or her eyes
nity to review the airplane handling characteristics. to force an assessment of the situation and energy),
Those events identified as pre-exercise practice are or by conditions available to the instructor by the
appropriate for this review. The length of review use of simulator engineering. The pilot-in-training
should depend on pilot-in-training experience and should recover by using appropriate techniques
skill level. discussed in the initial training.

Recurrent upset training should be given as non- Recurrent training should incorporate a nose-low,
jeopardy training and not be evaluated. The unique high-bank-angle situation. This situation can be
variations of each individual situation a pilot starts a induced by the pilot-in-training, or by the PNF (with
recovery from, and the wide variations in successful perhaps the pilot-in-training closing his or her eyes
recoveries, make evaluations difficult to measure. to force an assessment of the situation and energy),
Furthermore, variations in simulator fidelity make or by conditions available to the instructor by the
measures not accurate and quite difficult on both a use of simulator engineering. The pilot-in-training
qualitative and quantitative basis. Upset recurrent should recover by using appropriate techniques
training should emphasize recognition and skill discussed in initial training.
development.

Recurrent training should incorporate a nose-high

situation. This situation can be induced by the pilot-
in-training, or by the pilot-not-flying (PNF) (with

3.26
Appendix 3-A
 APPENDIX
3-A
Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset
Recovery Questions

Included in the following appendix are questions designed to test a pilot’s knowledge of the material
3-A
contained in the “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery.” The questions are all multiple choice.

The first part of this appendix is the Pilot-in-Training Examination. Instructions for answering the
questions are provided.

The second part of this appendix is the Instructor Examination Guide. This part contains the ques-
tions in the Pilot-in-Training Examination, the correct answers to each question, and the section in
the “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery” where the correct answer may be found.

Table of Contents
Section Page

Pilot-in-Training Examination.................................................................................................App. 3-A.3

Instructor Examination Guide................................................................................................App. 3-A.15

Summary of Answers.............................................................................................................App. 3-A.31

App. 3-A.1
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.2
 APPENDIX
3-A

Pilot-in-Training Examination

Instructions
These questions are based on the material in the “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery.” The answer
to each question can be found in that section. The questions are all multiple choice. Circle the one answer
to each question that is most correct.

Questions
1. The predominant number of airplane upsets are caused by:
���� a. Environmental factors.
���� b. Airplane system anomalies.
���� c. Pilot-induced factors.

2. Most of the multiengine turbojet loss-of-control incidents that are caused by environmental fac-
tors are because of:
���� a. Microbursts.
���� b. Windshear.
���� c. Airplane icing.
���� d. Wake turbulence.

3. Technology in modern airplanes reduces the flight crew workload. Therefore, while initiating the
recovery from an airplane upset, the pilot should:
���� a. Verify that the autopilot and autothrottles are still engaged.
���� b. Engage the autopilot and autothrottles, if disengaged.
���� c. Reduce the level of automation by disengaging the autopilot and autothrottles.
���� d. Ask the other pilot “What is it doing now?”

4. Which of the following statements regarding energy is true?

���� a. Kinetic energy decreases with increasing airspeed.
���� b. Potential energy is approximately proportional to airspeed.
���� c. Chemical energy remains constant throughout a flight.
���� d. Kinetic energy can be traded for potential energy, and potential energy can be traded
for kinetic energy.

5. The objective in maneuvering the airplane is to manage energy so that:

���� a. Kinetic energy stays between limits (stall and placards).
���� b. Potential energy stays between limits (terrain to buffet altitude).
���� c. Chemical energy stays above certain thresholds (not running out of fuel).
���� d. All of the above.

6. The airplane angle of attack is the angle between the airplane longitudinal axis and the
oncoming air.
���� a. True.
���� b. False.

7. Exceed the critical angle of attack and the surface will stall, and lift will decrease instead
of increasing. This is true:
���� a. Unless the airplane is in a nosedown pitch attitude.
���� b. Only if the airspeed is low.
���� c. Only if the airplane is in a nose-high pitch attitude.
���� d. Regardless of airplane speed or attitude.

App. 3-A.3
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.4
 APPENDIX
3-A

8. The angle of attack at which a wing stalls reduces with _______ Mach.
���� a. Decreasing.
���� b. Increasing.

9. Airplane stall speeds are published in the Approved Flight Manual for each airplane model.
These speeds are presented as a function of airplane weight. Therefore, if a pilot maintains air-
speed above the appropriate speed listed for the airplane weight, the airplane will not stall.
���� a. True.
���� b. False.

10. Large downward aileron deflections:

���� a. Could induce air separation over that portion of the wing at very high angles of attack.
���� b. Should never be used when recovering from an airplane upset.
���� c. Are more effective at high angles of attack.

11. Dihedral is the positive angle formed between the lateral axis of an airplane and a line that passes
through the center of the wing. Which of the following statements is incorrect?
���� a. Dihedral contributes to airplane lateral stability.
���� b. The term “dihedral effect” is used when describing the effects of wing sweep and
rudder on lateral stability.
���� c. A wing with dihedral will develop stable rolling moments with sideslip.
���� d. If the relative wind comes from the side of an airplane that has dihedral-designed wings,
the wing into the wind is subject to a decrease in lift.

12. Rudders on modern jet transport airplanes are usually designed and sized to:
���� a. Create large sideslip capability during recovery from stall.
���� b. Counter yawing moment associated with an engine failure at very low takeoff speeds.
���� c. Counter rolling moment created by ailerons and spoilers.

13. While already at high speed, what happens if Mach is allowed to increase?
���� a. Airflow over parts of the airplane begins to exceed the speed of sound.
���� b. Shock waves can cause local airflow separation.
���� c. Characteristics such as pitchup, pitchdown, or buffeting may occur.
���� d. All of the above.

14. Positive static stability is defined as the initial tendency to return to an initial undisturbed state
after a disturbance.
���� a. True.
���� b. False.

15. Movement about the airplane lateral axis is called:

���� a. Yaw.
���� b. Roll.
���� c. Pitch.
���� d. Sideslip.

16. Which of the following statements is always true?

���� a. Weight points 90 deg from the airplane longitudinal axis.
���� b. Lift must always be aligned with the center of gravity.
���� c. Weight always points to the center of the Earth.
���� d. The center of gravity never changes in flight.

App. 3-A.5
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.6
 APPENDIX
3-A

17. If the engines are not aligned with the airplane center of gravity, a change in engine thrust will:
���� a. Have no effect on pitching moment.
���� b. Be accompanied by a change in pitching moment.

18. To maintain altitude in a banked turn, the lift produced by the airplane must be:
���� a. Greater than the airplane weight, and the amount is a function of bank angle.
���� b. Greater than the airplane weight, and the amount is a function of altitude.
���� c. Equal to the weight of the airplane.

19. During lateral maneuvering, aileron and spoiler effectiveness:

���� a. Increases with increasing angle of attack.
���� b. Decreases with increasing angle of attack.
���� c. Is a function of the airplane’s inertia about its vertical axis.

20. Which of the following statements about recovering from large airplane bank angles is true?
���� a. The effect of up-elevator is to tighten the turn.
���� b. The bank should be reduced to near level before initiating aggressive pitch
maneuvering.
���� c. The lift vector should be oriented away from the gravity vector.
���� d. All of the above.
���� e. Only answers a and b.

21. If a pilot inputs full rudder in a normal symmetric airplane situation, it will result in very large
sideslip angles and large structural loads.
���� a. True.
���� b. False.

22. Stability in the vertical axis tends to drive the sideslip angle toward zero. The most dynamic
stability about the vertical axis on modern jet transports is from:
���� a. The vertical fin.
���� b. The rudder.
���� c. An active stability augmentation system/yaw damper.
���� d. Pilot roll input.

23. With insufficient aerodynamic forces acting on the airplane (airplane stalled), its trajectory will
be mostly ballistic and it may be difficult for the pilot to command a change in attitude until:
���� a. Full noseup elevator is applied.
���� b. Full rudder input is applied.
���� c. Gravity effect on the airplane produces enough airspeed when the angle of attack
is reduced.
���� d. Arriving at a lower altitude.

24. During a situation where the high-speed limitation is exceeded, recovery actions should be care-
ful and prompt and may include:
���� a. Orienting the lift vector away from the gravity vector.
���� b. Reducing thrust.
���� c. Adding drag.
���� d. All of the above.

App. 3-A.7
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.8
 APPENDIX
3-A

25. Which of the following statements regarding recovering from an airplane upset are correct?
���� a. The actions should be correct and timely.
���� b. Troubleshooting the cause of the upset is secondary to initiating recovery.
���� c. Regaining and maintaining control of the airplane is paramount.
���� d. All of the above.

26. A good analysis process of an airplane upset should include:

���� a. Locating the bank indicator.
���� b. Determining the pitch attitude.
���� c. Confirming attitude by referring to other indicators.
���� d. Assessing the airplane energy.
���� e. All of the above.

27. During recovery from an airplane upset:

���� a. Pilots must be very careful to maintain at least 1-g force.
���� b. Altitude should always be maintained.
���� c. Training and experience gained from one airplane may always be transferred
to another.
���� d. Pilots must be prepared to use full control authority.

28. A stall is usually accompanied by a continuous stall warning, and it is characterized by:
���� a. Buffeting, which could be heavy.
���� b. A lack of pitch authority.
���� c. A lack of roll authority.
���� d. The inability to arrest descent rate.
���� e. All of the above.

29. Which of the following statements is true?

���� a. A stall is a controlled situation.
���� b. An approach to stall warning is an uncontrolled situation.
���� c. Recovery from approach to stall warning is the same as recovery from a stall.
���� d. To recover from a nose-low stall, angle of attack must be reduced.

30. When initiating recommended airplane upset recovery techniques, the first two techniques are
���� a. Maintain altitude and apply additional thrust.
���� b. Reduce the angle of attack and maneuver toward wings level.
���� c. Recognize and confirm the situation and disengage the autopilot and autothrottles.
���� d. Determine the malfunction and disengage the autopilot and autothrottles.

31. In a nose-high, wings-level airplane upset, after accomplishing the first two recommended tech-
niques:
���� a. Apply up to full nosedown elevator and consider trimming off some control force.
���� b. Immediately roll into a 60-deg bank.
���� c. Maintain at least 1-g force.
���� d. Immediately establish sideslip in order to maintain at least 1-g force.

App. 3-A.9
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.10
 APPENDIX
3-A

32. In a nose-high, wings-level airplane upset, when it is determined that rudder input is required
because roll input is ineffective:
���� a. Only a small amount should be used.
���� b. Do not apply rudder too quickly.
���� c. Do not hold rudder input too long.
���� d. Improper use of rudder may result in loss of lateral and directional control.
���� e. Extreme caution must be used because of the low-energy situation.
���� f. All of the above.

33. During recovery from a nose-low, wings-level, high-airspeed airplane upset:

���� a. The airplane cannot be stalled.
���� b. Use of stabilizer trim is always optional, but never required.
���� c. The recovery is completed by establishing a pitch, thrust, and airplane configuration that
corresponds to the desired airspeed.

34. During recovery from a nose-low, high-bank-angle airplane upset:

���� a. If 90 deg of bank is exceeded, continue the roll to wings level.
���� b. It may be necessary to unload the airplane by decreasing backpressure.
���� c. Increase elevator backpressure while beginning to roll toward wings level.

35. When should an upset recovery be initiated?

���� a. Only when pitch or bank reaches specified limit values.
���� b. Only when the airspeed is rapidly decreasing (increasing).
���� c. Whenever an unintentional excessive divergence from the intended flight path and/or
airspeed occurs.

36. Pilot induced oscillations are:

���� a. Oscillations due to cyclic actions on the controls by the pilot, with an immediate reac-
tion of the airplane in the same direction.
���� b. Oscillations due to cyclic action on the controls by the pilot, with an out-of-phase air-
plane response.
���� c. Oscillations due to a rudder and aileron out of trim condition.

37. In the event of thrust asymmetry at takeoff:

���� a. The pilot must know how much rudder trim is needed in advance.
���� b. The pilot must react with a predefined amount of rudder.
���� c. The pilot must apply an amount of rudder determined by the yawing moment in order to
eliminate the sideslip.

38. The rudder is used:

���� a. To control yaw.
���� b. To damp Dutch roll in case of a yaw damper system failure.
���� c. To induce roll if normal roll control is lost/ineffective.
���� d. a and c

39. Cyclic abrupt rudder pedal inputs can:

���� a. Cause structural damage above VA.
���� b. Cause structural damage below VA.
���� c. Not cause structural damage below VA.
���� d. a and b

App. 3-A.11
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.12
 APPENDIX
3-A

40. The role of rudder limiters is:

���� a. To allow full rudder pedal input in one direction regardless of speed, while ensuring
required rudder efficiency.
���� b. To allow any succession of rudder inputs below VA.
���� c. To ensure structural consideration, but limits the required rudder efficiency at
high speed (above VA).

41. Configuration maneuvering speed:

���� a. Provides a structural protection to slats/flaps while flying for extended periods.
���� b. Defines the minimum speed that the airplane can be flown at in a given
configuration.
���� c. Defines the minimum speed that ensures a 1.2VS margin.

42. When operating at a constant airspeed with constant thrust setting at high altitude (typically
above FL250) in slow flight below L/D max airspeed, any disturbance causing a decrease in
airspeed will result in a further decrease in airspeed unless thrust is increased. High altitude
recovery from slow flight while turning is best accomplished by:
���� a. Increasing thrust to arrest the slowdown.
���� b. Increasing thrust to accelerate to airspeed above L/D max speed.
���� c. Increasing thrust to maximum available thrust and reducing bank angle while accelerat-
ing to airspeed above L/D max speed. In a thrust limited situation, exiting slow flight
will require an immediate descent as an aerodynamic stall is imminent.
���� d. All of the above
���� e. None of the above

43. Maximum Altitude is the highest altitude at which an airplane can be operated. In today’s mod-
ern airplanes it is determined by basic characteristics unique to each airplane model. Maximum
Altitude for an airplane is:
���� a. Maximum Certified Altitude – the altitude determined during certification set by the
pressurization structural load limits on the fuselage.
���� b. Thrust Limited Altitude – the altitude at which sufficient thrust is available to provide a
specific minimum rate of climb.
���� c. Buffet or Maneuver Limited Altitude – the altitude at which a specific maneuver margin
exists prior to buffet onset.
���� d. The highest of the above listed altitudes.
���� e. The lowest of the above listed altitudes.

44. At high altitude, an aft loaded airplane will:

���� a. Be more responsive to control pressures since it is less stable than a forward loading.
���� b. Be less responsive to control pressures as there is a longer moment arm from the center
of gravity to the tail assembly.
���� c. Just as sensitive to control pressures as a forward loaded aircraft. Center of gravity posi-
tioning is insignificant to handling qualities in modern jet aircraft.

App. 3-A.13
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.14
 APPENDIX
3-A

Instructor Examination Guide

Instructions
This guide contains questions based on the material in the “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery.”
The answer to each question can be found in that section. The questions are all multiple choice. There
is one answer to each question that is most correct.

The correct answer is listed after each question, along with the section in the “Pilot Guide to Airplane
Upset Recovery” where the correct answer may be found.

Questions
1. The predominant number of airplane upsets are caused by:
���� a. Environmental factors.
���� b. Airplane system anomalies.
���� c. Pilot-induced factors.

Answer: a. (Section 2.4.1).

2. Most of the multiengine turbojet loss-of-control incidents that are caused by environmental fac-
tors are because of:
���� a. Microbursts.
���� b. Windshear.
���� c. Airplane icing.
���� d. Wake turbulence.

Answer: d. (Section 2.4.1)

3. Technology in modern airplanes reduces the flight crew workload. Therefore, while initiating the
recovery from an airplane upset, the pilot should:
���� a. Verify that the autopilot and autothrottles are still engaged.
���� b. Engage the autopilot and autothrottles, if disengaged.
���� c. Reduce the level of automation by disengaging the autopilot and autothrottles.
���� d. Ask the other pilot “What is it doing now?”

Answer: c. (Section 2.4.4)

4. Which of the following statements regarding energy is true?

���� a. Kinetic energy decreases with increasing airspeed.
���� b. Potential energy is approximately proportional to airspeed.
���� c. Chemical energy remains constant throughout a flight.
���� d. Kinetic energy can be traded for potential energy, and potential energy can be traded for
kinetic energy.

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.2)

5. The objective in maneuvering the airplane is to manage energy so that:

���� a. Kinetic energy stays between limits (stall and placards).
���� b. Potential energy stays between limits (terrain to buffet altitude).
���� c. Chemical energy stays above certain thresholds (not running out of fuel).
���� d. All of the above.

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.2)

App. 3-A.15
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.16
 APPENDIX
3-A

6. The airplane angle of attack is the angle between the airplane longitudinal axis and the
oncoming air.
���� a. True.
���� b. False.

Answer: a. (Section 2.5.5.1)

7. Exceed the critical angle of attack and the surface will stall, and lift will decrease instead of
increasing. This is true:
���� a. Unless the airplane is in a nosedown pitch attitude.
���� b. Only if the airspeed is low.
���� c. Only if the airplane is in a nose-high pitch attitude.
���� d. Regardless of airplane speed or attitude.

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.5.1)

8. The angle of attack at which a wing stalls reduces with _______ Mach.
���� a. Decreasing.
���� b. Increasing.

Answer: b. (Section 2.5.5.1).

9. Airplane stall speeds are published in the Approved Flight Manual for each airplane model.
These speeds are presented as a function of airplane weight. Therefore, if a pilot maintains air-
speed above the appropriate speed listed for the airplane weight, the airplane will not stall.
���� a. True.
���� b. False.

Answer: b. (Section 2.5.5.1).

10. Large downward aileron deflections:

���� a. Could induce air separation over that portion of the wing at very high angles of attack.
���� b. Should never be used when recovering from an airplane upset.
���� c. Are more effective at high angles of attack.

Answer: a. (Section 2.5.5.3).

11. Dihedral is the positive angle formed between the lateral axis of an airplane and a line that passes
through the center of the wing. Which of the following statements is incorrect?
���� a. Dihedral contributes to airplane lateral stability.
���� b. The term “dihedral effect” is used when describing the effects of wing sweep and rudder
on lateral stability.
���� c. A wing with dihedral will develop stable rolling moments with sideslip.
���� d. If the relative wind comes from the side of an airplane that has dihedral-designed wings,
the wing into the wind is subject to a decrease in lift.

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.5.4.2).

App. 3-A.17
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.18
 APPENDIX
3-A

12. Rudders on modern jet transport airplanes are usually designed and sized to:
���� a. Create large sideslip capability during recovery from stall.
���� b. Counter yawing moment associated with an engine failure at very low takeoff speeds.
���� c. Counter rolling moment created by ailerons and spoilers.

Answer: b. (Section 2.5.5.4.3).

13. While already at high speed, what happens if Mach is allowed to increase?
���� a. Airflow over parts of the airplane begins to exceed the speed of sound.
���� b. Shock waves can cause local airflow separation.
���� c. Characteristics such as pitchup, pitchdown, or buffeting may occur.
���� d. All of the above.

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.5.5).

14. Positive static stability is defined as the initial tendency to return to an initial undisturbed state
after a disturbance.
���� a. True.
���� b. False.

Answer: a. (Section 2.5.5.6).

15. Movement about the airplane lateral axis is called:

���� a. Yaw.
���� b. Roll.
���� c. Pitch.
���� d. Sideslip.

Answer: c. (Section 2.5.5.7).

16. Which of the following statements is always true?

���� a. Weight points 90 deg from the airplane longitudinal axis.
���� b. Lift must always be aligned with the center of gravity.
���� c. Weight always points to the center of the Earth.
���� d. The center of gravity never changes in flight.

Answer: c. (Section 2.5.5.7).

17. If the engines are not aligned with the airplane center of gravity, a change in engine thrust will:
���� a. Have no effect on pitching moment.
���� b. Be accompanied by a change in pitching moment.

Answer: b. (Section 2.5.5.7)

18. To maintain altitude in a banked turn, the lift produced by the airplane must be:
���� a. Greater than the airplane weight, and the amount is a function of bank angle.
���� b. Greater than the airplane weight, and the amount is a function of altitude.
���� c. Equal to the weight of the airplane.

Answer: a. (Section 2.5.5.7).

App. 3-A.19
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.20
 APPENDIX
3-A

19. During lateral maneuvering, aileron and spoiler effectiveness:

���� a. Increases with increasing angle of attack.
���� b. Decreases with increasing angle of attack.
���� c. Is a function of the airplane’s inertia about its vertical axis.

Answer: b. (Section 2.5.5.9).

20. Which of the following statements about recovering from large airplane bank angles is true?
���� a. The effect of up-elevator is to tighten the turn.
���� b. The bank should be reduced to near level before initiating aggressive pitch maneu-
vering.
���� c. The lift vector should be oriented away from the gravity vector.
���� d. All of the above.
���� e. Only answers a and b.

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.5.8).

21. If a pilot inputs full rudder in a normal symmetric airplane situation, it will result in very large
sideslip angles and large structural loads.
���� a. True.
���� b. False.

Answer: a. (Section 2.5.5.10).

22. Stability in the vertical axis tends to drive the sideslip angle toward zero. The most dynamic
stability about the vertical axis on modern jet transports is from:
���� a. The vertical fin.
���� b. The rudder.
���� c. An active stability augmentation system/yaw damper.
���� d. Pilot roll input.

Answer: c. (Section 2.5.5.10).

23. With insufficient aerodynamic forces acting on the airplane (airplane stalled), its trajectory
will be mostly ballistic and it may be difficult for the pilot to command a change in attitude
until:
���� a. Full noseup elevator is applied.
���� b. Full rudder input is applied.
���� c. Gravity effect on the airplane produces enough airspeed when the angle of attack is
reduced.
���� d. Arriving at a lower altitude.

Answer: c. (Section 2.5.5.11)

24. During a situation where the high-speed limitation is exceeded, recovery actions should be
careful and prompt and may include:
���� a. Orienting the lift vector away from the gravity vector.
���� b. Reducing thrust.
���� c. Adding drag.
���� d. All of the above.

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.5.11)

App. 3-A.21
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.22
 APPENDIX
3-A

25. Which of the following statements regarding recovering from an airplane upset are correct?
���� a. The actions should be correct and timely.
���� b. Troubleshooting the cause of the upset is secondary to initiating recovery.
���� c. Regaining and maintaining control of the airplane is paramount.
���� d. All of the above.

Answer: d. (Section 2.6.1)

26. A good analysis process of an airplane upset should include:

���� a. Locating the bank indicator.
���� b. Determining the pitch attitude.
���� c. Confirming attitude by referring to other indicators.
���� d. Assessing the airplane energy.
���� e. All of the above.

Answer: e. (Section 2.6.1).

27. During recovery from an airplane upset:

���� a. Pilots must be very careful to maintain at least 1-g force.
���� b. Altitude should always be maintained.
���� c. Training and experience gained from one airplane may always be transferred
to another.
���� d. Pilots must be prepared to use full control authority.

Answer: d. (Section 2.6.6.2, 3, 5).

28. A stall is usually accompanied by a continuous stall warning, and it is characterized by:
���� a. Buffeting, which could be heavy.
���� b. A lack of pitch authority.
���� c. A lack of roll authority.
���� d. The inability to arrest descent rate.
���� e. All of the above.

Answer: e. (Section 2.6.3).

29. Which of the following statements is true?

���� a. A stall is a controlled situation.
���� b. An approach to stall warning is an uncontrolled situation.
���� c. Recovery from approach to stall warning is the same as recovery from a stall.
���� d. To recover from a nose-low stall, angle of attack must be reduced.

Answer: d. (Section 2.6.3).

30. When initiating recommended airplane upset recovery techniques, the first two techniques are:
���� a. Maintain altitude and apply additional thrust.
���� b. Reduce the angle of attack and maneuver toward wings level.
���� c. Recognize and confirm the situation and disengage the autopilot and autothrottles.
���� d. Determine the malfunction and disengage the autopilot and autothrottles.

Answer: c. (Section 2.6.3.1, 2, 3).

App. 3-A.23
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.24
 APPENDIX
3-A

31. In a nose-high, wings-level airplane upset, after accomplishing the first two recommended tech-
niques:
���� a. Apply up to full nosedown elevator and consider trimming off some control force.
���� b. Immediately roll into a 60-deg bank.
���� c. Maintain at least 1-g force.
���� d. Immediately establish sideslip in order to maintain at least 1-g force.

Answer: a. (Section 2.6.3.1).

32. In a nose-high, wings-level airplane upset, when it is determined that rudder input is required
because roll input is ineffective:
���� a. Only a small amount should be used.
���� b. Do not apply rudder too quickly.
���� c. Do not hold rudder input too long.
���� d. Improper use of rudder may result in loss of lateral and directional control.
���� e. Extreme caution must be used because of the low-energy situation.
���� f. All of the above.

Answer: f. (Section 2.6.3.1).

33. During recovery from a nose-low, wings-level, high-airspeed airplane upset:

���� a. The airplane cannot be stalled.
���� b. Use of stabilizer trim is always optional, but never required.
���� c. The recovery is completed by establishing a pitch, thrust, and airplane configuration that
corresponds to the desired airspeed.

Answer: c. (Section 2.6.3.2).

34. During recovery from a nose-low, high-bank-angle airplane upset:

���� a. If 90 deg of bank is exceeded, continue the roll to wings level.
���� b. It may be necessary to unload the airplane by decreasing backpressure.
���� c. Increase elevator backpressure while beginning to roll toward wings level.

Answer: b. (Section 2.6.3.3).

35. When should an upset recovery be initiated?

���� a. Only when pitch or bank reaches specified limit values.
���� b. Only when the airspeed is rapidly decreasing (increasing).
���� c. Whenever an unintentional excessive divergence from the intended flight path and/or
airspeed occurs.

Answer: c. (Section 2.2).

36. Pilot induced oscillations are:

���� a. Oscillations due to cyclic actions on the controls by the pilot, with an immediate reac-
tion of the airplane in the same direction.
���� b. Oscillations due to cyclic action on the controls by the pilot, with an out-of-phase air-
plane response.
���� c. Oscillations due to a rudder and aileron out-of-trim condition.

Answer: b. (Section 2.4.3.8).

App. 3-A.25
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.26
 APPENDIX
3-A

37. In the event of thrust asymmetry at takeoff:

���� a. The pilot must know how much rudder trim is needed in advance.
���� b. The pilot must react with a predefined amount of rudder.
���� c. The pilot must apply an amount of rudder determined by the yawing moment in order to
eliminate the sideslip.

Answer: c. (Section 2.5.5.4.3).

38. The rudder is used:

���� a. To control yaw.
���� b. To damp dutch roll in case of a yaw damper system failure.
���� c. To induce roll if normal roll control is lost/ineffective.
���� d. a and c

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.5.10).

39. Cyclic abrupt rudder pedal inputs can:

���� a. Cause structural damage above VA.
���� b. Cause structural damage below VA.
���� c. Not cause structural damage below VA.
���� d. a and b

Answer: d. (Section 2.5.5.12).

40. The role of rudder limiters is:

���� a. To allow full rudder pedal input in one direction regardless of speed, while ensuring
required rudder efficiency.
���� b. To allow any succession of rudder inputs below VA.
���� c. To ensure structural consideration, but limits the required rudder efficiency at high
speed (above VA).

Answer: a. (Section 2.5.5.10).

41. Configuration maneuvering speed:

���� a. Provides a structural protection to slats/flaps while flying for extended periods.
���� b. Defines the minimum speed that the airplane can be flown at in a given
configuration.
���� c. Defines the minimum speed that ensures a 1.2VS margin.

Answer: b. (Section 2.5.3).

App. 3-A.27
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.28
 APPENDIX
3-A

42. When operating at a constant airspeed with constant thrust setting at high altitude (typically
above FL250) in slow flight below L/D max airspeed, any disturbance causing a decrease in
airspeed will result in a further decrease in airspeed unless thrust is increased. High altitude
recovery from slow flight while turning is best accomplished by:
���� a. Increasing thrust to arrest the slowdown.
���� b. Increasing thrust to accelerate to airspeed above L/D max speed.
���� c. Increasing thrust to maximum available thrust and reducing bank angle while accelerat-
ing to airspeed above L/D max speed. In a thrust limited situation, exiting slow flight
will require an immediate descent as an aerodynamic stall is imminent.
���� d. All of the above
���� e. None of the above

Answer: c. (Section 2.5.5.11.2.5).

43. Maximum Altitude is the highest altitude at which an airplane can be operated. In today’s mod-
ern airplanes it is determined by basic characteristics unique to each airplane model. Maximum
Altitude for an airplane is:
���� a. Maximum Certified Altitude – the altitude determined during certification set by the
pressurization structural load limits on the fuselage.
���� b. Thrust Limited Altitude – the altitude at which sufficient thrust is available to provide a
specific minimum rate of climb.
���� c. Buffet or Maneuver Limited Altitude – the altitude at which a specific maneuver margin
exists prior to buffet onset.
���� d. The highest of the above listed altitudes.
���� e. The lowest of the above listed altitudes.

Answer: e. (Section 2.5.5.11.2.6).

44. At high altitude, an aft loaded airplane will:

���� a. Be more responsive to control pressures since it is less stable than a forward loading.
���� b. Be less responsive to control pressures as there is a longer moment arm from the center
of gravity to the tail assembly.
���� c. Just as sensitive to control pressures as a forward loaded aircraft. Center of gravity posi-
tioning is insignificant to handling qualities in modern jet aircraft.

Answer: a. (Section 2.5.5.11.3).

App. 3-A.29
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.30
 APPENDIX
3-A

Summary of Answers
1. a
2. d
3. c
4. d
5. d
6. a
7. d
8. b
9. b
10. a
11. d
12. b
13. d
14. a
15. c
16. c
17. b
18. a
19. b
20. d
21. a
22. c
23. c
24. d
25. d
26. e
27. d
28. e
29. d
30. c
31. a
32. f
33. c
34. b
35. c
36. b
37. c
38. d
39. d
40. a
41. b
42. c
43. e
44. a

App. 3-A.31
APPENDIX
3-A

App. 3-A.32
Appendix 3-B
 APPENDIX

Airplane Upset Recovery

3-B
Briefing

Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing - Industry solution for large swept-wing turbofan airplanes typically
seating more than 100 passengers.

Presentation

App. 3-B.i
APPENDIX
3-B

(This page intentionally left blank)

App. 3-B.ii
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

ing Turb
-W o
pt
we

fa
S

n
Industry Solutions for Large ore Than 100 Passengers

Ai
la

rp
ne Briefing

M
s Ty g
p i c a l l y S e at i n

Figure 3-B.1

Revision 1_August 2004

 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Accidents resulting from a loss of airplane control have been, and continue to be, a major contributor to fatalities in
the worldwide commercial aviation industry. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) data show that between
1994 and 2003, there were at least 32 worldwide airline accidents attributed to airplane upset. There were more than
2100 fatalities as a result of these upsets and subsequent accidents.

Page 3-B.2
Airplane Upset Recovery

Figure 3-B.2
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Upsets have been attributed to environment, equipment, and pilot factors. The data also suggest that pilots need to
be better prepared to cope with airplane upsets. Research by operators has indicated that most airline pilots rarely
experience airplane upsets, and many have never been trained in maximum performance maneuvers.

Page 3-B.3
Causes of Airplane Upset

Figure 3-B.3
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Airplane upsets that are caused by environmental factors are difficult to predict; therefore, training programs stress
avoidance of such phenomena. Complete avoidance is not possible, as the statistics suggest; therefore, the logical
conclusion is that pilots should be trained to safely recover an airplane that has been upset.

Page 3-B.4
Airplane Upset Recovery

Figure 3-B.4
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

The goal of an Upset Recovery Training Program is twofold:

• To increase the pilot’s ability to recognize and avoid upset situations.
• To improve the pilot’s ability to recover control, if avoidance is not successful.

Page 3-B.5
Upset Recovery Training Objectives

• To increase the pilot’s ability to recognize and

avoid upset situations.
• To improve the pilot’s ability to recover control,
if avoidance is not successful.

Figure 3-B.5
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

This briefing, as part of the overall Upset Recovery Training Program, is presented in three parts:
• The causes of airplane upsets.
• A brief review of swept-wing airplane fundamentals.
• Airplane upset recovery techniques.

Page 3-B.6
Upset Recovery Training Will Review

• The causes of airplane upsets

• Swept-wing airplane fundamentals
• Airplane upset recovery techniques

Figure 3-B.6
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

For discussion purposes, the following unintentional conditions generally describe an airplane upset:
• Pitch attitude greater than 25 deg nose up.
• Pitch attitude greater than 10 deg nose down.
• Bank angle greater than 45 deg.
• Within the above parameters, but flying at airspeeds inappropriate for the conditions.
A pilot must not wait until the airplane is in a fully developed and defineable upset before taking corrective action
to return to stabilized flight path parameters.
The amount and rate of control input to counter a developing upset must be proportional to the amount and rate
of pitch, roll, and/or yaw experienced.

Page 3-B.7
What is “Airplane Upset?”

Figure 3-B.7
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Causes of Airplane Upset Incidents Are Varied

The causes of airplane upset incidents are varied; however, they can be broken down into four broad categories.
They can be
• Environmentally induced.
• Systems-anomalies induced.
• Pilot induced.
• A combination of causes.

Page 3-B.8
Causes of Airplane Upset Incidents Are

• Environmentally induced
• Systems-anomalies induced
• Pilot induced
• A combination of all three

Figure 3-B.8
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Environmentally Induced Airplane Upsets Include

• Turbulence.
• Clear air turbulence.
• Mountain wave.
• Windshear.
• Thunderstorms.
• Microbursts.
• Wake turbulence.
• Airplane icing.

Page 3-B.9
Environmental Causes of Airplane Upset Include

• Turbulence
• Clear air turbulence
• Mountain wave
• Windshear
• Thunderstorms
• Microbursts
• Wake turbulence
• Airplane icing

Figure 3-B.9
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Turbulence
Turbulence is characterized by a large variation in an air current over a short distance. It is mainly caused by
• Jet streams.
• Convective currents.
• Obstructions to wind flow.
• Windshear.
Knowledge of the various types of turbulence assists in avoiding it and, therefore, the potential for an airplane
upset.

Page 3-B.10
Turbulence Is Primarily Caused by

• Jet streams
• Convective currents
• Obstructions to wind flow
• Windshear

Figure 3-B.10
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)

Clear air turbulence (CAT) is defined as “high-level turbulence,” as it is normally above 15,000 MSL. It is not associ-
ated with cumuliform cloudiness, including thunderstorms. CAT is almost always present near jet streams. Jet streams
are dynamic, and turbulence associated with them is difficult to predict. The area of turbulence can be 100 to 300 mi
long—50 to 100 mi wide—and 2000 to 5000 ft thick.

Page 3-B.11
Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) Is Characterized
by Marked Changes in

• Pressure
• Temperature
• Wind direction
• Wind velocity

Figure 3-B.11
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Mountain Wave Turbulence

Mountains are the greatest obstructions to wind flow. Therefore, this type of turbulence is classified as “mechanical.”
Rotor or lenticular clouds over mountains are a sure sign of Mountain Wave Turbulence, but unfortunately the air
may be too dry for the presence of the telltale clouds. Severe turbulence can be expected in mountainous areas, if the
perpendicular wind component exceeds 50 kn.

Page 3-B.12
Mountain Wave Turbulence

Figure 3-B.12
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Windshear
Wind variations at low altitude are recognized as a serious hazard to airplanes during takeoff and approach. These
variations can be caused by many differing meteorological conditions:
• Topographical.
• Temperature inversions.
• Sea breezes.
• Frontal systems.
• Strong surface winds.
• Thunderstorms.
• Microbursts.
The latter two, thunderstorms and microbursts, are the two most violent forms of wind change, and they will be dis-
cussed in more detail.

Page 3-B.13
Windshear

Figure 3-B.13
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Thunderstorms
There are two basic types of thunderstorms: airmass and frontal.
Airmass thunderstorms are randomly distributed in unstable air. Heated air rises to form cumulus clouds. The clouds
develop in three stages: cumulus stage, mature stage, dissipating stage. The gust front produced by the downflow and
outrush of rain-cooled air can produce very turbulent air conditions.
Frontal thunderstorms are associated with weather system line fronts, converging wind, and troughs aloft. Frontal
thunderstorms form in squall lines; last several hours; generate heavy rain, and possibly hail; and produce strong
gusty winds, and possibly tornadoes. The downdraft of a typical frontal thunderstorm is large, about 1 to 5 miles in
diameter. Resultant outflows may produce large changes in windspeed.

Page 3-B.14
Thunderstorms

Figure 3-B.14
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Microbursts
Microbursts can occur anywhere convective weather conditions occur. Five percent of all thunderstorms produce mi-
crobursts. Downdrafts are typically only a few hundred to 3000 ft across. The outflows are not always symmetrical.
A significant airspeed increase may not occur upon entering outflows, or it may be much less than the subsequent
airspeed loss experienced when exiting. It is vital to recognize that some microbursts cannot be successfully escaped
with any known techniques.

Page 3-B.15
 Microbursts

Cloud Base

Virga or Downdraft
rain
Outflow
front
Horizontal
vortex

1000 ft
Approximate
scale
0 1000 ft

Outflow

Figure 3-B.15
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Wake Turbulence
Wake turbulence is the leading cause of airplane upsets that are environmentally induced. A pair of counter-rotating
vortices is shed from an airplane wing, thus causing turbulence in the airplane’s wake. The strength of the turbulence
is a function of airplane weight, wingspan, and speed. Vortices descend at an initial rate of 300 to 500 ft/min for about
30 sec. The descent rate decreases and eventually approaches zero at 500 to 900 ft below the flight path. Avoidance
can be accomplished by flying above the offender’s flight path. Maintaining a vertical separation of at least 1000 ft
below the flight path is also considered safe. Pilots have likened a wake-turbulence encounter to be like “hitting a
wall.” Counter-control is usually effective. With little to no control input from the pilot, the airplane would be expelled
from the wake and an airplane upset could result.

Page 3-B.16
Wake Turbulence

Figure 3-B.16
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Airplane Icing
Large degradation of airplane performance can result from the surface roughness of an extremely small amount of
ice contamination. The handling characteristics and maximum lift capability can be adversely affected. Unanticipated
changes in stability and control are very real possibilities. Therefore, the axiom of “keep it clean” for critical airplane
surfaces continues to be a universal requirement.
This concludes our discussion of environmental elements that may lead to an airplane upset. The next subject for
discussion involves airplane upsets that are induced by systems anomalies.

Page 3-B.17
Airplane Icing

Figure 3-B.17
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Systems-Anomalies Induced Airplane Upsets

The discussion will include
• Flight instruments.
• Autoflight systems.
• Flight controls and other anomalies.

Page 3-B.18
System-Anomalies Induced Airplane
Upsets Primarily Involve

• Flight instruments
• Autoflight systems
• Flight controls and other anomalies

Figure 3-B.18
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Systems-Anomalies Induced Airplane Upsets

In spite of improved airplane design, intensified training programs, and improved reliability, we still experience
systems failures. Some of these failures can lead to an airplane upset. Most failures are survivable if the flight crew
makes correct responses.

Page 3-B.19
System-Anomalies Induced Airplane Upsets

Figure 3-B.19
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Flight Instruments
Instrument failures are infrequent, but they do occur. All airplane operations manuals provide flight instrument sys-
tem information, such that when instrument failures do occur, the pilot can analyze the impact and select the correct
procedural alternatives. Airplane certification requires that pilots have the minimum information needed to safely
control the airplane in the event of instrument failure. Several accidents point out that pilots are not always prepared
to correctly analyze the alternatives in case of failure. The result is an airplane upset.

Page 3-B.20
Flight Instruments

Figure 3-B.20
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Autoflight Systems
Autoflight systems include autopilot, autothrottles, and all related systems that perform flight management and guid-
ance. The systems integrate information from a variety of other aircraft systems. The pilot community has tended to
develop a great deal of confidence in the systems, which has led to complacency in some cases. Although quite reli-
able, failures do occur. These failures have led to airplane upsets and accidents.

Page 3-B.21
Autoflight Systems

Figure 3-B.21
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Flight Control and Other Anomalies

Flap asymmetry, spoiler problems, and other flight control anomalies are addressed in airplane operations manuals.
Airplane certification requirements ensure that pilots have sufficient information and are trained to handle these criti-
cal failures. However, it is the unexpected that can cause problems, particularly during critical phases of flight.

Page 3-B.22
Flight Control and Other Anomalies

Figure 3-B.22
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Pilot-Induced Airplane Upsets

We have known for many years that sensory inputs can be misleading to pilots, especially when pilots cannot see the
horizon. To solve this problem, airplanes are equipped with flight instruments to provide the necessary information
for controlling the airplane. Subjects for discussion in this area include
• Instrument cross-check.
• Inattention and distraction from primary cockpit duties.
• Vertigo or spatial disorientation.
• Improper use of airplane automation.

Page 3-B.23
Pilot-Induced Causes of Airplane Upset Include

• Instrument misinterpretation or slow cross-check

• Inattention and distraction from primary cockpit du-
ties
• Vertigo or spatial disorientation

Figure 3-B.23
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Instrument Cross-Check
Instrument misinterpretation or a slow cross-check can lead to an airplane upset. Many minor upsets can be traced to
an improper instrument cross-check. However, a good cross-check and proper interpretation is only one part of the
equation. It is necessary for the pilot to make the correct adjustments to pitch, bank, and power in order to control
the airplane.

Page 3-B.24
Instrument Cross-Check

Figure 3-B.24
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Inattention or Distraction From Primary Cockpit Duties

A review of airplane upsets reveals that inattention or neglecting to monitor the airplane’s performance can lead to
extreme deviations from the normal flight envelope. Neglecting to monitor all the instruments or fixating on a certain
instrument can lead to performance deviations. Distractions can be very subtle, such as warning or caution lights il-
luminating during critical phases of flight. Many airplane upsets occur while the pilot is engaged in some task that
takes attention away from the flight instruments. “Control the airplane first” should always be the guiding principle.

Page 3-B.25
Distraction

Figure 3-B.25
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Vertigo or Spatial Disorientation

Spatial disorientation has been a significant factor in many airplane-upset accidents. The definition of spatial disori-
entation is the inability to correctly orient oneself with respect to the Earth’s surface. We are all susceptible to sensory
illusions. Pilots who perceive a conflict between bodily senses and the flight instruments and are unable to resolve the
conflict are spatially disorientated. Allowed to continue, spatial disorientation will lead to airplane upset. Attention
to flight instruments and a good cross-check are the keys to remaining spatially orientated.

Page 3-B.26
Vertigo or Spatial Disorientation

Figure 3-B.26
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Improper Use of Airplane Automation

The advancement of technology in today’s modern airplanes has brought us flight directors, autopilots, autothrottles,
and flight management systems. When used properly, this technology contributes to flight safety and reduces crew
workload. Complacent and improper use of these systems is a concern. The systems can and do fail, leading to air-
plane upsets and accidents.

Page 3-B.27
Improper Use of Airplane Automation

Figure 3-B.27
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Causes of Airplane Upsets—Summary

Three basic causes
1. Environmentally induced:
• Turbulence, CAT, mountain wave, windshear, thunderstorms, microbursts, wake turbulence, and
airplane icing.
2. Systems-anomalies induced:
• Flight instruments, autoflight systems, and flight control anomalies.
3. Pilot induced:
• Instrument cross-check, inattention and distraction from primary cockpit duties, vertigo or spatial disorienta-
tion, and improper use of airplane automation.
The next part of this briefing will focus on basic airplane fundamentals as they apply to us as pilots of swept-wing
transport airplanes.

Page 3-B.28
 Causes of Airplane Upsets—Summary

1. Environmental:
Turbulence, CAT, mountain wave, windshear, thunder-
storms, microbursts, wake turbulence, and
airplane icing
2. Systems anomalies:
Flight instruments, autoflight systems, and flight control
anomalies
3. Pilot induced:
Instrument cross-check, inattention and distraction from
primary cockpit duties, vertigo or spatial disorientation,
and improper use of airplane automation

Figure 3-B.28
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Swept-Wing Airplane Fundamentals for Pilots

The areas of interest include
• Flight dynamics.
• Energy states.
• Load factors.
• Aerodynamic flight envelope.
• Aerodynamics.

Page 3-B.29
Swept-Wing Airplane Fundamentals
Will Overview

• Flight dynamics
• Energy states
• Load factors
• Aerodynamic flight envelope
• Aerodynamics

Figure 3-B.29
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Flight Dynamics
In understanding the flight dynamics of large, swept-wing transport airplanes, it is important to first understand what
causes the forces and moments acting on the airplane and then move to what kinds of motion these forces cause.
With this background, we can gain an understanding of how a pilot can control these forces and moments in order to
direct the flight path.
Newton’s first law states that an object at rest will tend to stay at rest, and an object in motion will tend to stay in
motion in a straight line, unless acted on by an external force. If an airplane in motion is to deviate from a straight
line, there must be a force, or a combination of forces, imposed to achieve the desired trajectory. The generation of
the forces is the subject of aerodynamics (to be discussed later). The generation of forces requires energy, which for
discussion purposes can be called “energy state.”

Page 3-B.30
Flight Dynamics

Figure 3-B.30
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Energy States
The term “energy state” describes how much of each kind of energy the airplane has available at any given time.
Pilots who understand the airplane energy state will be in a position to know instantly what options they may have
to maneuver their airplane.
The three sources of energy available to the pilot are
1. Kinetic energy, which increases with increasing airspeed.
2. Potential energy, which is approximately proportional to altitude.
3. Chemical energy, from the fuel in the tanks.

Page 3-B.31
 The Three Sources of Energy
Available to the Pilot Are

1. Kinetic energy, which increases with increasing speed

2. Potential energy, which is approximately proportional to alti-
tude

Figure 3-B.31
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Energy States (continued)

During maneuvering, these three types of energy can be traded, or exchanged, usually at the cost of additional drag.
The relationships are shown here:
• Airspeed can be traded for altitude, and altitude can be traded for airspeed.
• Stored energy can be traded for either altitude or airspeed.
Modern high-performance, jet transport airplanes have low drag characteristics in cruise configuration; therefore, the
pilot needs to exercise considerable judgement in making very large energy trades. A clean airplane operating near its
limits can easily go from the low-speed boundary to and through the high-speed boundary very quickly. The process
of controlling forces to change accelerations and produce a new energy state takes time. The longer time required by
large airplanes requires that the pilot plan ahead—that much more—to achieve the final desired energy state. The ob-
jective is to manage energy so that kinetic energy stays between limits (stall and placards), the potential energy stays
with limits (terrain to buffet altitude), and chemical energy stays above certain thresholds (not running out of fuel).

Page 3-B.32
 Energy Relationships

Kinetic energy Aerodynamic forces,

maneuver capability

Potential energy

Chemical energy

Figure 3-B.32
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Load Factors
Newton’s second law, force = mass x acceleration, is the basis for discussing airplane load factors. Since the air-
plane has mass, if it is being accelerated there must be force acting on it. Conversely, if there is a force acting on an
airplane, it will accelerate.
Acceleration refers to a change in either magnitude or direction of the velocity. It is convenient to refer to accelera-
tion in terms of gravity, or simply, g’s. The load factor expressed in g’s is typically discussed in terms of components
relative to the principal axes of the airplane:
• Longitudinal (fore and aft, typically thought of as speed change).
• Lateral (sideways).
• Vertical (or normal).

Page 3-B.33
Load Factors—Four Forces of Flight

Lift = 1 x weight
Level flight
path
Drag Thrust
Weight

Figure 3-B.33
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Load Factors (continued)

In level flight, the vertical load factor is 1 times the acceleration due to gravity, or 1.0. In a pull-up, the load factor is
above 1.0 and the flight path is curved. In a sustained vertical climb along a straight line, the thrust must be greater
than the weight and drag. The wing and the load factor perpendicular to the airplane floor must be zero. Anything but
zero will produce a curved flight path. Acceleration is a result of the sum of all forces acting on the airplane. One of
these forces is always gravity, and gravity always produces an acceleration vector directed toward the center of the
Earth. Aerodynamic forces are produced as a result of the orientation and magnitude of the velocity vector relative to
the airplane, which are reduced into angles of attack and sideslip. It is the direction and speed of the airplane through
the air that results in aerodynamic forces. More on these forces later.

Page 3-B.34
Load Factors—Airplane in Pull-Up

Lift > 1 x weight

Flight path
is curved.

Weight

Figure 3-B.34
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Aerodynamic Flight Envelope

Current jet transport airplanes are certificated to withstand normal vertical load factors from -1.0 to 2.5 g in the cruise
configuration. In addition to the strength of the structure, the handling qualities are demonstrated to be safe within
these limits of load factors. The pilot should be able to maneuver safely to and from these load factors at these speeds,
without needing exceptional strength or skills. Test pilots have evaluated the characteristics of airplanes in conditions
that include inadvertent exceedances of these operational envelopes to demonstrate that the airplanes can be returned
safely to the operational envelopes. This slide depicts a typical flight envelope, but it also shows the maximum demon-
strated Mach and speed numbers. These are typically 0.05 to 0.07 Mach and 50 kn higher than the operational limits.
Safe flight characteristics to return to the normal operational envelope must be demonstrated.

Page 3-B.35
Aerodynamic Flight Envelope
3
Flaps up
V = flaps up 1-g stall
S1
speed
2
Flaps down
V = design maneuver
Load A
speed, flaps up
factor
1 V = design structured
C
cruising speed

V V VC VD V = design dive speed

S1 A D
0
Airspeed

-1 Flaps up

M = maximum operating
MO
Maximum operating altitude Mach number

M DF M = maximum flight-
DF
M MO demonstrated Mach
number

Altitude V = maximum operating

MO
airspeed
Stall
speed* V = maximum flight-
DF
demonstrated
airspeed
VMO V DF
* Function of airplane
Airspeed configuration and
load factor.

Figure 3-B.35
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Angle of Attack and Stall

Wing and tail surfaces all produce lift forces in the same way. The lift force generated by a surface is a function of
the angle of attack, the dynamic pressure (proportional to the air density and the square of the true airspeed) of the
air moving around it, and the size of the surface. It is important to understand the dependence of lift on angle of at-
tack. As angle of attack is increased, lift increases proportionally up to the point where the air starts to separate from
the wing. At this critical angle of attack, the airflow breaks down and the surface is stalled. This is true regardless of
airplane speed or altitude. Angle of attack can sometimes be confusing.
The three angles usually referred to in the longitudinal axis are
• Angle of attack.
• Flight path angle.
• Pitch attitude.
These three angles and their relationships to each other are shown here. Depending on the context in which it is used,
aerodynamicists use the term “angle of attack” in a number of different ways. Angle of attack is always the angle
between the oncoming air or relative wind, and some reference line on the airplane or wing. Sometimes it is refer-
enced to the chord line at a particular location on the wing, sometimes to an “average” chord line on the wing, other
times it is referenced to a convenient reference line on the airplane, like the body reference x axis. Regardless of the
reference, the concept is the same as are the consequences: exceed the critical angle of attack and the lifting surfaces
and wind will separate, resulting in a loss of lift on those surfaces. Frequently the term “airplane angle of attack” is
used to refer to the angle between the relative wind and the longitudinal axis of the airplane. In flight dynamics, this
is frequently reduced to simply “angle of attack.” It is also the difference between the pitch angle and the flight path

Page 3-B.36
 Angle of Attack
Flight path
vector

Angle of attack is the

difference between pitch
attitude and flight path angle
(assumes no wind).

f attack
l e o
Ang Pitch
attitude
ty
Veloci
Flight path angle
Horizon

Figure 3-B.36
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Angle of Attack and Stall (continued)

The important point is that when the angle of attack is above the stall angle, the lifting capability of the surface is
diminished. More importantly, an airplane can be stalled in any attitude and at any airspeed. The angle of attack de-
termines whether the wing is stalled. A stall is characterized by any, or a combination, of the following:
• Buffeting.
• Lack of pitch authority.
• Lack of roll control.
• Inability to arrest the descent rate.
A stall must not be confused with an approach-to-stall warning that occurs before the stall. Stall speeds are published
in the Approved Flight Manual (AFM). It should be remembered, however, that these speeds are based on precisely
defined flight conditions. In conditions other than these, the stall speed can be considerably different. Many airplane
upsets are quite dynamic and involve elevated load factors and large speed-rate changes. It should also be noted that
the critical angle of attack is reduced at higher Mach numbers (higher altitude).

Page 3-B.37
Stalls

Figure 3-B.37
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Camber
Camber is illustrated here and refers to the amount of curvature evident in an airfoil shape. Airfoils with camber
are more efficient at producing lift than those without. Airfoils with specific kinds of camber are more efficient in
specific phases of flight. For example, aerobatic airplanes usually employ symmetrical airfoils. These work well for
that purpose, but are not efficient in cruise flight. The fixed camber of a lifting surface is built into the lifting surface,
depending on the airplane’s main function. There are, of course, many ways to change a surface’s camber in flight.

Page 3-B.38
 Camber

Mean camber line

Leading edge
Trailing edge

Chord line
Cambered Airfoil

Symmetrical Airfoil Modern Aft-Cambered Airfoil

Figure 3-B.38
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Control Surface Fundamentals

Trailing edge control surfaces provide a way of modulating the lift on a surface without physically changing that
surface’s angle of attack. The aerodynamic effect is that of increasing the lift at a constant angle of attack for trailing
edge down deflection. As you can see, the price paid is a reduced angle of attack for stall at higher deflection angles.
Large downward aileron deflections, at very high angles of attack, could induce air separation over that portion of
the wing. Reducing the angle of attack before making large aileron deflections will help ensure the effectiveness of
those surfaces.

Page 3-B.39
 Trailing Edge Control Surfaces

Angle of
attack
Relative wind

trol Stall
Lift con
cted
coefficient Defle Control surface
deflection
c tion
defle
No

Angle of attack

Figure 3-B.39
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Spoiler-Type Devices
Spoilers serve a dual purpose:
• Spoiling wing lift.
• Generating additional drag.
Spoilers separate airflow and stall the wing locally. Their effectiveness depends on how much lift the wing is generat-
ing. If the wing is producing large amounts of lift, as in the case of the flaps extended and at moderate angles of attack,
the spoilers become effective control devices because there is more lift to spoil. Conversely, if the airflow is already
separated, putting a spoiler up will not induce any more separation. As was the case with aileron control surfaces, the
wing must be unstalled in order for the aerodynamic controls to be effective.

Page 3-B.40
 Spoiler Devices

Separation Separation
Spoiler deflected region Spoiler deflected region

Flaps Up Flaps Down

Figure 3-B.40
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Trim
“Trim” is defined as that condition in which the forces on the airplane are stabilized and the moments about the center
of gravity all add up to zero.
“Pilot Trim” is that condition in which the pilot can release the controls and the airplane will continue to fly in the
manner desired.
In the pitch axis, trim is achieved by varying the lift on the horizontal tail/elevator combination to balance the pitch-
ing moments about the center of gravity. Traditionally, there have been three ways of doing that:
1. Fixed stabilizer/trim: Maneuver limitations if trimmed near a deflection limit.
2. The all-flying tail: Requires powerful, fast-acting, irreversible flight control systems.
3. Trimmable stabilizer: From a trimmed position, full elevator authority is available.

Page 3-B.41
 Trim
Smaller additional
deflection available,
this direction

Maximum deflection

Deflected trim tab

holds surface away from
neutral position

Larger additional
deflection available,
this direction

Maximum deflection

Figure 3-B.41
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Lateral and Directional Aerodynamic Considerations

The static lateral stability of an airplane involves consideration of rolling moments due to sideslip.
Aerodynamically, anti-symmetric flight, or flight in sideslip, can be quite complex. The forces and moments generated
by the sideslip can affect motion in all three axes of the airplane. As will be seen, sideslip can generate strong aero-
dynamic rolling moments as well as yawing moments. In particular the magnitude of the coupled roll-due-to-sideslip
is determined by several factors. Among them are
• Wing dihedral effects.
• Angle of sideslip.
• Pilot-commanded sideslip.

Page 3-B.42
 Lateral and Directional Aerodynamic
Considerations

The magnitude of coupled roll-due-to-sideslip is de-

termined by several factors, including
• Wing dihedral effects
• Angle of sideslip
• Pilot-commanded sideslip

Figure 3-B.42
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Wing Dihedral Effects

Dihedral is the positive angle formed between the lateral axis of an airplane and a line that passes through the center
of the wing. A wing with dihedral will develop stable rolling moments with sideslip, and it contributes to the lateral
stability of an airplane. The term “dihedral effect” is used when describing the effects of wing sweep and rudder on
lateral stability and control. Wing sweep is beneficial for high-speed flight because it will delay compressibility ef-
fects. Wing sweep also contributes to the dihedral effect. A sideslip on a swept-wing airplane results in a larger roll-
ing moment than on a straight-wing airplane. Rudder input produces sideslip and contributes to the dihedral effect.
The effect is proportional to the angle of sideslip. At high angles of attack, aileron and spoiler roll controls become
less effective. The rudder is still effective; therefore, it can produce large sideslip angles, which in turn produces roll

Page 3-B.43
Wing Dihedral Angle

Dihedral angle

Figure 3-B.43
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Pilot-Commanded Sideslip
The rudders on modern transport jets are sized to counter the yawing moment associated with engine failure at very
low takeoff speeds. It is important to realize that these powerful rudder inputs are available whether or not an engine
has failed. Large rolling moments are possible through the rudder. “Crossover speed” is a recently coined term that
describes the lateral controllability of an airplane with rudder at a fixed (up to maximum) deflection. It is the minimum
speed (weight and configuration dependent) in 1-g flight where maximum aileron/spoiler input is reached and the
wings are still level or at an angle to maintain directional control. Any additional rudder input or decrease in speed
will result in an unstoppable roll into the direction of the deflected rudder. Crossover speed is weight and configuration
dependent, but more importantly, it is sensitive to angle of attack. The crossover speed will increase with increased
angle of attack. In an airplane upset due to rudder deflection with large and increasing bank angle and the nose rapidly
falling below the horizon, the input of additional noseup elevator with already maximum input of aileron/spoilers
will only aggravate the situation. The correct action is to unload the airplane to reduce the angle of attack to regain
aileron/spoiler effectiveness. This action may not be intuitive and will result in a loss of altitude.
The rudder should not normally be used to induce roll through sideslip because transient sideslip can induce very rapid
roll rates with significant time delay. The combination of rapid roll rates and the delay can startle the pilot, which in
turn can cause the pilot to overreact in the opposite direction. The overreaction can induce abrupt yawing movements
and violent out-of-phase roll rates, which can lead to successive cyclic rudder deflections, known as rudder reversals.
Rapid full-deflection flight control reversals can lead to loads that can exceed structural design limits.

Page 3-B.44
Angle of Slideslip

Sideslip

city
Left rudder, angle

elo
“Cross-
right aileron/

ind
controlled”

ev
spoiler

ew
lan
ind

ativ
Airp
ew

Rel
ativ
Rel
Spoilers up

Aileron down Aileron up

Rudder deflected left

to hold sideslip angle

Figure 3-B.44
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

High-Speed, High-Altitude Characteristics

Aerodynamic characteristics of lifting surfaces are significantly affected by the ratio of airspeed to the speed of sound
(expressed as Mach number). At high altitudes, large Mach numbers exist at relatively low calibrated airspeeds. As
Mach number increases, airflow over parts of the airplane begins to exceed the speed of sound. Shock waves, associ-
ated with this local supersonic flow, can interfere with the normally smooth flow over the lifting surfaces. Depending
on the airplane, characteristics such as pitchup, pitchdown, or aerodynamic buffeting may occur. The point at which
buffeting would be expected to occur is documented in the AFM. A sample chart is shown here. Some airplanes have
broad speed margins; some have abrupt high-speed buffet margins; and some have narrow, “peaky” characteristics,
as depicted here. Pilots should become familiar with the buffet boundaries. These boundaries let the pilot know how
much maneuvering room is available.
• Airplane A has wide speed range but narrow g.
• Airplane B has narrow speed range but larger g.
• Airplane C has greater margin at slower speeds.

Page 3-B.45
High-Speed, High-Altitude Characteristics
110
105
100

95

00
90

10
85

x
kg
80

,
ht
eig
75

sw
os
70

Gr
65
60
Altitude margin

Low- High-
speed speed

Bank angle, deg

margin margin

Ref. line

35
40

45

50

55

60
15
25
30
35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

20
0
Altitude x 1000
0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 10 20 30 40 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
True Mach number (MT) CG percent MAC Normal acceleration to initial buffet, g
Coefficient of lift

Coefficient of lift

Coefficient of lift
Cruise altitude
Cruise altitude
Cruise altitude

Mach Mach Mach

Airplane A Airplane B Airplane C

Figure 3-B.45
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Static Stability
Positive static stability is defined as the initial tendency to return to an undisturbed state after a disturbance. This
concept is illustrated here and can apply to a number of different parameters, all at the same time. These include, but
are not limited to
• Speed stability: returning to initial trim airspeed after a disturbance.
• Mach number stability: maintaining Mach number although speed changes.
• Load factor stability: returning to trimmed g load if disturbed.
Two important aspects of stability are that it
1. Allows for some unattended operation.
2. Gives tactile feedback to the pilot.
For example, if the pilot is holding a sustained pull force, the speed is probably slower than the last trim speed.

Page 3-B.46
 Static Stability

Stable Unstable Neutral

When ball is displaced, When ball is displaced, When ball is displaced,
it returns to its original it accelerates from its it neither returns, nor
position. original position. accelerates away—it
just takes up a new
position.

Figure 3-B.46
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Maneuvering in Pitch
Controlling pitching motions involves controlling aerodynamic and other moments about the center of gravity to
modulate the angle of attack. Other than thrust moments, the pilot controls the pitching moments (angle of attack)
by means of the stabilizer and elevator. Moments have dimensions of force times distance. We are concerned with
moments about the center of gravity. The various pitching moments, and how they are calculated, are shown here. In
steady flight, the moments about the center of gravity, as well as the forces, are all balanced. The difference between
the center of gravity and the center of lift is balanced by tail loading. Essentially, the pilot controls the amount of lift
generated by the horizontal tail by moving the elevator, which adjusts the angle of attack and modulates the amount
of lift that the wing generates. Engines are rarely aligned with the center of gravity; therefore, pitching moments will
be created with changes in thrust. As long as the angle of attack is within unstalled limits and the airspeed is within
limits, the aerodynamic controls will work to maneuver the airplane in the pitch axis as described. This is true regard-
less of the attitude of the airplane or the orientation of the weight vector.

Page 3-B.47
 Maneuvering in Pitch
Lift

Wing-body
moment

Drag

Tail lift
Tail distance Thrust
Wing distance Engine
distance

Weight

Total
(Moment) + (Moment) + (Moment) + (Moment) = pitching
Tail Lift Thrust Wing-body moment
Total
Tail
lift *
Tail
distance
+ Wing
lift *
Wing
distance
+ Thrust
*
Engine
distance
+ (Moment)
Wing-body = pitching
moment

Figure 3-B.47
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Mechanics of Turning Flight

Recalling Newton’s second law, that an object in motion will continue in a straight line unless acted on by an external
force, consider what is required to make an airplane turn. A force perpendicular to the flight path, in the direction of
turn, is required. As depicted, part of the lift vector is lost, and there is an imbalance in forces. Unless the lift vector
is increased, so that its vertical component equals the weight of the airplane, the aircraft will begin to accelerate to-
ward the Earth (descend). All of this is well-known to pilots, but it bears reiteration in the context of recovery from
extreme airplane upsets. If the objective is to arrest descent, maneuvering in pitch if the wings are not level will only
cause a tighter turn and, depending on the bank angle, may not contribute significantly to generating a lift vector that
points away from the ground. Indeed, to maintain level flight at bank angles beyond 66 deg requires a larger load fac-
tor than 2.5 g. Knowledge of these relationships is useful in other situations as well. In the event that the load factor
is increasing, excess lift is being generated, and the pilot does not want the speed to decrease, bank angle can help to
keep the flight path vector below the horizon, getting gravity to help prevent loss of airspeed. The excess lift can be
oriented toward the horizon and, in fact, modulated up and down to maintain airspeed.

Page 3-B.48
 Mechanics of Turning Flight
Horizontal component
produces curved
flight path = turn
Additional
lift required
so that vertical Lift
component
still equals
weight

Weight

Load
2
factor, g's

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Bank angle, deg

Figure 3-B.48
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Lateral Maneuvering
Motion about the longitudinal axis is called roll. On modern jet airplanes, the specific deflection combinations of
ailerons and spoilers are designed to make adverse yaw virtually undetectable to the pilot. As discussed before, trail-
ing edge control surfaces lose effectiveness in the downward direction at high angles of attack. Spoilers also lose
their effectiveness as the stall angle of attack is exceeded. Transport aircraft are certificated to have the capability of
producing and correcting roll up to the time the airplane is stalled. Beyond the stall angle, no generalizations can be
made. For this reason, it is critical to reduce the angle of attack at the first indication of stall so that control surface
effectiveness is preserved. As discussed before, airplanes of large mass and large inertia require that pilots be prepared
for longer response time and plan appropriately.

Page 3-B.49
Lateral Maneuvering—Roll Axis

l
Late d ina
u
ral a
xis n git is
Lo ax

Center of
Vertical axis

gravity

Roll

Figure 3-B.49
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Lateral Maneuvering—Flight Dynamics

From a flight dynamics point of view, the greatest power of lateral control in maneuvering the airplane—using avail-
able energy to maneuver the flight—is to orient the lift vector. In particular, pilots need to be aware of their ability
to orient the lift vector with respect to the gravity vector. Upright with wings level, the lift vector is opposed to the
gravity vector, and the vertical flight path is controlled by longitudinal control and thrust. Upright with the wings not
level, the lift vector is not aligned with gravity, and the flight path will be curved in the downward direction if the g
force is not increased above 1. In all cases, the pilot should ensure that the angle of attack is below the stall angle and
roll to upright as rapidly as possible.

Page 3-B.50
Lateral Maneuvering—Flight Dynamics

Figure 3-B.50
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Directional Maneuvering
Motion about the vertical axis is called yaw. The principal controller of aerodynamic moments about the vertical axis
is the rudder, but it is not the only one. Others include asymmetric thrust and asymmetric drag. Generally, the rudder
is used to control yaw in a way that minimizes sideslip. On modern jet transports with powerful engines located away
from the centerline, engine failure can result in very large yawing moments. Rudders are sized to cope with these
moments down to very low speeds. In a condition of no engine failure, very large yawing moments would result in
very large sideslip angles and large structural loads, should the pilot input full rudder when it is not needed. There are
a few cases, however, when it is necessary to generate sideslip—crosswind landing, for example. Although stability
in the directional axis tends to drive the sideslip angle toward zero, without augmented stability (yaw damping) the
inertial and aerodynamic characteristics of modern jet transports would produce a rolling and yawing motion known
as “Dutch roll.” The pilot, with manual control over rudder deflection, is the most powerful element in the system.

Page 3-B.51
Directional Maneuvering—Yaw Axis

Yaw

l
d ina
Late itu is
ral a n g
xis Lo ax

Center of
Vertical axis

gravity

Figure 3-B.51
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Flight at Extremely Low Airspeeds

It is possible for the airplane to be flown at speeds below the defined stall speed. This regime is outside the certified
flight envelope. At extremely low airspeed, there are several important effects for the pilot to know about. Lift gener-
ated by wings and tails depends on both the angle of attack and the velocity of the air moving over the surfaces. At
very low airspeeds, an unstalled surface will produce lift. The lift generated may not be enough to support the weight
of the airplane. In the case of the lift generated by the tail, at very low airspeed, it may not be great enough to trim the
airplane, that is, to keep it from pitching. The trajectory will be largely ballistic, and it may be difficult to command
a change in attitude until gravity produces enough airspeed to generate sufficient lift—that is only possible at angles
of attack below the stall angle. For this reason, if airspeed is decreasing rapidly, it is very important to reduce angle
of attack and use whatever aerodynamic forces are available to orient the airplane so that a recovery may be made
when sufficient forces (airspeed) are available.

Page 3-B.52
Flight at Extremely Low Airspeeds

Figure 3-B.52
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Flight at Extremely Low Airspeeds (continued)

The situation becomes only slightly more complicated when thrust is considered. With engines offset from the center of
gravity, thrust produces both forces and moments. As airspeed decreases, engine thrust generally increases for a given
throttle setting. With engines below the center of gravity, there will be a noseup moment generated by engine thrust.
Especially at high power settings, this may contribute to even higher noseup attitudes and even lower airspeeds.
Pilots should be aware that, as aerodynamic control effectiveness diminishes with lower airspeeds, the forces and
moments available from thrust become more evident, and until the aerodynamic control surfaces become effective,
the trajectory will depend largely on inertia and thrust effects.

Page 3-B.53
Flight at Low Airspeeds and Thrust Effects

Figure 3-B.53
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Flight at Extremely High Speeds

Inadvertent excursions into extremely high speed, either Mach or airspeed, should be treated very seriously. Flight at
very high Mach numbers puts the airplane in a region of reduced maneuvering envelope. Pilots need to be aware that
the envelope is small. Prudent corrective action is necessary to avoid exceeding limits at the other end of the envelope,
should an inadvertent excursion occur. Flight in the high-airspeed regime brings with it an additional consideration of
very high control power. At speeds higher than maneuver speed, very large deflection of the controls has the potential
to generate structural damage.
In either the Mach or airspeed regime, if speed is excessive, the first priority should be to reduce speed to within the
normal envelope. Many tools are available for this, including orienting the lift vector away from the gravity vector;
adding load factor, which increases drag; reducing thrust; and adding drag by means of the speedbrakes. The single
most powerful force the pilot has available is the wing lift force. The second largest force acting on the airplane is
the weight vector. Getting the airplane maneuvered so that the lift vector points in the desired direction should be the
first priority, and it is the first step toward managing the energy available in the airplane.

Page 3-B.54
Flight at Extremely High Speeds

Figure 3-B.54
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Summary of Swept-Wing Fundamentals for Pilots

• Flight dynamics: Newton’s laws.
• Energy states: kinetic, potential, and chemical.
• Load factors: longitudinal, lateral, and vertical.
• Aerodynamic flight envelope: operating and demonstrated speeds.
• Aerodynamics: the relationship of angle of attack and stall.

Page 3-B.55
Summary of Swept-Wing Fundamentals

• Flight dynamics: Newton’s laws

• Energy states: kinetic, potential, and chemical
• Load factors: longitudinal, lateral, and vertical
• Aerodynamic flight envelope: operating and dem-
onstrated speeds
• Aerodynamics: the relationship of angle of attack
and stall

Figure 3-B.55
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Recovery From Airplane Upsets

The first part of the briefing was devoted to the causes of airplane upsets. We had a brief review of how and why large,
swept-wing airplanes fly. That information provides the foundation of knowledge necessary for recovering an airplane
that has been upset. This section highlights several issues associated with airplane upset recovery and presents basic
recommended airplane recovery techniques.

Page 3-B.56
Airplane Upset Recovery

Figure 3-B.56
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Situational Awareness During an Airplane Upset

It is important that the first actions be correct and timely. Guard against letting the recovery from one upset lead to
a different upset situation. Troubleshooting the cause of the upset is secondary and can wait. Use the primary flight
instruments. Darkness, weather conditions, and the limited view from the cockpit will make it difficult to effectively
use the horizon. The attitude direction indicator (ADI) is used as a primary reference.
Situation Analysis Process:
• Communicate with crew members.
• Locate the bank indicator.
• Determine pitch attitude.
• Confirm attitude by reference to other indicators.
• Assess the energy state.
The phrase “recognize and confirm the situation” will be used frequently in discussing recovery techniques. The
process outlined above is used to accomplish this.

Page 3-B.57
 Situational Awareness During
an Airplane Upset

“Recognize and confirm the situation” by the fol-

lowing key steps:
• Communicate with crew members
• Locate the bank indicator
• Determine pitch attitude
• Confirm attitude by reference to other indica-
tors

Figure 3-B.57
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Miscellaneous Issues Associated With Upset Recovery

Pilots who have experienced an airplane upset have identified several issues associated with recovering from an up-
set. Observations of pilots in a simulator-training environment have also revealed useful information associated with
recovery.

Page 3-B.58
The Miscellaneous Issues Associated With
Upset Recovery Have Been Identified by

• Pilots who have experienced an airplane upset

• Pilot observations in a simulator-training environment
And they are associated with
• The startle factor
• Negative g force
• Full control inputs
• Counter-intuitive factors

Figure 3-B.58
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Startle Factor
Airplane upsets are infrequent; therefore, pilots are usually surprised or startled when an upset occurs. There is a
tendency to react before analyzing what is happening or to fixate on one indication and fail to properly diagnose the
situation.

Page 3-B.59
Startle Factor

Figure 3-B.59
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Negative G Force
Airline pilots are normally uncomfortable (for the sake of passenger comfort and safety) with aggressively unload-
ing the g forces on a large passenger airplane. This inhibition must be overcome when faced with the necessity to
quickly and sometimes aggressively unload the airplane to less than 1 g. Most simulators cannot replicate sustained
negative g forces; therefore, the cockpit situation must be envisioned during less than 1-g flight. You may be floating
up against the shoulder harness and seat belt. It may be difficult to reach the rudder pedals. Unsecured items may be
flying around the cockpit. It should be emphasized that it should not normally be necessary to obtain less than 0 g.

Page 3-B.60
Negative G Force

Figure 3-B.60
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Use of Full Control Inputs

Flight control forces become less effective when the airplane is at or near its critical angle of attack or stall. The
tendency is for pilots not to use full control authority because they rarely are required to do so. This habit must be
overcome when recovering from severe upsets.

Page 3-B.61
Use of Full Control Inputs

Figure 3-B.61
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Nonintuitive Factors
Pilots are routinely trained to recover from approach to stalls. The recovery routinely requires an increase in thrust
and a relatively small reduction in pitch attitude. It may be counter-intuitive to use greater unloading control forces
or to reduce thrust when recovering from a high angle of attack, especially at low altitudes. If the airplane is stalled
while already in a nosedown attitude, the pilot must still push the nose down (unload) in order to reduce the angle of
attack. Altitude cannot be maintained in a stall and should be of secondary importance.

Page 3-B.62
Nonintuitive Factors

Figure 3-B.62
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Airplane Upset Recovery Techniques

The following airplane upset situations will be discussed:
• Nose high, wings level.
• Nose low, wings level.
• High bank angles.
– Nose high.
– Nose low.
At the conclusion, recommended recovery techniques are summarized into two basic airplane upset situations:
• Nose high.
• Nose low.

Page 3-B.63
Airplane Upset Recovery Techniques Will Include a
Review of the Following Airplane Upset Situations:

• Nose high, wings level

• Nose low, wings level
• High bank angles:
– Nose high
– Nose low
• And a review of recommended upset recovery
techniques based on two basic airplane upset
situations:
– Nose high
– Nose low

Figure 3-B.63
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Airplane Upset Recovery Techniques (continued)

Recovery techniques assume that the airplane is not stalled. If the airplane is stalled, it is imperative to first recover
from the stalled condition before initiating the upset recovery technique. Do not confuse an approach to stall and a
full stall. An approach to stall is controlled flight. An airplane that is stalled is out of control but can be recovered. A
stall is characterized by any, or a combination of, the following:
• Buffeting, which could be heavy at times.
• A lack of pitch authority.
• A lack of roll control.
• Inability to arrest descent rate.
To recover from a stall, the angle of attack must be reduced below the stalling angle. Apply nosedown pitch control
and maintain it until stall recovery. Under certain conditions with underwing-mounted engines, it may be necessary
to reduce thrust to prevent the angle of attack from continuing to increase. Remember, in an upset situation, if the
airplane is stalled, it is first necessary to recover from the stall before initiating upset recovery techniques.

Page 3-B.64
Airplane Upset Recovery Techniques

• Stall characteristics
– Buffeting
– Lack of pitch authority
– Lack of roll control
– Inability to arrest descent rate

Figure 3-B.64
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more than 25 deg, nose high, and increasing; airspeed decreasing rapidly;
ability to maneuver decreasing.
• Recognize and confirm the situation.
• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.
• Apply as much as full nosedown elevator.
• Use appropriate techniques:
– Roll to obtain a nosedown pitch rate.
– Reduce thrust (underwing-mounted engines).
• Complete the recovery:
– Approaching horizon, roll to wings level.
– Check airspeed and adjust thrust.
– Establish pitch attitude.

Page 3-B.65
Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques
• Recognize and confirm the situation
• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle

Figure 3-B.65
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more than 25 deg, nose high, and increasing; airspeed decreasing rapidly;
ability to maneuver decreasing.
• Apply as much as full nosedown elevator.
• Use nosedown stabilizer trim should stick forces be high.

Page 3-B.66
Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

• Apply as much as full

nosedown elevator

Figure 3-B.66
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more than 25 deg, nose high, and increasing; airspeed decreasing rapidly;
ability to maneuver decreasing.
• Use appropriate techniques:
– Roll to obtain a nosedown pitch rate.

Page 3-B.67
Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques
• Roll to obtain a nose-
down pitch rate

Figure 3-B.67
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more than 25 deg, nose high, and increasing; airspeed decreasing rapidly;
ability to maneuver decreasing.
• Use appropriate techniques: reduce thrust (underwing-mounted engines).

Page 3-B.68
Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques
• Reduce thrust (underwing-
mounted engines)

Figure 3-B.68
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more than 25 deg, nose high, and increasing; airspeed decreasing rapidly;
ability to maneuver decreasing.
• Complete the recovery:
– Approaching horizon, roll to wings level.
– Check airspeed and adjust thrust.
– Establish pitch attitude.

Page 3-B.69
Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques
• Complete the recovery:
– Approaching horizon, roll to wings level
– Check airspeed and adjust thrust
– Establish pitch attitude

Figure 3-B.69
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Nose-Low, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more than 10 deg, nose low.
• Recognize and confirm the situation.
• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.
• Recover from stall, if necessary.
• Recover to level flight.
– Apply noseup elevator.
– Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary.
– Adjust thrust and drag, as necessary.

Page 3-B.70
Nose-Low, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

• Recognize and confirm the situation

Figure 3-B.70
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Nose-Low, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more than 10 deg, nose low.
• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.

Page 3-B.71
Nose-Low, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

• Disengage autopilot and autothrot-

Figure 3-B.71
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Nose-Low, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more than 10 deg, nose low.
• Recover from stall, if necessary.

Page 3-B.72
Nose-Low, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

• Recover from stall, if necessary

Figure 3-B.72
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Nose-Low, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more than 10 deg, nose low.
• Recover to level flight:
– Apply noseup elevator.
– Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary.

Page 3-B.73
 Nose-Low, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques
Recover to Level Flight

• Apply noseup elevator • Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary

Figure 3-B.73
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Nose-Low, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

Situation: Pitch attitude unintentionally more than 10 deg, nose low.
• Adjust thrust and drag, as necessary.

Page 3-B.74
Nose-Low, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques

• Adjust thrust and drag, as necessary

Figure 3-B.74
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques

Situation: Bank angle greater than 45 deg; pitch attitude greater than 25 deg, nose high.
• Recognize and confirm the situation.
• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.
• Reduce the angle of attack (unload).
• Adjust the bank angle to achieve a nosedown pitch rate.
• Complete the recovery:
– Approaching the horizon, roll to wings level.
– Check airspeed, adjust thrust.
– Establish pitch attitude.

Page 3-B.75
High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques
• Recognize and confirm the situation
• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle

Figure 3-B.75
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques

Situation: Bank angle greater than 45 deg; pitch attitude greater than 25 deg, nose high.
• Reduce the angle of attack.
• Adjust the bank angle to achieve a nosedown pitch rate.

Page 3-B.76
High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques
• Reduce the angle of attack
• Adjust bank angle to achieve
nosedown pitch rate

Figure 3-B.76
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques

Situation: Bank angle greater than 45 deg; pitch attitude greater than 25 deg, nose high.
• Complete the recovery:
– Approaching the horizon, roll to wings level.
– Check airspeed; adjust thrust.
– Establish pitch attitude.

Page 3-B.77
High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques
• Complete the recovery:
– Approaching the horizon, roll to wings level
– Check airspeed; adjust thrust
– Establish pitch attitude

Figure 3-B.77
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques

Situation: Bank angle greater than 45 deg; pitch attitude lower than 10 deg; airspeed increasing.
• Recognize and confirm the situation.
• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.
• Reduce the angle of attack, if necessary.
• Simultaneously reduce thrust and roll the shortest direction to wings level.
• Recover to level flight:
– Apply noseup elevator.
– Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary.
– Adjust thrust and drag, as necessary.

Page 3-B.78
High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques
• Recognize and confirm the situation
• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle

Figure 3-B.78
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques

Situation: Bank angle greater than 45 deg; pitch attitude lower than 10 deg; airspeed increasing.
• Reduce the angle of attack, if necessary.

Page 3-B.79
High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques

• Reduce the angle of attack, if necessary

Figure 3-B.79
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques

Situation: Bank angle greater than 45 deg; pitch attitude lower than 10 deg; airspeed increasing.
• Simultaneously reduce thrust and roll the shortest direction to wings level.

Page 3-B.80
High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques

• Simultaneously reduce thrust and roll

the shortest direction to wings level

Figure 3-B.80
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques

Situation: Bank angle greater than 45 deg; pitch attitude lower than 10 deg; airspeed increasing.
• Recover to level flight:
– Apply noseup elevator.
–Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary.
–Adjust thrust and drag, as necessary.

Page 3-B.81
High-Bank-Angle Recovery Techniques

• Recover to level flight:

– Apply noseup elevator
– Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary
– Adjust thrust and drag, as necessary

Figure 3-B.81
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques

Nose-high recovery:
• Recognize and confirm the situation.
• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.
• Apply as much as full nosedown elevator.
• Use appropriate techniques:
– Roll (adjust bank angle) to obtain a nosedown pitch rate.
– Reduce thrust (underwing-mounted engines).
• Complete the recovery:
– Approaching the horizon, roll to wings level.
– Check airspeed, adjust thrust.
– Establish pitch attitude.

Page 3-B.82
Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques
Nose-High Recovery

Figure 3-B.82
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques

Nose-high recovery:
• Recognize and confirm the situation.
• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.
• Apply as much as full nosedown elevator.

Page 3-B.83
Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques
Nose-High Recovery

• Recognize and confirm the situation

• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle
• Apply as much as full nosedown elevator

Figure 3-B.83
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques

Nose-high recovery:
• Use appropriate techniques:
– Roll (adjust bank angle) to obtain a nosedown pitch rate.
– Reduce thrust (underwing-mounted engines).

Page 3-B.84
Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques
Nose-High Recovery

• Use appropriate techniques:

– Roll (adjust bank angle) to obtain a
nosedown pitch rate
– Reduce thrust (underwing-mounted
engines)

Figure 3-B.84
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques

Nose-high recovery:
• Complete the recovery:
– Approaching the horizon, roll to wings level.
– Check airspeed; adjust thrust.
– Establish pitch attitude.

Page 3-B.85
Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques
Nose-High Recovery

• Complete the recovery:

– Approaching the horizon, roll to wings level
– Check airspeed; adjust thrust
– Establish pitch attitude

Figure 3-B.85
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques

Nose-low recovery:
• Recognize and confirm the situation.
• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.
• Recover from stall, if necessary.
• Roll in the shortest direction to wings level:
– Bank angle to more than 90 deg; unload and roll.
• Recover to level flight:
– Apply noseup elevator.
– Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary.
– Adjust thrust and drag, as necessary.

Page 3-B.86
Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques
Nose-Low Recovery

Figure 3-B.86
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques

Nose-low recovery:
• Recognize and confirm the situation.
• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle.
• Recover from stall, if necessary.

Page 3-B.87
Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques
Nose-Low Recovery

• Recognize and confirm the situation

• Disengage autopilot and autothrottle
• Recover from stall, if necessary

Figure 3-B.87
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques

Nose-low recovery:
• Roll in the shortest direction to wings level:
– Bank angle to more than 90 deg; unload and roll.

Page 3-B.88
Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques
Nose-Low Recovery

• Roll in the shortest direction to wings level:

– Bank angle to more than 90 deg; un-
load and roll

Figure 3-B.88
 APPENDIX 3-B
Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing

Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques

Nose-low recovery:
• Recover to level flight.
– Apply noseup elevator.
– Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary.
– Adjust thrust and drag, as necessary.

Page 3-B.89
Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques
Nose-Low Recovery

• Recover to level flight

– Apply noseup elevator
– Apply stabilizer trim, if necessary
– Adjust thrust and drag, as necessary

Figure 3-B.89
Appendix 3-C
 APPENDIX
3-C
Video Script: Airplane Upset Recovery

This video consists of two parts. Part One provides information covering the causes of airplane upsets
3-C
and the fundamentals of aerodynamics. Part Two presents several airplane upset scenarios and recovery
techniques that may be used to return an airplane to its normal flight regime. The video was developed
by an aviation industry team as part of the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid. The team envisions
that both parts may be used for initial pilot training and Part Two may be used for recurring training.
This script is provided to aid operators who choose to translate the video into other languages.

App.3-C.1
APPENDIX
3-C

App.3-C.2
 APPENDIX
3-C

PART 1

FADE in TEXT over the black
screen.

TEXT: The scenes that follow are

based upon actual airplane upset
incidents.

1. FADE in. On a series of quick cuts, Fast-paced, percussive MUSIC
STOCK footage of a variety of runs up...
airplane models/manufacturers at
airports across the world. We see
a lot of activity: jets taxiing, taking
off, landing, etc.

2. CUT to 3D COMPUTER ANIMA- NARRATOR: A pilot initiates a
TION SEQUENCE #1. missed approach. The airplane
suddenly rolls and impacts the
We see an airplane in flight that ground in a 17-degree, nosedown
suddenly rolls and pitches nose pitch attitude.
down.

AIRPLANE MAKE/MODEL: GE-

NERIC

3. CUT back to STOCK. Continue MUSIC up...

with quick scenes of heavy jet
transports at world airports. Again,
a lot of activity.

4. CUT to 3D COMPUTER ANIMA- NARRATOR: An airplane on ap-
TION SEQUENCE #2. proach experiences pitch excur-
sions of greater than 70 degrees.
We see an airplane in flight pitching The airplane does not recover.
up.

AIRPLANE MAKE/MODEL: GE-

NERIC

5. CUT back to STOCK. Continue MUSIC up...
with activity at world airports, a
variety of scenes.

App.3-C.3
APPENDIX
3-C

6. CUT to 3D COMPUTER ANIMA- NARRATOR: An airplane is on

TION SEQUENCE #3. an automatic ILS approach, but
an error has been made with the
We see an airplane executing a autoflight system. The airplane
missed approach (go-around). It enters a severe nose-high pitch
pitches nose up and then stalls. attitude, stalls, and does not
recover.
AIRPLANE MAKE/MODEL: GE-
NERIC

7. CUT back to STOCK. We see five MUSIC up...

or six more airport activity shots,
then, CUT to

8. FREEZE-FRAME of GRAPH- VOICE-OVER: Three different ac-
IC BACKGROUND. Bring in cidents...three different causes...
FREEZE-FRAMES from each of but one common thread: at some
the preceding 3D accident anima- point in each case, the airplane
tion sequences. In each FREEZE- was upset and entered an “un-
FRAME, we see the airplane in an usual attitude”—that is, the plane
unusual attitude. unintentionally exceeded the
parameters that you, the pilot,
normally experience in day-to-day
operations.

9. DISSOLVE to our narrator, in an “Every day, around the world, tens

airport environment (an office/area of thousands of airplanes take
that overlooks the ramp area where flight. As you well know, an over-
we can see general airport activity. whelming majority of those flights
The office/area itself is not identifi- proceed without incident.”
able with any particular airline.)
The narrator turns from the window
to address the CAMERA. He is a
subject matter expert, but we do not
associate him with any manufac-
turer, airline, or government agency.

10. DELETED.
MUSIC bump (somber...)
11. DISSOLVE to PHOTOS from loss- VOICE-OVER: Airplane upsets
of-control accidents. are not a common occurrence.
However, there have been many
loss- of-control incidents in multi-
engine, turbojet airplanes. And,
since the beginning of the jet age,

App.3-C.4
 APPENDIX
3-C

there have been a significant num-

ber of commercial jet transport
accidents attributed to control
problems.
Music out.

12. CUT back to animation (use footage VOICE-OVER: As you’ll see,

from 3D ANIMATED SEQUENCE causes for airplane upsets are
#2). We see an airplane nose high varied, and in some cases, diffi-
and then stalling/no recovery. cult to agree upon. But one thing
everyone agrees with is that once
your airplane is upset and enters
an unusual attitude, you may have
little time to react. The actions you
take are critical to recovery.

13. DISSOLVE back to the narrator. “With this in mind, airlines, pilot
associations, airplane manufactur-
ers and government aviation and
regulatory agencies feel it is ap-
propriate that you receive Airplane
Upset Recovery Training.”

14. DISSOLVE to GRAPHIC BACK- VOICE-OVER: This video will de-

GROUND. On-screen text corre- fine airplane upset...will look at
sponds with narration. causes...and will review aerody-
namic principles that form a basis
ON-SCREEN TEXT: for recovery.
• Define Airplane Upset
• Examine Causes
• Review Aerodynamics

15. DISSOLVE back to the narrator. Music begins under...

“There’s no doubt, you never want
to be in a situation where your air-
plane has rolled or pitched out of
control. But if you do find yourself
in such a situation, the information
that follows can play a vital part in
a successful
recovery.”

App.3-C.5
APPENDIX
3-C

16. DISSOLVE back to GRAPHIC MUSIC comes up and holds

BACKGROUND. Title appears as throughout title sequence, then
on-screen text, followed by a sec- fades back under...
ond line underneath for subtitle.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
• Airplane Upset Recovery:
• Overview and Aerodynamics

17. DISSOLVE back to our narrator. “An airplane is defined as upset if

it unintentionally exceeds the pa-
rameters normally experienced in
line operations or training. Specif-
ic values may vary among airplane
models, but the following condi-
tions are generally agreed upon:”

18. DISSOLVE to 3D ANIMATION VOICE-OVER: Unintentional pitch

SEQUENCE #4. attitude greater than 25 degrees,
nose up...
We see an airplane in a compass
outline. Unintentional pitch attitude great-
er than 10 degrees, nose down...
As per sequences 1–3, this is a
generic airplane—a specific model, Unintentional bank angle greater
but no airline markings or colors. than 45 degrees...

The plane moves from “normal Or even within these parameters,

flight” to demonstrate a particular but flying at airspeeds inappropri-
“upset” attribute. Between attri- ate for the conditions.
butes, it returns momentarily to
“normal” flight.

19. DISSOLVE back to the narrator. “The causes of airplane upset

are varied, but these can also be
broadly categorized: upsets that
are environmentally induced...
those caused by airplane compo-
nents... those caused by human
factors... or those induced by a
combination of any of these.”
MUSIC bump....

App.3-C.6
 APPENDIX
3-C

20. DISSOLVE to air-to-air footage: VOICE-OVER: Interpreting and re-

scenes of clouds. On-screen text sponding to rapidly changing envi-
appears over scene on lower third ronmental conditions is a constant
of screen. It fades out as narration way of life for the working pilot.
begins. These conditions can also lead to
airplane upset, although not all of
CUT to pilots in a preflight briefing, them have a direct effect on the
reviewing weather information. airplane itself.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
• Environmental

21. DISSOLVE to air-to-air footage. VOICE-OVER: For example, a

We see an airplane moving through rapid environmental change may
changing weather conditions. dictate a quick transition from
VMC to IMC. During this transi-
tion, it’s often easy to get distract-
ed. Research shows that an upset
is more likely to develop when the
flight crew is distracted.

22. CUT to air-to-air footage: unique or VOICE-OVER: Environmental

unusual cloud patterns/formations. conditions can also cause visual
illusions, such as false vertical
and horizontal cues. During such
illusions, instruments can be mis-
interpreted, and again, the flight
crew can be distracted.

23. CUT to flight deck footage. We see VOICE-OVER: The biggest danger
weather instrumentation in cockpit. from environmental conditions,
however, are those that directly af-
fect the airplane flight path, such
as the various types of turbulence
a pilot might encounter.

24. CUT to STOCK from wake vortex VOICE-OVER: Industry study has
testing. We see an airplane follow- validated that wake vortex turbu-
ing another airplane with wingtip lence can contribute to an air-
smoke streamers, illustrating wake plane upset.
vortex turbulence.

25. CUT to 2D ART—GRAPHIC #1: VOICE-OVER: Windshear has also

been extensively studied and is a
Illustration of windshear principles. known cause of upset.

App.3-C.7
APPENDIX
3-C

26. CUT to 2D ART—GRAPHIC #2: VOICE-OVER: Mountain wave—

severe turbulence advancing up
Illustration of mountain wave prin- one side of a mountain and down
ciples. the other—is another environmen-
tal factor that can affect the air-
plane flight path...

27. CUT to flight deck footage. We see VOICE-OVER: As is clear air tur-
pilot and copilot from behind (not bulence, often marked by rapid
identifiable with any airline). CUT changes in pressure...temperature
close on instruments to highlight fluctuations...and dramatic chang-
rapid excursion—the effect of tur- es in wind direction and velocity.
bulence.

28. CUT to footage of thunderclouds, VOICE-OVER: Other environmen-

then severe winter weather at an tally induced factors that can con-
airport. tribute to, or cause, an airplane
upset include thunderstorms...and
weather conditions that result in
ice build-up on the airplane.

29. CUT to flight deck footage. We see/ The best solution to environmen-
hear the pilot asking for a route tal hazards is to avoid them when
around severe weather. possible.

30. DISSOLVE to flight deck scene: MUSIC bump...

CLOSE-UP on the instrument VOICE-OVER: Today’s airplanes
panel. On-screen text appears over are remarkably reliable, and mal-
the lower third of the screen. It function of components or equip-
fades out as the narration begins. ment that can lead to an upset are
rare. Because of this high level of
Then cut to scenes of pilots at work. reliability, when these problems do
occur, they can surprise the flight
ON-SCREEN TEXT: crew.
• Component or Equipment

31. CUT to simulator: pilots reacting to VOICE-OVER: Airplane component

autopilot failure. problems such as an instrument
failure or an autopilot failure fall
under this category. Again, the
result can be direct, such as an
autopilot failure resulting in a pitch
moment...or there can be an indi-
rect effect, if the flight crew has
been significantly distracted by

App.3-C.8
 APPENDIX
3-C

the failure of a particular compo-

nent.

32. CUT to simulator. Pilots reacting to VOICE-OVER: Other causes in-

trailing edge flap assembly clude flight control anomalies and
problem. system failures that lead to un-
usual control input requirements—
as might be experienced with an
engine failure, failure of the yaw
damper, the spoilers, the flaps or
slats, the primary flight controls,
or as a result of structural prob-
lems.

33. DISSOLVE to flight deck foot- MUSIC bump...

age. We see pilot and copilot from Human factors must also be taken
behind. Not identifiable with any into account when examining pos-
airline. On-screen text appears over sible causes.
the lower third of the screen. It
fades out as the narration begins.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
• Human Factors

34. CUT to flight deck footage. We see VOICE-OVER: Cross-check and

close-ups of pilot and copilot at instrument interpretation is an ex-
work, from a variety of angles. ample. Misinterpretation of instru-
ments or a slow cross-check may
lead to an upset.

35. CUT to simulator. Pilots reacting to VOICE-OVER: An upset can re-

a vertical mode malfunction. sult from unexpected airplane
response to power adjustments,
automated functions, or control
inputs...inappropriate use of au-
tomation...or by pilots applying
opposing inputs simultaneously.

App.3-C.9
APPENDIX
3-C

36. CUT to simulator. Pilots reviewing VOICE-OVER: As previously men-

map as airplane slows to stalling tioned, inattention or distraction
speed. in the flight deck can lead to an
upset. This includes any type of
distraction that causes the flight
crew to disregard control of the
airplane, even momentarily.

37. CUT to close-up on an attitude indi- VOICE-OVER: Spatial disorien-

cator at an obviously severe angle, tation, the inability to correctly
with the horizon superimposed orient one’s self with respect to
over. the Earth’s surface, has been a
significant factor in many airplane
upsets.

38. CUT to airplane in flight. HALF- VOICE-OVER: Other rare, but pos-
DISSOLVE pilot passing out over sible human factors include pilot
control column; then newspaper incapacitation due to a medical
headline from hijacking situation. problem, or, even rarer, a hijacking
situation.

39. DISSOLVE back to the narrator. “A combination of any of these

When he completes the narration, factors can also lead to upset.
he exits the frame. It’s important to remember that
we’re trying to look at all possible
causes here, no matter how re-
mote the possibility. The fact is,
it’s sometimes this very remote-
ness that allows an upset situation
to develop.”

MUSIC bump...
40. DISSOLVE to a “classroom” envi- “Now that we’ve taken a look at
ronment. We can tell by the material possible causes, let’s take a few
on the walls, etc., that this is a flight moments to review some key
crew training environment. On- aerodynamic principles. These are
screen text appears over the lower things you learned at the begin-
third of the screen. It fades out as ning of your flying career. You
the narrator enters the frame. now react instinctively in the flight
deck and rarely need to think
ON-SCREEN TEXT: about aerodynamic theory. How-
• Aerodynamics ever, in an airplane upset situation,
these principles form the basis for
recovery.”

App.3-C.10
 APPENDIX
3-C

41. CUT to shots of the Chief Test Pi- VOICE-OVER: We’ve asked the
lots for Boeing, Airbus, and Boeing Chief Test Pilots for Boeing and
Douglas Products Division touring Airbus to assist us in this discus-
together at the National Air and sion. These are pilots who’ve tak-
Space Museum. en their airplanes to the extremes.

42. DISSOLVE to the Airbus Chief “When discussing large-airplane

Test Pilot. He addresses the camera. aerodynamics, three words often
KEY: Capt. William Wainwright, enter the conversation:”
Airbus

43. DISSOLVE to 3D COMPUTER PILOT VOICE-OVER: Energy--the

ANIMATION SEQUENCE #5. capacity to do work...
Flight path—the actual direction
We see an airplane in flight. When and velocity an airplane follows...
Capt. Wainwright says “energy,” we and Maneuver—a controlled varia-
highlight the engines. When he says tion of the flight path.
“flight path,” an arrow or veloc-
ity vector draws on that illustrates
the plane’s flight path out ahead of
it. When he says “maneuver,” the
plane banks to the right.

44. DISSOLVE to an airplane in flight. PILOT VOICE-OVER: In an air-

plane, the ultimate goal of using
energy is to maneuver the airplane
to control the flight path.

45. CUT to scenes of an airplane in PILOT VOICE-OVER: The energy

flight. We see the engines, as well created by the thrust of the en-
as the wing. gines and the lift generated by the
wings is controlled by the thrust
levers and flight controls to over-
come gravity and aerodynamic
drag.

46. CUT to flight deck footage. We see PILOT VOICE-OVER: In other

pilot operating flight controls. words, flight controls give you the
ability to balance the forces acting
CUT to an airplane in flight. on the airplane in order to maneu-
ver—to change the flight path of
the airplane. The direction of the
lift produced by the wings is inde-
pendent of the direction of gravity.

App.3-C.11
APPENDIX
3-C

47. CUT back to Capt. Wainwright. “Two other important principles:

energy management...and angle
CUT to 3D COMPUTER ANIMA- of attack. An airplane in flight has
TION SEQUENCE #6. We see an two types of energy: kinetic, or
airplane in flight with instrumenta- airspeed, and potential, or alti-
tion package superimposed. We see tude. You exchange speed for
speed slowing as altitude increases. altitude...and altitude for speed.”

48. CUT close on the airplane model “The angle at which the wing
and pointer stick as Capt. Wain- meets the relative wind is called
wright demonstrates the angle-of- the “angle of attack.” Angle of
attack principle. attack does not equate to pitch
angle. Changing the angle of at-
CUT DISSOLVE to 3D COM- tack either increases or decreases
PUTER ANIMATION SEQUENCE the amount of lift generated. But
#6A. We see an airplane in flight beyond the stall, the angle of at-
with the angle of attack increasing tack must be reduced to
to the point of stall in both nose- restore lift.”
high and nose-low situations.

49. DISSOLVE to Boeing Chief Test “Now, let’s look at the elements of
Pilot. stability...”
KEY: Capt. John Cashman, Boeing.

50. DISSOLVE to 3D COMPUTER PILOT VOICE-OVER: Movement
ANIMATION SEQUENCE #7. around the lateral axis of an air-
plane is called “pitch” and is usu-
We see an airplane in a pitch and ally controlled by the elevator. At
yaw diagram angle. As detailed by any specific combination of air-
Capt. Cashman, we see the air- plane configuration, weight, cen-
plane pitch back and forth. When ter of gravity, and speed, there will
he details the elevator, we see that be one elevator position at which
component highlighted. all of these forces are balanced.

51. CUT to air-to-air, airplanes in flight PILOT VOICE-OVER: In flight, the

two elements most easily changed
are speed and elevator position;
as the speed changes, the eleva-
tor position must be adjusted to
balance the aerodynamic forces.
For example, as the speed in-
creases, the wing creates more
lift.

App.3-C.12
 APPENDIX
3-C

52. CUT to close air-to-air shot. We see PILOT VOICE-OVER: If the air-
an airplane slightly pitching up and plane is at a balanced, “in-trim”
down. position in flight, it will generally
seek to return to the trimmed
position if upset by external forces
or momentary pilot input. This is
called “positive longitudinal static
stability.”

53. CUT back to Capt. Cashman. He “We’ve all experienced this and
speaks to camera, mocks pulling are familiar with the requirements
and pushing column. to apply pull forces when an air-
plane is slowed and push forces
when an airplane speeds up.”

54. CUT to 3D COMPUTER ANIMA- PILOT VOICE-OVER: Changes in

TION SEQUENCE #8. airplane configuration will also
affect pitching moment. For ex-
We see extension of speedbrakes ample, extending wing-mounted
and resulting noseup-pitch speedbrakes generally produces a
moment. noseup pitching moment.

1/14—change in narration.

55. CUT to a scene that reflects an elec- PILOT VOICE-OVER: Airplanes

tronic flight control system airplane. that have electronic flight control
systems, commonly referred to as
“fly-by-wire,” may automatically
compensate for these changes in
configuration.

56. CUT to airplane in flight. We see it PILOT VOICE-OVER: Thrust af-

pitch up as thrust increases. fects pitch as well. With under-
wing engines, reducing thrust
creates a nosedown pitching mo-
ment; increasing thrust creates a
noseup pitching moment.

57. CUT to examples of airplanes with PILOT VOICE-OVER: Airplanes

tail-mounted engines. with fuselage- or tail-mounted
engines, or those designed with
electronic flight controls, produce
different effects. Whatever type of
plane you are flying, you need to
know how the airplane will
respond.

App.3-C.13
APPENDIX
3-C

58. DISSOLVE to 3D COMPUTER PILOT VOICE-OVER: The com-

ANIMATION SEQUENCE # 9. We bination of elevator and stabi-
see the tail end of an airplane, with lizer position also affects pitch.
elevator and stabilizer moving. In normal maneuvering, the pilot
displaces the elevator to achieve
a change in pitch. The stabilizer is
then trimmed by driving it to a new
position to balance the forces.

59. CUT back to 3D COMPUTER AN- PILOT VOICE-OVER: This new sta-
IMATION SEQUENCE # 9A. We bilizer position is faired with the
see a close-up of the stabilizer and elevator. If the stabilizer and el-
elevator showing a “jackknifed” evator are not faired, one cancels
condition. out the other. This condition limits
the airplane’s ability to overcome
other pitching moments from con-
figuration changes or thrust.

60. CUT to Boeing Douglas Products “Now, let’s continue this discus-
Division Chief Test Pilot. sion by taking a look at yaw and
KEY: Capt. Tom Melody, Boeing roll.”
Douglas Products Division.
MUSIC bump...
61. DISSOLVE to 3D COMPUTER PILOT VOICE-OVER: Motion about
ANIMATION SEQUENCE #10. the vertical axis is called “yaw”
and is controlled by the rudder.
We see an airplane in a pitch and Movement of the rudder creates
yaw diagram. As detailed by Capt. a force and a resulting rotation
Melody, we see the airplane yaw. about the vertical axis.
When he details the rudder, we see
that component highlighted.

62. CUT back to Capt. Melody. The “The vertical stabilizer and the
tail section of an airplane fills the rudder are sized to meet two
area behind him. He speaks to the objectives: to control asymmetric
camera. thrust from an engine failure at the
most demanding flight condition...
and to generate sufficient sideslip
for cross-wind
landings.”

App.3-C.14
 APPENDIX
3-C

63. CUT close on the tail as the rudder PILOT VOICE-OVER: To achieve
moves. these objectives at takeoff and
landing speeds, the vertical stabi-
lizer and rudder must be capable
of generating powerful yawing
moments and large sideslip an-
gles.

MUSIC bump...
64. DISSOLVE to 3D COMPUTER PILOT VOICE-OVER: Motion about
ANIMATION SEQUENCE #11. the longitudinal axis is called
roll. Control inputs cause the
We see an airplane in a pitch and ailerons—and then spoilers—to
yaw diagram. As detailed by Capt. control the airplane’s roll rate.
Melody, we see the airplane roll The aileron and spoiler movement
back and forth. When he details the changes the local angle of attack
ailerons and spoilers, we see those of the wing—changing the amount
components highlighted. of lift—which causes rotation
about the longitudinal axis.
CUT to airplane in flight, rolling.

65. CUT to animation: we see ailerons PILOT VOICE-OVER: During an

highlighted. Cut to interior of simu- upset, there may be unusually
lator as needed. large amounts of aileron input
required to recover the airplane. If
necessary, this can be assisted by
coordinated input of rudder in the
direction of the desired roll.

66. CUT back to animation: we see PILOT VOICE-OVER: However,

airplane at high angle of attack. when a large-transport, swept-
wing airplane is at a high angle
of attack, pilots must be careful
when using the rudder for as-
sisting lateral control. Excessive
rudder can cause excessive side-
slip, which could lead to departure
from controlled flight.

App.3-C.15
APPENDIX
3-C

67. CUT to 2D ART—GRAPHIC #3: PILOT VOICE-OVER: As angle

of attack increases, aileron and
View of full airplane from slightly spoiler effectiveness decreases
above and to the side. We see because the airflow begins to sep-
airflow passing over the wing and arate over the wing. However, the
around the rudder. As the angle of rudder airflow is not separated; it
attack increases, we see airflow remains aerodynamically effective.
separate over the wing, but remain
aerodynamically effective around
the rudder.

68. CUT to 3D COMPUTER ANIMA- PILOT VOICE-OVER: In some

TION SEQUENCE #12. aircraft configurations, there is a
certain crossover speed at which
We see demonstration of crossover full aileron and spoiler deflec-
speed. tion is necessary to counter the
roll due to full rudder deflection
We see airplane begin yaw roll. and the resulting sideslip. Below
this crossover speed, the rolling
Indicate unloading of control col- moment created by ailerons and
umn. spoilers is gradually unable to
counter the rolling moment in-
duced by the sideslip generated
by full rudder deflection. The air-
plane must be unloaded to reduce
angle of attack, and the airspeed
must be increased, to maintain
lateral control.

69. CUT to airspeed indicator. We see PILOT VOICE-OVER: In contrast,

high airspeed. very high speeds in excess of VMO
and MMO cause control surfaces
to be blown down, rendering them
less effective.

70. CUT to flight deck scene—simulate PILOT VOICE-OVER: The main

vibration. concern at high speed in excess
of VMO and MMO comes from vi-
1/14—Change in text. brations and high airloads that
may lead to structural damage.
CUT to 3D COMPUTER ANIMA- Other effects often include re-
TION SEQUENCE. (Variation of duced effectiveness or even re-
sequence #8A. Speedbrake exten- versal of control response. Any
sion as seen in scene 54—but this pitching moment due to speed-
one is at high speed and the pitch brake extension or retraction is
moment is more pronounced.) more pronounced at high speed,

App.3-C.16
 APPENDIX
3-C

and pitching effects as a result

of thrust changes are less pro-
nounced.

71. CUT to simulator. Pilots reacting to PILOT VOICE-OVER: High-speed

shock-wave vibration. buffet is caused by shock-wave
instability. As the airplane exceeds
Then, CUT to 2D ART—GRAPH- its cruise speed, the shock wave
IC #4. that runs along the wing upper
surface becomes strong enough
Ilustration of shock-wave to cause the beginning of a local
principles. separation or stall. This causes
the flow over the wing to fluctu-
ate, leading to rapid changes in
drag and the position of the center
of pressure. The ensuing buffet
results in a loss of aerodynamic
efficiency of the wing, which will
impact the high-speed dive recov-
ery.

72. CUT to simulator. Pilots reacting to PILOT VOICE-OVER: The buf-

buffet. fet can be disconcerting and will
normally not be symmetrical on
each wing—resulting in a rocking
motion during a pull-up. The pilot
should relax the pull force if high-
speed buffet is encountered.

73, CUT to Boeing Capt. John Cash- “Altitude and Mach also affect the
man in simulator. performance of the control
surfaces...”

74. CUT to close-up on altitude indica- PILOT VOICE-OVER: The higher

tor. We see high altitude number. the altitude, and Mach, the more
sensitive the airplane is to control
surface movements, making the
recovery more difficult.

App.3-C.17
APPENDIX
3-C

75. Then CUT to 3D COMPUTER PILOT VOICE-OVER: Asymmetric

ANIMATION SEQUENCE #13. thrust affects roll. When there is
asymmetric thrust, sideslip is cre-
We see an airplane entering a yaw, ated, and thus, roll. This is nor-
rolling motion. mally countered with rudder and
lateral control. Obviously then,
Airplane yaws back to normal reducing an asymmetric thrust
flight. condition will also reduce the
sideslip associated with it.

76. CUT to 3D COMPUTER ANIMA- PILOT VOICE-OVER: The defini-

TION SEQUENCE #14. We see tion of VMCA is the minimum flight
demonstration of an airplane in speed at which the airplane is
VMCA condition. controllable with a maximum of
5-degrees bank when the critical
engine suddenly becomes inop-
erative with the remaining engine
at takeoff thrust. Below this speed
there is insufficient directional
control.

77. DISSOLVE to flight test footage of PILOT VOICE-OVER: As the air-

full stall testing (A340 and 777). speed decreases, the ability to
maneuver the airplane also de-
creases. During a full or deep stall,
the flight controls become less ef-
fective because of the high angle
of attack.

78. DISSOLVE to 3D COMPUTER PILOT VOICE-OVER: However,

ANIMATION SEQUENCE # 15. the rudder remains effective at
We see an airplane rolling in re- lower speeds. This can be good
sponse to rudder input. or bad—At speeds above stall, the
rudder can assist the airplane’s
ability to roll. However, at slower
speeds, there will be a delay after
application of the rudder before
roll response becomes apparent
to you. Also, the amount of rud-
der used and the rate at which it
is applied is critical. The bad part
is that at speeds approaching the
stall speed, or speeds below the
stall speed, use of rudder applied
too quickly or held too long may

App.3-C.18
 APPENDIX
3-C

result in loss of lateral and direc-

tional control and cause structural
damage.

78.5 At any speed, large aggressive

control reversals can lead to loads
that can exceed structural design
limits.

79. Scene of rudder (tail).

80. DISSOLVE back to Airbus Capt. “Another consideration for lon-

Bill Wainwright. gitudinal control is ‘g’ load. That
is, the amount of load factor that
is aligned with the vertical axis of
the airplane.”

81. DISSOLVE to plane in a level turn. PILOT VOICE-OVER: In a level turn

or pull-up, the wing has to create
more lift and the pilot feels more
g load. The increased g load will
also increase the stall speed.

82. CUT to 3D ANIMATED PILOT VOICE-OVER: Generally,

SEQUENCE #16. the elevator and stabilizer have
sufficient control authority to drive
Airplane actions correspond to nar- the wing past its stall angle of at-
ration. tack, even at high speed, which
can adversely affect pitch and roll
control.

83. CONTINUE with ANIMATED PILOT VOICE-OVER: This means

SEQUENCE #16. that the wing can be stalled. In
this case, regardless of the pitch
Highlight stick shaker with visual attitude, a pilot cannot command
and audible. a specific bank angle or flight
path, even at high airspeeds. The
airplane has entered into an ac-
celerated stall. The wing loading
must be reduced to recover from
this stall and regain pitch and roll
control.

App.3-C.19
APPENDIX
3-C

84. CUT to flight deck scenes of fly-by- PILOT VOICE-OVER: Airplanes

wire airplanes. with electronic flight control sys-
tems may provide protection
CUT to A320 at high angle of at- against entering into many upset
tack. situations. These systems also as-
sist the airplane to return to nor-
mal flight, if necessary. However,
when fly-by-wire airplanes oper-
ate in the degraded mode, flight
control inputs and the responses
are similar to non-fly-by-wire air-
planes.

MUSIC bump...
85. DISSOLVE to Boeing Doug- “The aerodynamic principles
las Products Division Capt. Tom we’ve reviewed are applied to air-
Melody. plane design.”
PILOT VOICE-OVER: During flight
Then DISSOLVE to flight test foot- testing, all airplane manufacturers
age from Boeing, Airbus, and Mc- exceed these parameters to help
Donnell Douglas. We see airplanes prove the safety of the airplanes
at unusual attitudes or extreme test that you eventually fly. A working
conditions. knowledge of these principles is
vital to a successful recovery from
an upset situation.

MUSIC bump...
86. DISSOLVE back to our narrator. “In this video, we’ve defined what
an airplane upset is...we’ve looked
at causes...and we’ve reviewed
the aerodynamics associated with
recovery. We’ve laid a foundation.
To build upon this foundation,
follow-on training should review
specific recovery techniques.”
MUSIC comes up...
CREDIT RUN OF PROGRAM
PARTICIPANTS.

FADE out.

App.3-C.20
 APPENDIX
3-C

PART 2
MUSIC runs under...
87. FADE in on a series of accident VOICE-OVER: Different acci-
photos/footage. dents...different causes...but all of
these accidents do have one thing
DISSOLVE to animation sequence: in common...At some time during
airplane in upset condition. the flight, an airplane upset oc-
curred. And there’s one other criti-
cal thing they have in common:
the flight crews did not recover.

88. DISSOLVE to our narrator. He is “An airplane is defined as upset

in a simulator environment. He ad- if it unintentionally exceeds the
dresses the camera. parameters normally experienced
in line operations or training.
Specific values vary among air-
plane models, but the following
conditions are generally agreed
upon:”

89. DISSOLVE to 3D COMPUTER VOICE-OVER: Unintentional pitch

ANIMATION SEQUENCE #4 attitude greater than 25 degrees,
nose up...
(As detailed in scene 18.) We see Unintentional pitch attitude great-
an airplane demonstrating upset at- er than 10 degrees, nose down...
tributes. Unintentional bank angle greater
than 45 degrees...
Or even within these parameters,
but flying at airspeeds inappropri-
ate for the conditions.

MUSIC fades under...

90. DISSOLVE to upset animation. VOICE-OVER: Airplane upsets do
happen...but they are rare. Be-
cause of this rarity, a flight crew
that finds itself in an upset situa-
tion can quickly be overwhelmed.

App.3-C.21
APPENDIX
3-C

91. DISSOLVE to scenes from Video VOICE-OVER: Causes of upsets

#1: A weather scene...a compo- vary—they may be caused by envi-
nent malfunction scene...the pilots ronmental factors...by component
distracted scene...then animation of or equipment malfunction...by hu-
an upset situation. On-screen text man factors...or by a combination
appears over background. of any of these. But no matter the
cause, the foundation for recovery
ON-SCREEN TEXT: is the same...
• Recognize and Confirm the You must—recognize and confirm
Situation the situation...
• Disengage the Autopilot and disengage the autopilot and auto-
Autothrottle throttle...
• Required Flight Control use whatever authority is required
Authority of the flight controls...
• Maneuver to Normal Bank/Pitch and you must maneuver the air-
plane to return to normal bank
and pitch...

92. CUT to animation: airplane in an VOICE-OVER: Once you’ve en-

obvious upset condition. tered an upset condition, you
probably won’t be able to rely
Then CUT to simulator: pilot react- on outside visual references—in
ing to upset condition. many cases you won’t be able to
locate the horizon.
You must plan on interpreting your
instruments...
And if you are unsure if an instru-
ment is working, such as your at-
titude indicator, you must confirm
your situation through multiple
sources. In fact, that’s one of the
reasons why redundancy of criti-
cal instrumentation is built into an
airplane.

93. CUT to new angle on the narrator. “This video will examine specific
recovery techniques that you can
use once your airplane has been
upset. We’ve asked three pilots
to help us with this discussion—
three pilots who have actually
been in some of the situations
we’ll be looking at.”

App.3-C.22
 APPENDIX
3-C

94. DISSOLVE to scenes of Capt. John VOICE-OVER: The chief test pilots
Cashman (Boeing), Capt. Tom for Boeing and Airbus have a great
Melody (Boeing Douglas Prod- deal of expertise when it comes to
ucts Division) and Capt. William airplanes that fly outside the nor-
Wainwright (Airbus), touring at the mal regime. During flight testing,
National Air and Space Museum. they regularly push their airplanes
beyond normal flight parameters.

95. CUT back to narrator. “For the purposes of this training,

it doesn’t matter how or why the
airplane entered an upset situa-
tion, or what caused it...what mat-
ters most is that you understand
that your reaction time is limit-
ed—in short, if you find yourself
in an upset situation, you must
act, and you must act quickly and
correctly. You must also guard
against letting the recovery of one
airplane upset lead into a different
upset
situation.”

96. DISSOLVE to our three test pi- Capt. Wainwright: “An Upset Re-
lots—a group shot, at the National covery Team comprised of rep-
Air and Space Museum. Capt. Wil- resentatives from airlines, pilot
liam (Bill) Wainwright begins. After associations, airplane manufactur-
his first sentence, ZOOM in on Bill. ers, and government aviation and
regulatory agencies developed the
KEY: Capt. William Wainwright, techniques presented here. These
Airbus techniques are not necessarily
procedural. Use of both primary
CUT to Boeing Capt. John Cash- and secondary flight controls to
man. effect the recovery from an unusu-
al attitude are discussed.”

KEY: Capt. John Cashman, Boeing Capt. Cashman: “Your air carrier
must address procedural applica-
tion within your own fleet struc-
ture. The Upset Recovery Team
strongly recommends that your
procedures for initial recovery
emphasize using primary flight
controls (aileron, elevator, and
rudder). However, the application
of secondary flight controls (stab

App.3-C.23
APPENDIX
3-C

trim, thrust vector effects, and

speedbrakes) may be considered
incrementally to supplement pri-
mary flight control inputs after the
recovery has been initiated.”

97. CUT to Boeing Douglas Products Capt. Melody: “One more thing—
Division Capt. Tom Melody. the recovery techniques we’ll
discuss assume that the airplane
KEY: Capt. Tom Melody, Boeing is not stalled. If it is stalled, it is
Douglas Products Division. necessary to first recover from the
stalled condition before initiating
these techniques. At this point,
we feel it is important to discuss
stall recovery. As a pilot, you hear
and use a lot of different terminol-
ogy when discussing stalls: ‘stall
warning’, ‘stick shaker’, deep
stalls’ and ‘approach to stalls.’
These are all used in daily
conversation.”
CUT back to Capt. Wainwright. Capt. Wainwright: “As we said, In
some upset situations, you must
first recover from a stall before
applying any other recovery ac-
tions. Now what do we mean by
that? By stall, we mean an angle
of attack beyond the stalling
angle. A stall is characterized by
any, or a combination, of the fol-
lowing:”

97A. CUT back to Capt. Cashman. Capt. Cashman: “Buffeting, which

could be heavy...the lack of pitch
authority...the lack of roll control...
inability to arrest descent rate.
These characteristics are usually
accompanied by a continuous
stall warning. A stall must not be
confused with the stall warning
that occurs before the stall and
warns of an approaching stall. You
have been trained to recover from
an approach to stall, which is not
the same as a recovery from a
stall. An approach to stall is a con-

App.3-C.24
 APPENDIX
3-C

trolled flight maneuver. However,

a full stall is an out- of-control
condition, but it is recoverable.”

CUT back to Capt. Melody. Capt. Melody: “To recover from

the stall, angle of attack must be
reduced below the stalling angle.
You must apply nosedown pitch
control and maintain it until you
have recovered from the stall.
Under certain conditions, on air-
planes with underwing-mounted
engines, you may have to reduce
thrust in order to prevent the
angle of attack from continuing to
increase. Once unstalled, continue
with the other recovery actions
and reapply thrust as needed.”

98. DISSOLVE to scenes of airplanes VOICE-OVER: Airplanes that are

in flight: Airbus air-to-air and Boe- designed with electronic flight
ing air-to-air. control systems, commonly re-
ferred to as “fly-by-wire” air-
planes, have safety features that
should preclude the airplane from
entering into an upset and assist
the pilot in recovery if it becomes
necessary. However, when fly-by-
wire airplanes are in the degraded
flight control mode, the recovery
techniques and aerodynamic prin-
ciples we will discuss are appro-
priate.

99. DISSOLVE to GRAPHIC BACK- MUSIC comes up and holds

GROUND. Title appears as on- throughout the title sequence,
screen text, followed by a second then fades back under...
line for Part Two title.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
• Airplane Upset Recovery:
• Recovery Techniques

App.3-C.25
APPENDIX
3-C

100. DISSOLVE to FREEZE-FRAME MUSIC bump...

from 3D COMPUTER ANIMA- VOICE-OVER: Imagine a wings-
TION SEQUENCE #17. level situation where the airplane
pitch attitude is unintention-
On-screen text appears over the ally more than 25 degrees, nose
lower third of the screen, then fades high—and increasing. In this case,
out as narration begins. the airspeed is decreasing rapidly.
As the airspeed decreases, the
ON-SCREEN TEXT: ability to maneuver the airplane
• Nose High, Wings Level also decreases. Recognize and
confirm the situation.
Animation (sequence 17A) transi-
tions from FREEZE-FRAME to
FULL MOTION. We see the air-
plane pitching up. Instrumentation
dissolves on.

101. CUT to Capt. John Cashman in “Start by disengaging the autopi-

flight deck of a Boeing airplane lot and the autothrottle.”
simulator. He turns from the pilot’s
seat to address the camera.

102. CUT back to animation (sequence PILOT VOICE-OVER: Next, apply

17A, with instrumentation). nosedown elevator to achieve a
nosedown pitch rate. This may
require as much as full nosedown
CUT to Capt. Cashman, in simu- input. If a sustained column force
lator, applying sustained column is required to obtain desired re-
force and trim. sponse, you may consider trim-
ming off some of the control force.
However, it may be difficult to
know how much trim should be
used. Therefore, care must be
taken to avoid using too much
trim. Do not fly the airplane using
pitch trim, and stop trimming nose
down as the required elevator
force lessens.

103. CUT back to Capt. Cashman. He “If at this point you cannot im-
speaks to the camera. mediately get the pitch rate under
control, there are several addi-
tional techniques which may be
tried. The use of these techniques
depends on the circumstances of

App.3-C.26
 APPENDIX
3-C

the situation and the airplane con-

trol characteristics.”

104. CUT back to 3D ANIMATION PILOT VOICE-OVER: You may also

SEQUENCE #18. control the pitch by rolling the air-
plane to a bank angle which starts
We see plane starting to bank. the nose down—normally not to
exceed approximately 60 degrees.
Replay this sequence as needed. Maintaining continuous nosedown
Highlight deflection of ailerons and elevator pressure will keep the
spoilers. wing angle of attack as low as pos-
sible, making the normal roll con-
trols as effective as possible. With
airspeed as low as stick shaker
onset, normal roll controls—up to
full deflection of the ailerons and
spoilers—can be used. The rolling
maneuver changes the pitch rate
into a turning maneuver, allowing
the pitch to decrease.

105. CUT back to Capt. Cashman. He “In most situations, the steps
addresses the camera. we’ve just outlined should be
enough to recover. Other tech-
niques may also be employed to
achieve a nosedown pitch rate.”

106. DISSOLVE to 3D ANIMATION PILOT VOICE-OVER: If altitude

SEQUENCE #19. permits, flight tests have shown
that an effective method to get a
Highlight engine thrust. nosedown pitch rate is to reduce
the power on underwing-mounted
engines. This will reduce the up-
ward pitch moment.

107. DISSOLVE back to 3D ANIMA- PILOT VOICE-OVER: If the control

TION SEQUENCE #20. provided by the ailerons and spoil-
ers is ineffective, rudder input may
Highlight rudder input. be required to induce a rolling ma-
neuver for recovery.

App.3-C.27
APPENDIX
3-C

108. CUT back to Capt. Cashman. Cover “Only a small amount of rudder is
with continuation of animation as needed—too much rudder applied
needed. too quickly—or held too long—
may result in loss of lateral and
directional control. Because of the
low-energy condition, use caution
when applying rudder.”

109. CUT back to 3D ANIMATION PILOT VOICE-OVER: To complete

SEQUENCE #20A. the recovery, roll to wings level as
the nose approaches the horizon.
We see plane returning to normal Recover to a slightly nose-low at-
flight. titude, check airspeed, and adjust
thrust and pitch as necessary.

110. DISSOLVE to a scene of Capt. MUSIC comes up.

Cashman in the simulator, from
behind, wide. KEY on-screen text
over this scene.

1/15/98—text change.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
Nose High, Wings Level:
• Recognize and Confirm the
Situation

110A. CUT to a close-up of EICAS dis- MUSIC continues...

play indication disconnection of
autothrottle and autopilot. KEY
on-screen text over this scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
• Disengage Autopilot and
Autothrottle

110B. CUT to Capt. Cashman applying MUSIC continues...

nosedown elevator. KEY on-
screen text over this scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
• Apply as Much as Full
Nosedown Elevator

App.3-C.28
 APPENDIX
3-C

110C. CUT back to animation. KEY on- MUSIC continues...

screen text over this scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
• Use Appropriate Techniques:
– Roll to obtain nosedown
pitch rate
– Reduce thrust (underwing
mounted engines)

110D. CUT to a scene from animation MUSIC continues...

of airplane recovering. KEY on-
screen text over this scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
• Complete the Recovery:
– Approaching horizon, roll to
wings level
– Check airspeed, adjust thrust
– Establish pitch attitude

110E. DISSOLVE to GRAPHIC MUSIC continues....

BACKGROUND. On-screen text
appears over background, high-
lighting 2nd review of recovery
steps.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
Nose High, Wings Level:
• Recognize and Confirm the
Situation
• Disengage Autopilot/Autothrottle
• Apply as Much as Full
Nosedown Elevator
• Use Appropriate Techniques:
– Roll to obtain nosedown pitch
rate
– Reduce thrust (underwing-
mounted engines)
• Complete the Recovery
– Approaching horizon, roll to
wings level
– Check airspeed, adjust thrust
– Establish pitch attitude

App.3-C.29
APPENDIX
3-C

111. DISSOLVE to FREEZE-FRAME MUSIC bump...

from 3D COMPUTER ANIMA- VOICE-OVER: Now imagine an
TION SEQUENCE #21. upset situation where the airplane
pitch attitude is unintentionally
1/15/98—text change. more than 10 degrees, nose low.
Recognize and confirm the
On-screen text appears over the situation.
lower third of the screen, then fades
out as narration begins.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
• Nose Low, Wings Level

Airbus test pilot begins voice-over.

Animation transitions from

FREEZE-FRAME to FULL MO-
TION. We see the airplane pitching
down.

112. CUT to Airbus Capt. William “In a nose-low, low-speed situa-

Wainwright in the flight deck of an tion, remember, the aircraft may
Airbus airplane. He turns to address be stalled at a relatively low pitch,
the camera. and it is necessary to recover from
the stall first. This may require
He applies nosedown elevator. nosedown elevator, which may not
be intuitive.”
.
112A. CUT back to COMPUTER ANI- PILOT VOICE-OVER: Once recov-
MATION SEQUENCE #21A. ered from the stall, apply thrust.
We see the airplane returning to The nose must be returned to
normal flight. the desired pitch, avoiding a sec-
ondary stall, as indicated by stall
warning or buffet. Respect the
airplane limitations of g forces and
airspeed.

113. CUT to 3D ANIMATION SE- PILOT VOICE-OVER: In a nose-

QUENCE #22. low, high-speed situation, apply
noseup elevator. Then, it may be
necessary to cautiously apply sta-
bilizer trim, to assist obtaining the
desired noseup pitch rate. Reduce
thrust and, if required, extend
speedbrakes.

App.3-C.30
 APPENDIX
3-C

114. CUT back to Capt. Wainwright in “Complete the recovery by estab-

the flight deck. He addresses the lishing a pitch, thrust, and con-
camera. figuration that corresponds to the
desired airspeed.”

115. CUT close on the column. Pull back “A question naturally arises: How
to reveal Capt. Wainwright. hard do I pull? Here are some con-
siderations. Obviously, you must
avoid impacting the terrain. But
also avoid entering into an accel-
erated stall. And respect the air-
craft’s limitations of g forces and
airspeed.”

116. DISSOLVE to a scene of Capt. MUSIC up...

Wainwright in the Airbus flight
deck. On-screen text appears over
background, highlighting review of
recovery steps.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
Nose Low, Wings Level:
• Recognize and Confirm the
Situation

116A. CUT to Capt. Wainwright disen- Music continues...

gaging autopilot and autothrot-
tles. KEY on-screen text over this
scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
• Disengage Autopilot and
Autothrottle

116B. CUT to a scene from the anima- Music continues...

tion. KEY on-screen text over
this scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
• Recover From Stall if Necessary

App.3-C.31
APPENDIX
3-C

116C. Continue with scene from the Music continues...

animation (new angle). KEY on-
screen text over this scene.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
• Recover to Level Flight
– Apply noseup elevator
– Apply stabilizer trim if
necessary
– Adjust thrust and drag as
necessary

116D. DISSOLVE to GRAPHIC

BACKGROUND. On-screen text
appears over background, high-
lighting 2nd review of recovery
steps.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
Nose Low, Wings Level:
(High and Low Speeds)
• Recognize and Confirm the
Situation
• Disengage Autopilot/Autothrottle
• Recover From the Stall if
Necessary
• Recover to Level Flight:
– Apply noseup elevator
– Apply stabilizer trim if
necessary
– Adjust thrust and drag as MUSIC bump...
necessary VOICE-OVER: We’ve defined
a high bank angle for upset as
117. DISSOLVE to FREEZE-FRAME more than 45 degrees; however,
from 3D COMPUTER ANIMA- it is possible to experience bank
TION SEQUENCE #23. angles greater than 90 degrees.
In high-bank-angle situations, the
On-screen text appears over the primary objective is to roll in the
lower third of the screen, then fades shortest direction to near wings
out as narration begins. level, but if the airplane is stalled,
you must first recover from the
ON-SCREEN TEXT: stall. Recognize and confirm the
• High Bank Angles situation.

Animation transitions from

FREEZE-FRAME to FULL MO-

App.3-C.32
 APPENDIX
3-C

TION. We see the airplane in high

bank angle attitude (60 degrees).

118. CUT to Boeing Douglas Products “At high bank angles, you may be
Division Capt. Tom Melody in the in a nose-high attitude, or a nose-
flight deck of a McDonnell Douglas low attitude. Let’s look at a nose-
airplane. He addresses the camera. high situation first.”

119. CUT back to 3D ANIMATION PILOT VOICE-OVER: A nose-high,

SEQUENCE #24. high-angle-of-bank attitude re-
quires deliberate flight control in-
We see the airplane recover. puts. A large bank angle is helpful
in reducing excessively high-pitch
CUT to a scene of Capt. Melody in attitudes. Unload and adjust the
the simulator, unloading the air- bank angle to achieve a nosedown
plane. pitch rate while keeping energy
management and airplane roll-rate
in mind. To complete the recovery,
roll to wings level as the nose ap-
proaches the horizon. Recover to
a slightly nose-low attitude, check
airspeed, and adjust thrust and
pitch as necessary.

120. CUT back to Capt. Melody. “A nose-low, high-angle-of-bank

attitude requires prompt action
CUT back to 3D ANIMATION because altitude is rapidly being
SEQUENCE #25. exchanged for airspeed. Even if
the airplane is at an altitude where
ground impact is not an immedi-
ate concern, airspeed can rapidly
increase beyond airplane design
limits. Simultaneous application of
roll and adjustment of thrust may
be necessary.”

121. CUT to a close-up: disconnection of PILOT VOICE-OVER: Again, dis-

autopilot/autothrottle. engage the autopilot and auto-
throttle. In this situation, it may be
CUT back to 3D ANIMATION necessary to unload the airplane
SEQUENCE #25B. by decreasing backpressure or
even pushing to obtain forward
We see the airplane roll to recovery. elevator pressure.

App.3-C.33
APPENDIX
3-C

122. CUT back to Captain Melody. “Use full aileron and spoiler input,
if necessary, to smoothly estab-
lish a recovery roll rate toward the
nearest horizon.”
PILOT VOICE-OVER: It is impor-
Continue animation. tant to not increase g force or use
noseup elevator or stabilizer until
approaching wings level.

123. CUT to 3D ANIMATION SE- PILOT VOICE-OVER: If full lateral

QUENCE #26. control application is not satisfac-
tory, you may need to apply rudder
CUT close on the rudder as it in the direction of the desired roll.
moves.
PILOT VOICE-OVER: As the wings
124. Continue animation. We see the approach level, use the proce-
airplane returning to normal flight. dures we discussed earlier for a
nose-low situation. Adjust thrust
and drag devices as required.

MUSIC bump...
125. DISSOLVE to on-camera narrator. “As you’ve seen, there are spe-
cific techniques you can use if
your airplane becomes upset. No
matter the type of upset—nose-
high, wings level...nose-low, wings
level...high angle of bank—you
must take control of the situation,
and you must react quickly and
correctly.”

VOICE-OVER: Let’s review the

CUT to a series of wrap-up nose-high and nose-low recover-
scenes—scenes we have seen dur- ies one more time, incorporating
ing the video. bank angles.

App.3-C.34
 APPENDIX
3-C

126. DISSOLVE to GRAPHIC BACK- MUSIC up...

GROUND. On-screen text appears
over background, highlighting
review of recovery steps.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
Nose High:
• Recognize and Confirm the
Situation
• Disengage Autopilot/Autothrottle
• Apply as Much as Full
Nosedown Elevator
• Use Appropriate Techniques:
– Roll (adjust bank angle) to
obtain a nosedown pitch rate
– Reduce thrust (underwing-
mounted engines)
• Complete the Recovery:
– Approaching the horizon, roll
to wings level
– Check airspeed/adjust thrust
– Establish pitch attitude

127. DISSOLVE to GRAPHIC BACK- MUSIC up...

GROUND. On-screen text appears
over background, highlighting
review of recovery steps.

ON-SCREEN TEXT:
Nose Low:
• Recognize and Confirm the
Situation
• Disengage Autopilot/Autothrottle
• Recover From Stall, if Necessary
• Roll in the Shortest Direction to
Wings Level
– Bank angle more than 90
degrees: unload and roll
• Recover to Level Flight:
– Apply noseup elevator
– Apply stabilizer trim, if
necessary
– Adjust thrust and drag as
necessary

App.3-C.35
APPENDIX
3-C

128. DISSOLVE to a series of wrap- VOICE-OVER: Remember, the

up scenes: scenes we have seen sequence of application of these
throughout the parts of the video. techniques will vary, depending
upon the situation encountered.
Thorough review of the causes of
airplane upsets...and the recom-
mended actions you should take,
will help prepare you to act quick-
ly and decisively should an upset
occur.

129. CREDIT RUN OF PROGRAM MUSIC up...

PARTICIPANTS.

FADE out.

App.3-C.36
Appendix 3-D
 APPENDIX
3-D
Flight Simulator Information

3-D
General Information characteristics of the airplane which could result
from control input during certain recovery situa-
The ability of the simulators in existence today to tions.
adequately replicate the maneuvers being proposed
for airplane upset recovery training is an important The importance of providing feedback to a pilot
consideration. Concerns raised about simulators when control inputs would have exceeded airframe,
during the creation of the Airplane Upset Recovery physiological, or simulator model limits must be
Training Aid include the adequacy of the hardware, recognized and addressed. Some simulator operators
the equations of motion, and the aerodynamic have effectively used a simulator’s “crash” mode
modeling to provide realistic cues to the flight crew to indicate limits have been exceeded. Others have
during training at unusual attitudes. chosen to turn the visual system red when given
parameters have been exceeded. Simulator opera-
It is possible that some simulators in existence tors should work closely with training departments
today may have flight instruments, visual systems in selecting the most productive feedback method
or other hardware that will not replicate the full when selected parameters are exceeded.
six-degree-of-freedom movement of the airplane
that may be required during unusual attitude train- The simulation typically is updated and validated
ing. It is important that the capabilities of each by the airplane manufacturer using flight data
simulator be evaluated before attempting airplane acquired during the flight test program. Before a
upset training and that simulator hardware and simulator is approved for any crew training, it must
software be confirmed as compatible with the be evaluated and qualified by a national regulatory
training proposed. authority. This process includes a quantitative com-
parison of simulation results to actual flight data
Properly implemented equations of motion in for certain test conditions such as those specified
modern simulators are generally valid through the in the ICAO Manual of Criteria for the Qualifica-
full six-degree-of-freedom range of pitch, roll, and tion of Flight Simulators. These flight conditions
yaw angles. However, it is possible that some exist- represent airplane operation within the normal
ing simulators may have equations of motion that operating envelope.
have unacceptable singularities at 90, 180, 270, or
360 deg of roll or pitch angle. Each simulator to be The simulation may be extended to represent regions
used for airplane upset training must be confirmed outside the typical operating envelope using wind
to use equations of motion and math models (and tunnel data or other predictive methods. However,
associated data tables) that are valid for the full flight data are not typically available for conditions
range of maneuvers required. This confirmation where flight testing would be very hazardous. From
may require coordination with the airplane and an aerodynamic standpoint, the regimes of flight
simulator manufacturer. that are usually not fully validated with flight data
are the stall region and the region of high angle of
Operators must also understand that simulators attack with high sideslip angle where there may
cannot fully replicate all flight characteristics. For be separated airflow over the wing or empennage
example, motion systems cannot replicate sustained surfaces. While numerous approaches to stall or
linear and rotational accelerations. This is true of stalls are flown on each model (available test data
pitch, roll, and yaw accelerations, and longitudinal are normally matched on the simulator), the flight
and side accelerations, as well as normal load fac- controls are not fully exercised during an approach
tor, “g’s.” This means that a pilot cannot rely on to stall or during a full stall, because of safety con-
all sensory feedback that would be available in an cerns. Also, roll and yaw rates and sideslip angle
actual airplane. However, a properly programmed are carefully controlled during stall maneuvers to
simulator should provide accurate control force be near zero; therefore, validation of derivatives
feedback and the motion system should provide involving these terms in the stall region is not
airframe buffet consistent with the aerodynamic possible. Training maneuvers in this regime of

App. 3-D.1
APPENDIX
3-D

flight must be carefully tailored to ensure that the Simulator Alpha-Beta Data Plots
combination of angle of attack and sideslip angle The aerodynamic model for each simulation may
reached during the maneuver does not exceed the be divided into regions of various “confidence lev-
range of validated data or analytical/extrapolated els,” depending on the degree of flight validation
data supported by the airplane manufacturer. or source of predictive methods if supported by
the airplane manufacturer, correctly implemented
Values of pitch, roll, and heading angles, however, by the simulator manufacturer and accurately sup-
do not directly affect the aerodynamic characteristics ported and maintained on an individual simulator.
of the airplane or the validity of simulator training These confidence levels may be classified into three
as long as angle of attack and sideslip angles do not general areas:
exceed values supported by the airplane manufac-
turer. For example, the aerodynamic characteristics 1. High: Validated by flight test data for a
of the upset experienced during a 360-deg roll ma- variety of tests and flight conditions.
neuver will be correctly replicated if the maneuver 2. Medium: Based on reliable predictive
is conducted without exceeding the valid range of methods.
angle of attack and sideslip. 3. Low: Extrapolated.

The flaps up data represent the maximums achieved

at low speeds flaps up and do not imply that these
values have been achieved at or near cruise speeds.
For flaps down, the maximums were generally
achieved at landing flaps, but are considered valid
for the flaps down speed envelope.

App. 3-D.2
 APPENDIX
3-D

A300/A310 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope

40 Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

-10

Sideslip (deg)

A300/A310 Alpha/Beta Envelope

40 Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

-10

Sideslip (deg)

App. 3-D.3
APPENDIX
3-D

727 Alpha/Beta Envelope

40 Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Wing angle of attack (deg) Extrapolated for simulator

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

-10

Sideslip (deg)

App. 3-D.4
 APPENDIX
3-D

737 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope

40 Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

Sideslip (deg)

737 Alpha/Beta Envelope

40 Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

Sideslip (deg)

App. 3-D.5
APPENDIX
3-D

747 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope

Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Extrapolated for simulator

Wing angle of attack (deg)

Sideslip (deg)

747 Alpha/Beta Envelope

40 Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

Sideslip (deg)

App. 3-D.6
 APPENDIX
3-D

757 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope

40 Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

Sideslip (deg)

757 Alpha/Beta Envelope

40 Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

-10

Sideslip (deg)

App. 3-D.7
APPENDIX
3-D

767 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope

40 Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg) 30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

-10

Sideslip (deg)

767 Alpha/Beta Envelope

40 Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

-10

Sideslip (deg)

App. 3-D.8
 APPENDIX
3-D

777 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope

Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

Sideslip (deg)

777 Alpha/Beta Envelope

40 Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

-10

Sideslip (deg)

App. 3-D.9
APPENDIX
3-D

MD-90 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope

Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
40 Extrapolated for simulator

Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

-10
Sideslip (deg)

MD-90 Alpha/Beta Envelope Flaps Deflected

Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
40 Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

-10

Sideslip (deg)

App. 3-D.10
 APPENDIX
3-D

MD-11 Flaps Up Alpha/Beta Envelope

Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
40 Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

-10
Sideslip (deg)

MD-11 Alpha/Beta Envelope Flaps Deflected

Flight validated
Wind tunnel/analytical
40 Extrapolated for simulator
Wing angle of attack (deg)

30

20

10

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

-10

Sideslip (deg)

App. 3-D.11
APPENDIX
3-D

App. 3-D.12
 Appendix 3-E

AirplaneUpset_Tabs.indd 8 10/21/2008 12:44:38 PM

 APPENDIX

Airplane Upset Recovery

High Altitude Operations
3-E
Airplane Upset Recovery – A paper copy of the presentation with descriptive words for each one that can
be used for a classroom presentation is contained in this Appendix.

Presentation

App. 3-E.i
APPENDIX
3-E

(This page intentionally left blank)

App. 3-E.ii
 APPENDIX
3-E

Airplane Upset Recovery

High Altitude Operations
Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Team
Rev. 2, November 2008

Upset.1

• This document is intended to supplement the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Rev 1 that
was released in August 2004. It addresses the issues associated with operations, unintentional
slowdowns, and recoveries in the high altitude environment. While the Airplane Upset Recovery
Training Aid addressed airplanes with 100 seats or greater, the information in this document is
directly applicable to most all jet airplanes that routinely operate in this environment. This
information has also been inserted in the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Rev 2 completed
November 2008. Consult the operations manual for your airplane type, as that information takes
precedent to the following guidance.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.1
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Operations

Introduction
● National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) tasking
following high altitude loss of control accidents and
other incidents:
– Need to address operational issues - unintentional
slowdowns and recoveries in the high altitude
environment
● Industry working group - formed at the request of FAA

● Team Members:
– Airlines, safety organizations, manufacturers,
regulatory bodies, industry groups, and educational
representatives
– International in scope
Upset.2

• This working group was formed as a result of the United States National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)
recommendations from a high altitude loss of control accident and other recent accidents and incidents that
have occurred under similar conditions. The NTSB recommendations stated that pilots should possess a
thorough understanding of the airplane’s performance capabilities, limitations, and high altitude aerodynamics.
The guidance in this document is intended to supplement the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid in these
areas.
• There have been other recent accidents where for various reasons (e.g. trying to top thunderstorms, icing
equipment performance degradation, unfamiliarity with high altitude performance, etc.) crews have gotten into a
high altitude slowdown situation that resulted in a stalled condition from which they did not recover. There have
been situations where for many reasons (e.g. complacency, inappropriate automation modes, atmospheric
changes, etc.) crews got into situations where they received an approach to stall warning. Some of the
recoveries from these warnings did not go well. This supplement is intended to discuss these possible
situations, and provide guidance on appropriate training and recommendations for knowledge, recognition, and
recovery.
• For example, a recent incident occurred where an airplane experienced an environmental situation where
airspeed slowly decayed at altitude. The crew only selected maximum cruise thrust, instead of maximum
available thrust, and that did not arrest the slowdown. The crew decided to descend but delayed to get ATC
clearance. Airplane slow speed buffet started, the crew selected an inappropriate automation mode, the
throttles were inadvertently reduced to idle, and the situation decayed into a large uncontrolled altitude loss.
This incident may easily have been prevented had the flight crew acted with knowledge of information and
techniques as contained in this supplement.
• In another high altitude situation, the crew decided to use heading select mode to avoid weather while
experiencing turbulence. The steep bank angle that resulted from this mode quickly caused slow speed
buffeting. The crew’s rapid inappropriate response to disconnect the autopilot and over-control the airplane into
a rapid descent in poor weather exacerbated the situation. These real world examples provide evidence
towards the need for more detailed training in high altitude operations.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.2
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Operations - Introduction

Training Aid Purpose

Address operational issues,

unintentional slowdowns, and recoveries
in the high altitude environment
Upset.3

• An industry working group was formed to develop this guidance at the request of the U.S.
Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. The working group consisted, in
scope, of both domestic and international organizational representatives from the airline,
manufacturer, regulatory, industry trade, and educational segments.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.3
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Operations - Introduction

Goal

“ Our goal is to educate pilots so they

have the knowledge and skill to
adequately operate their airplanes
and prevent upsets in a high altitude
environment.”
- The Airplane Upset Recovery
Training Aid Team

Upset.4

• The goal of this group is to educate pilots so they have the knowledge and skill to adequately
operate their airplanes and prevent upsets in a high altitude environment. This should include the
ability to recognize and prevent an impending high altitude problem and increase the likelihood of
a successful recovery from a high altitude upset situation should it occur.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.4
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Operations - Introduction

High Altitude Upsets

The upset - startle factor

● When not properly avoided, managed, or flown
– Assures a self-induced upset

Upset.5

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.5
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Operations – Introduction

High Altitude Basics

At altitudes where the operational envelope is reduced:

● Be alert!! No time for complacency

● Recognize and confirm the situation

● Do not over control…Do not use large

control movements – use small control
pressures
● Be smooth with pitch and power to correct
speed deviations

Upset.6

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.6
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Operations

Presentation
● High Altitude Aerodynamics – Principles

● High Altitude Operations – Flight Techniques

● High Altitude Operations – Additional Considerations

● High Altitude LOFT Training – Overview

Upset.7

This presentation will cover three main topics

1. High Altitude Aerodynamics – Understanding the Principles
2. Discussion of High Altitude Operations – Flight Techniques, and
3. Additional considerations and 4) an overview of High Altitude LOFT Training

High Altitude Aerodynamics

• To cope with high altitude operations and prevent upset conditions, it is essential to have a good
understanding of high altitude aerodynamics. This section represents terms and issues pilots
need to understand thoroughly in order to successfully avoid upset conditions or cope with
inadvertent encounters.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.7
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Aerodynamics

Principles

Upset.8

The Issue Today

• Recently, the industry has witnessed a number of accidents involving commercial and air
transport-rated pilots who seem to lack fundamental knowledge of high altitude operations. The
NTSB has asked the FAA to fix this problem. The high altitude environment has a number of
specific references within regulations. They include: criteria defining maximum operating altitude
and service ceiling, high altitude required training, flight crew member use of oxygen, passenger
briefings, airspace issues, transponder usage, and RVSM requirements, Although this
information is necessary knowledge for flight crews, this presentation will focus on the
information necessary to prevent and recover from upsets in the high altitude environment.
• There are a number of aerodynamic principles that are necessary to understand to have a good
grasp of high altitude performance.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.8
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

High Altitude Operations

● Knowledge of high altitude aerodynamics

● Pilot Training consists of:

1. Knowledge and Familiarization
2. Prevention - Avoidance Awareness
3. Techniques - High altitude upset
recovery

This training aid defines high altitude as -

Altitudes above FL250
Note: The training aid will focus on the information
necessary to prevent and recover from upsets
in the high altitude environment
Upset.9

Overview
• High altitude operations requires:
1. A comprehensive understanding of high altitude aerodynamics.
2. The pilot must translate that knowledge into a skill base that will provide a good margin of
safety in the high altitude environment.
• This is accomplished through Training. This training should focus on knowledge, preventive
measures by avoidance awareness, and the correct application of flight techniques during an
upset conditions. The following section represents terms and issues pilots need to understand
thoroughly in order to successfully avoid upset conditions or cope with inadvertent encounters.

High altitude begins above FL250

• As a purely practical matter, it is useful to identify high altitude operations as those above flight
level 250 (FL250 or 25,000 feet). The great majority of passengers and freight are now being
carried in turbojet-powered airplanes, virtually all of which regularly operate at altitudes above
FL250 where high speeds and best economy are attained. While aerodynamic principles and
certain hazards apply at all altitudes, they become particularly significant with respect to loss of
control (or upset) at altitudes above FL250. Among the more obvious examples are “coffin
corner” and a pilot’s extremely short time of useful consciousness when deprived of oxygen at
high altitude. For these reasons and others, this training aid defines high altitude as any altitude
above FL250.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.9
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

L/D Max
The lowest point on the total drag curve – also known as Vmd
(minimum drag speed)

Pilot Tip
● Airspeed slower than L/D max
known as: The “back side of the
power-drag curve” or the “region
of reverse command”
● Airspeed faster than L/D max is
considered normal flight or the
“front side of the power-drag curve”
● Normal flight – Speed stable
Stable Flight - Airspeed disturbance (i.e. turbulence) - Airspeed will return
to the original airspeed when the total thrust has not changed
Upset.10

L/D Max
• The lowest point on the total drag curve (as indicated in figure 1) is known as L/D max (or Vmd-
minimum drag speed). The speed range slower than L/D max is known as slow flight, which is
sometimes referred-to as the “back side of the power-drag curve” or the “region of reverse
command”. Speed faster than L/D max is considered normal flight, or the “front side of the
power-drag curve”.
• Normal flight (faster than L/D max) is inherently stable with respect to speed. When operating in
level flight at a constant airspeed with constant thrust setting, any airspeed disturbance (such as
turbulence) will result in the airspeed eventually returning to the original airspeed when the total
thrust has not changed.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.10
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

L/D Max (continued)
Pilot Tip
Slower cruising speeds are a concern (approaching L/D max).
There will be less time to recognize and respond to speed decay
during high altitude cruise.
● Slow flight (slower than L/D max) – Unstable

● Lower speed – Result: increased drag

● Increased drag – Result: decrease in airspeed

Ultimate uncorrected result – stalled flight condition

Pilot Tip Flight slower than L/D max at high altitudes must be avoided. Proper
flight profiles and planning will ensure speeds slower than L/D max
are avoided
Upset.11

L/D Max (continued)

• Slow flight (slower than L/D max) is inherently unstable with respect to speed and thrust settings.
When operating at a constant airspeed with constant thrust setting, any disturbance causing a
decrease in airspeed will result in a further decrease in airspeed unless thrust is increased.
• Lower speeds will subject the airplane to increased drag. This increase in drag will cause a
further decrease in airspeed, which may ultimately result in a stalled flight condition.
Pilot Tip:
Flight slower than L/D max at high altitudes must be avoided. Proper flight profiles and planning will
ensure speeds slower than L/D max are avoided.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.11
 APPENDIX
3-E

Example
Figure 1 – Airspeed Versus Drag in Level Flight

Speed Instability Speed Stability

Drag

Maximum thrust

Drag
and
thrust
Maximum level
flight speed

L/D MAX (minimum drag speed)

Airspeed

Figure 1 Illustrates:
• Speed Stability vs. Speed Instability in relation to L/D Max (Minimum drag speed)
• Slow flight (slower than L/D max) is inherently unstable with respect to speed and thrust settings. When
operating at a constant airspeed with constant thrust setting, any disturbance causing a decrease in
airspeed will result in a further decrease in airspeed unless thrust is increased. As in Figure 1, the lower
speed will subject the airplane to increased drag. This increase in drag will cause a further decrease in
airspeed, which may ultimately result in a stalled flight condition. Flight slower than L/D max at high
altitudes must be avoided due to the inefficiency and inherent instability of the slow flight speed range.
When operating slower than L/D max, and where total drag exceeds total thrust, the airplane will be
unable to maintain altitude and the only remaining option to exit the slow flight regime is to initiate a
descent.

Additional information
• External factors, such as changing winds, increased drag in turns, turbulence, icing or internal factors,
such as anti-ice use, auto-throttle rollback, or engine malfunction or failure can cause airspeed decay.
Heavily damped auto-throttles, designed for passenger comfort, may not apply thrust aggressively enough
to prevent a slowdown below L/D max.
• Slower cruising speeds are an issue. As airplanes are pushed to more efficient flight profiles to save fuel,
it may dictate high altitude cruising at lower Mach numbers. The net result is the crew may have less time
to recognize and respond to speed deterioration at altitude.
• At all times, pilots must ensure that flight slower than L/D max is avoided in the high altitude environment.
Proper flight planning and adherence to published climb profiles and cruise speeds will ensure that speeds
slower than L/D max are avoided.
• As an airplane climbs and cruises at high altitude, flight crews should be aware of terms that affect them.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.12
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Crossover Altitude
● Crossover Altitude is the altitude at which a specified CAS
(Calibrated airspeed) and Mach value represent the same
TAS (True airspeed) value. Above this altitude the Mach
number is used to reference speeds

Typical climb profile

Upset.13

Principle - Crossover Altitude

• Crossover Altitude is the altitude at which a specified CAS (Calibrated airspeed) and Mach value
represent the same TAS (True airspeed) value. Above this altitude the Mach number is used to
reference speeds.
• Typical climb
– The diagram illustrates a typical climb profile of 250 knots until 10,000 feet and then
accelerating to 300 knots until crossover altitude is reached and continuing climb at the
referenced Mach number.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.13
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Optimum Altitude
● Cruise altitude for minimum cost operating in the ECON mode

● Minimum fuel burn when in the Long-range cruise (LRC) or

pilot-selected speed modes
● The Optimum Altitude increases under the following conditions:
– ECON mode – Airplane weight or cost index decreases
– LRC or selected speed modes - Airplane weight or speed
decreases
● Temperature - increase in temperature will lower the
Optimum Altitude
Pilot Tip
When flying at Optimum Altitude, crews should be aware
of temperature to ensure performance capability.
Upset.14

Optimum Altitude
• Optimum Altitude is defined as an altitude at which the equivalent airspeed for a thrust setting will
equal the square root of the coefficient of lift over the coefficient of drag. In other terms the
altitude where a given power setting produces an airspeed in which the dynamic pressure or air
pressure the wing feels is the equivalent max range airspeed. The Optimum Altitude is not
constant and will change over the period of a long flight as conditions and the weight of the
aircraft change. A dramatic increase in temperature will change the Optimum Altitude. Therefore,
when flying at Optimum Altitude, crews should be aware of temperature to ensure performance
capability.
• Optimum Altitude is the cruise altitude for minimum cost when operating in the ECON mode, and
for minimum fuel burn when in the LRC or pilot-selected speed modes. In ECON mode, Optimum
Altitude increases as either airplane weight or cost index decreases. In LRC or selected speed
modes, Optimum Altitude increases as either airplane weight or speed decreases. On each flight,
Optimum Altitude continues to increase as weight decreases during the flight. For shorter trips,
Optimum Altitude as defined above may not be achievable since the top of descent (T/D) point
occurs prior to completing the climb to optimum.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.14
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Optimum Climb Speed Deviations
● Optimum climb speed charts and
speeds – AFM, FCOM, and FMS
● Increased rates of climb - ensure
speed:
– Not decreased below L/D max
(Incident Data: Primary reason for slow
speed events. Improper use of vertical
speed modes during climb)
Pilot Tip
Enroute climb speed is automatically computed by FMC:
• Displayed - Climb and progress pages
• Displayed - Command speed when VNAV is engaged
Upset.15

Optimum Climb Speed Deviations

• Airplane manuals and flight management systems produce optimum climb speed charts and
speeds. When increased rates of climb are required, ensure speed is not decreased below L/D
max. Evidence shows that inappropriate use of vertical speed modes is involved in the majority of
slow speed events during high altitude climbs.

Pilot Tip
Enroute climb speed is automatically computed by FMC:
• Displayed - Climb and progress pages
• Displayed - Command speed when VNAV is engaged

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.15
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Thrust Limited Condition and Recovery
● Be aware of outside temperature and thrust available

● Most jet transport aircraft are thrust limited, rather than

slow speed buffet limited - especially in a turn
● Use Flight Management Systems/reduced bank angle
– Real-time bank angle protection
– Routine bank angle limit (10 -15 ) for cruise flight

Pilot Tip If a condition or airspeed decay occurs, take immediate action

to recover:
• Reduce bank angle
• Increase thrust – select maximum continuous thrust (MCT) if the
aircraft is controlling to a lower limit
• Descend
Upset.16

Thrust Limited Condition and Recovery

• Most jet transport airplanes are thrust limited, rather than low speed buffet limited, at altitude,
especially in a turn. It is imperative that crews be aware of outside temperature and thrust
available. To avoid losing airspeed due to a thrust limit, use flight management systems/reduced
bank angle as a routine for en-route flight if it incorporates real-time bank angle protection, or
routinely select a bank angle limit of 10-15 degrees for cruise flight.

Pilot Tip
If a condition or airspeed decay occurs, take immediate action to recover:
• Reduce bank angle
• Increase thrust – select maximum continuous thrust (MCT) if the aircraft is controlling
to a lower limit
• Descend

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.16
 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Maximum Altitude
● Highest altitude at which an airplane can be operated - Lowest of:
– Maximum certified altitude (Structural) - Determined during
certification and is usually set by the pressurization load limits
on the fuselage
– Thrust Limited Altitude (Thrust) – Altitude at which sufficient
thrust is available to provide a specific minimum rate of climb
Note: Depending on the thrust rating of the engines – Thrust
Limited altitude may be above or below the maneuver altitude
capability
– Buffet or Maneuver Limited Altitude (Aerodynamic) – Altitude
at which a specific maneuver margin exists prior to buffet onset
(FAA operations: 1.2g 33 Bank) (CAA/JAA operations: 1.3g 40 Bank)

Next Slide: Figure 2 – Optimum vs. Maximum Altitude

Upset.17

Maximum Altitude
• Maximum altitude is the highest altitude at which an airplane can be operated. In today’s modern
airplanes it is determined by three basic characteristics which are unique to each airplane model. It is
the lowest of:
– Maximum certified altitude (structural) that is determined during certification and is usually set by
the pressurization load limits on the fuselage.
– Thrust Limited Altitude – the altitude at which sufficient thrust is available to provide a specific
minimum rate of climb.
– Buffet or Maneuver limited altitude – the altitude at which a specific maneuver margin exists prior
to buffet onset.
• Although each of these limits is checked by modern flight management computers the available thrust
may limit the ability to accomplish anything other than relatively minor maneuvering.
• The danger in operating near these altitudes is the potential for the speed and angle of attack to
change due to turbulence or environmental factors that could lead to a slowdown or stall and
subsequent high altitude upset.
• In early turbojet era airplanes the capability to reach what is called absolute ceiling or “coffin corner”
could exist. This is where if an airplane flew any slower it would exceed its stalling angle of attack and
experience low speed buffet. Additionally, if it flew any faster it would exceed Mmo, potentially leading
to high speed buffet.
• All airplanes are equipped with some form of stall warning system. Crews must be aware of systems
installed on their airplanes (stick pushers, shakers, audio alarms, etc.) and their intended function. In
a high altitude environment, airplane buffet is sometimes the initial indicator of problems.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.17
 APPENDIX
3-E

Figure 2
Typical Optimum vs. Maximum Altitude
Note: As ISA Temp increases – Altitude capability is reduced.
43000

Maximum certified altitude (Structural)

41000
Buffet limited
maximum altitude (1.3g)
(Aerodynamic)
39000
Optimum altitude (Min Cost @ ECON )

Altitude 37000

Thrust-limited maximum altitude (100 FPM)

35000

33000

31000
Gross weight
(Increasing)
Upset.18

Figure 2 illustrates
• A typical transport category airplane optimum and maximum altitude capability. Note that’ with
temperature increases’ the maximum altitude capability decreases significantly. This is a
situation where maneuver buffet margins are ok but temperature is affecting thrust capability to
sustain airspeed at the higher altitudes.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Maneuvering Stability
● Flight Characteristics:
Constant Airspeed – same control surface movement
High altitude Low altitude
● Higher pitch rate ● Lower pitch rate
● Less aerodynamic damping ● More aerodynamic damping
● Greater angle of attack ● Less angle of attack
Pilot Tip
High altitude flight normally has adequate maneuver margin
at optimum altitude. Maneuver margin decreases significantly
approaching maximum altitude.
Pilot Tip Do not over control airplane with large control movements – use
small control inputs. Be smooth with pitch and power to correct
speed deviations.
Upset.19

Maneuvering Stability
• For the same control surface movement at constant airspeed, an airplane at 35,000 ft experiences a higher pitch rate
than an airplane at 5,000 ft because there is less aerodynamic damping. Therefore, the change in angle of attack is
greater, creating more lift and a higher load factor. If the control system is designed to provide a fixed ratio of control
force to elevator deflection, it will take less force to generate the same load factor as altitude increases.
• An additional effect is that for a given attitude change, the change in rate of climb is proportional to the true airspeed.
Thus, for an attitude change for 500 ft per minute (fpm) at 290 knots indicated air speed (KIAS) at sea level, the
same change in attitude at 290 KIAS (490 knots true air speed) at 35,000 ft would be almost 900 fpm. This
characteristic is essentially true for small attitude changes, such as the kind used to hold altitude. It is also why
smooth and small control inputs are required at high altitude, particularly when disconnecting the autopilot.
• Operating limits of modern transport category airplanes are designed so that operations within these limits will be
free of adverse handling characteristics. Exceeding these limits can occur for various reasons and all modern
transport airplanes are tested to allow normal piloting skill to recover these temporary exceedences back to the
normal operational envelope.
Pilot tip
In the high altitude flight area there is normally adequate maneuver margin at optimum altitude. Maneuver margin
decreases significantly as the pilot approaches maximum altitude. Flying near maximum altitude will result in reduced
bank angle capability; therefore, autopilot or crew inputs must be kept below buffet thresholds. The use of LNAV will
ensure bank angle is limited to respect buffet and thrust margins. The use of other automation modes, or hand flying,
may cause a bank angle that result in buffeting. When maneuvering at or near maximum altitude there may be
insufficient thrust to maintain altitude and airspeed. The airplane may initially be within the buffet limits but does not
have sufficient thrust to maintain the necessary airspeed. This is a common item in many high altitude situations where
airplanes slow down to the lower buffet limits. These situations can be illustrated with performance charts.
Pilot tip
It is imperative to not overreact with large and drastic inputs. There is no need to take quick drastic action or
immediately disconnect a correctly functioning autopilot. Pilots should smoothly adjust pitch and/or power to reduce
speed should an overspeed occur.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Buffet-Limited Maximum Altitude
● Two kinds of buffet in flight:
1. Low speed buffet
2. High speed buffet
● As altitude increases:
– Indicated airspeed (IAS) for
low speed buffet increases
– High speed buffet speed decreases
Result: Margin between high speed and low speed
buffet decreases
Pilot Tip
Respect buffet margins - Proper use of buffet boundary charts or
maneuver capability charts and FMC calculations allows the
crew to determine the maximum altitude.
Upset.20

Buffet-Limited Maximum Altitude

• There are two kinds of buffet to consider in flight; low speed buffet and high speed buffet. As
altitude increases, the indicated airspeed at which low speed buffet occurs increases. As altitude
increases, high speed buffet speed decreases. Therefore, at a given weight, as altitude
increases, the margin between high speed and low speed buffet decreases.
• Altitude increases
– Decrease margin between high speed and low speed buffet
– Increases indicated airspeed at low speed buffet
– High speed buffet speed decreases

Pilot Note
At a given weight, as altitude increases, the margin between high speed and low speed buffet
decreases.
• Respect buffet margins. - Proper use of buffet boundary charts or maneuver capability charts can
allow the crew to determine the maximum altitude
• High altitudes - Excess thrust available is limited
Pilot Note
Selecting MCT to provide additional thrust. In extreme airspeed decay situations, MCT may be
insufficient. To prevent further airspeed decay into an approach to stall and stall situation –
Descend using proper descent techniques.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Buffet-Limited Maximum Altitude

● High altitudes - excess thrust is limited

– If needed - Select maximum available/continuous thrust
at any time
Important: If speed is decaying (airplane getting slow)
– Select Max Available Thrust
Pilot Tip
Select MCT to provide additional thrust. To prevent further
airspeed decay into an approach to stall condition a descent
may be necessary. Use proper descent techniques.

Pilot Tip Selecting MCT may be insufficient in extreme airspeed

decay conditions.
Upset.21

Buffet-Limited Maximum Altitude

• Respect buffet margins. - Proper use of buffet boundary charts or maneuver capability charts can
allow the crew to determine the maximum altitude that can be flown while still respecting the
required buffet margins.
• At high altitudes the excess thrust available is limited. Crews must be aware that additional thrust
is available by selecting maximum available/continuous thrust at any time. However, in extreme
airspeed decay situations MCT may be insufficient. Proper descent techniques will be necessary
in order to prevent further airspeed decay into an approach to stall and stall situation.

Pilot Note
Selecting MCT to provide additional thrust. In extreme airspeed decay situations MCT may be
insufficient. To prevent further airspeed decay into an approach to stall and stall situation –
Descend using proper descent techniques.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

High Altitude Threats
Operating Near Maximum Altitude
Early Turbo-Jet Airplanes – “Coffin corner”
● As the altitude increases - pilot is always trying to maintain a
safe airspeed above the stall and a safe airspeed below the
Vmo/Mmo
● Difference between the stall and the max speed narrows
– Coffin corner
● Stall Warning Systems
– “Stick Shakers”, “Pushers”, “Audio Alarms”
– Know your airplane - systems installed and function

Pilot Tip Airplane Buffet is often a first indicator – Stay Alert!!

Upset.22

• In early turbo-jet era airplanes the capability to reach what is called absolute ceiling or “coffin
corner” could exist. This is where if an airplane flew any slower it would exceed its stalling angle
of attack and experience low speed buffet. Additionally, if it flew any faster it would exceed Mmo,
potentially leading to high speed buffet.
• All airplanes are equipped with some form of stall warning system. Crews must be aware of
systems installed on their airplanes (stick pushers, shakers, audio alarms, etc.) and their
intended function. In a high altitude environment, airplane buffet is sometimes the initial indicator
of problems.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

High Altitude Threats
Operating Near Maximum Altitude (continued)
Limits are checked by FMC
Note:
● Available thrust may limit ability to maneuver
● The amber band limits do not provide an indication of sufficient
thrust to maintain the current altitude and airspeed

Upset.23

• Although each of these limits is checked by modern flight management computers the available
thrust may limit the ability to accomplish anything other than relatively minor maneuvering.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Amber Band
Amber bands
● Displays the range
of reduced maneuver
capability
● Provides 1.3g/40 of
bank angle (default)
margin to buffet
● Constant regardless of
ambient temperature
Pilot Tip
The amber band does
not give any indication
of thrust limits.

Pilot Tip The minimum maneuver speed indication does not guarantee the ability
to maintain level flight at that speed.
Upset.24

The Amber Band

• Displays the maneuver speed
• Provides 1.3g/40 deg of bank angle (default) margin to buffet
• Constant regardless of ambient temperature

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High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

High Altitude Maneuver
Examples: LNAV vs. HDG SEL

15 bank 30 bank
Pilot Tip
For airplanes with real-time bank angle protection, the bank angle limiting function
is only available when in LNAV – In HDG SEL bank angle protection is lost.
Pilot Tip Decelerating the airplane to the amber band may create a situation where it is
impossible to maintain speed and/or altitude. When speed decreases, the airplane
drag may exceed available thrust – especially in a turn.
Upset.25

• Maneuver margin decreases significantly as the pilot approaches maximum altitude. Flying near
maximum altitude will result in reduced bank angle capability; therefore, autopilot or crew inputs
must be kept below buffet thresholds.
• The use of LNAV will ensure bank angle is limited to respect buffet and thrust margins. The use
of other automation modes, or hand flying, may cause a bank angles that result in buffeting.
When maneuvering at or near maximum altitude there may be insufficient thrust to maintain
altitude and airspeed. The airplane may initially be within the buffet limits but does not have
sufficient thrust to maintain the necessary airspeed. This is a common item in many high altitude
situations where airplanes slow down to the lower buffet limits. These situations can be illustrated
with performance charts.

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Figure 3
Drag vs. Mach Number

Max Continuous Thrust (MCT)

Drag (Increasing)

Drag produced at 300 Bank - exceeds Cruise Thrust Thrust

Capability

Cruise Thrust
Drag - 300 Bank

Drag – Level Flight Current

Airspeed

.60 .65 .70 .75 .80 .85

Mach Number

• Figure 3 shows that for normal cruise speeds there is excess thrust available at this fixed weight
and altitude. When trying to turn at 30 degrees of bank the drag exceeds the normal maximum
cruise thrust limit. If the pilot selects maximum continuous thrust then there is enough thrust to
maintain the bank angle in the same situation.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Weight & Balance Effects on Handling Characteristics
● Airplane Handling - Airplanes
are typically loaded with an aft CG
to improve enroute performance
1. Aft loading - controls are more
sensitive
– Less longitudinal stability
2. Loading toward the nose –
CG moves forward
– Longitudinal stability increases
● Weight and Balance limitations must be respected

Pilot Tip: Airplane that is loaded outside the weight and balance envelope will result
in aircraft handling that is unpredictable. Stall recovery may be severely
impeded. This problem may be magnified at high altitude.
Upset.27

Weight & Balance Effects on Handling Characteristics

• From a pilots perspective, they should understand that, for conventional airplanes, an aft loading (at
or approaching the aft limit of the weight and balance envelope) makes the airplane less stable.
• An aircraft loaded toward the nose results in more longitudinal stability. This stability increases as the
CG moves forward. Since an airplane is dependent on the elevator to supply pitch control, the forward
CG limit is established at a point where the increased stability will not exceed the ability of the
elevator to provide this control. Additional force is required on the elevator to pull the nose up and the
stall speed increases as the CG gets located farther
• Weight and Balance limitations must be respected. An airplane that is loaded outside the weight and
balance envelope will not exhibit the expected level of stability and will result in aircraft handling that
is unpredictable and may not meet certification requirements. This is a serious issue, particularly in an
aft loading situation where stall recovery may be severely affected. The problem may be exacerbated
at high altitude.
• At high altitude, an aft loaded airplane will be more susceptible to upset since it is less stable than a
forward loading. Of interest to pilots is that the further aft an airplane is loaded, less effort is required
by the tail to counteract the nose down pitching moment of the wing. The less effort required by the
tail results in less induced drag on the entire airplane which results in the most efficient flight. Some
airline load planning computers attempt to load airplane as far aft as possible to achieve efficiency.
Some advanced airplanes use electronic controls to help improve airplane handling with aft loading.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Mach Tuck and Mach Buffet
(Reference: FAA-H-8083-3A Airplane Flying Handbook)

● At speeds above Mmo (some airplanes) –

mach tuck will occur
● Critical Mach Number – when airflow
over wing reaches Mach 1.0
– Shock wave will form over the wing
– Mach buffet will occur
● Mach buffet increases with increased speed
– Aft movement of the shock wave over the wing’s center of pressure
– Creates “tuck” (nose-down tendency). Because of the changing
wing center of lift
Pilot Tip
In modern airplanes this has been largely eliminated.
Upset.28

Mach Tuck and Mach Buffet

(Reference: FAA-H-8083-3A Airplane Flying Handbook)
• In some airplanes, at speeds above Mmo, a phenomenon called mach tuck will occur. As an
airplane flies at the critical Mach number (the speed of an airplane at which airflow over any part
of the wing first reaches Mach 1.0), a shock wave will form over the wing and mach buffet will
occur. Mach buffet will continue to increase with increased speed and the aft movement of the
shock wave, the wing’s center of pressure also moves aft causing the start of a nose-down
tendency or “tuck.” Because of the changing center of lift of the wing resulting from the
movement of the shock wave, the pilot will experience pitch change down tendencies. In modern
transport airplanes this phenomenon has been largely eliminated.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Stalls
● An airplane wing can be stalled
– Any airspeed, any altitude, any attitude
Pilot Tip
If the angle of attack is greater than the stall angle, the surface
will stall. Attitude has no relationship to the aerodynamic stall.
Even if the airplane is in a descent with what appears like ample
airspeed - the surface can be stalled.
● Understand the difference between:
1. “Approach” to stall recovery
2. Stall recovery
Dramatic difference in recovery technique
Know the Difference
Upset.29

Stalls
• Fundamental to understanding angle of attack and stalls is the realization that an airplane wing can
be stalled at any airspeed and any altitude. Moreover, attitude has no relationship to the aerodynamic
stall. Even if the airplane is in descent with what looks like ample airspeed, the surface can be stalled.
If the angle of attack is greater than the stall angle, the surface will stall.
• Most pilots are experienced in simulator or even airplane exercises that involve approach to stall. This
is a dramatically different condition than a recovery from an actual stall because the technique is not
the same. The present approach to stall technique being taught for testing is focused on “powering”
out of the non-stalled condition with emphasis on minimum loss of altitude. At high altitude this
technique may be totally inadequate due to the lack of excess thrust. It is impossible to recover from
a stalled condition without reducing the angle of attack and that will certainly mean a loss of altitude,
regardless of how close the airplane is to the ground. Although the thrust vector may supplement the
recovery it is not the primary control. At stall angles of attack, the drag is very high and thrust
available may be marginal. Also, if the engine(s) are at idle, the acceleration could be very slow, thus
extending the recovery. At high altitudes, where the available thrust will be reduced, it is even less of
a benefit to the pilot. The elevator is the primary control to recover from a stalled condition, because
without reducing the angle of attack, the airplane will remain in a stalled condition until ground impact,
regardless of the altitude at which it started.
• Effective stall recovery requires a deliberate and smooth reduction in wing angle of attack. The
elevator is the primary pitch control in all flight conditions, not thrust.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics

Flight Techniques

Upset.30

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High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

Remember the High Altitude Basics

At altitudes where the operational envelope is reduced:

● Be alert!! No time for complacency

● Recognize and confirm the situation

● Do not over control…Do not use large

control movements – use small control
pressures
● Be smooth with pitch and power to
correct speed deviations

Upset.31

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High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

Altitude Exchange for Energy
Stall Recovery
● Stall Recovery is the Priority
– Altitude recovery is secondary to stall recovery
● Characteristics of stall:
– Buffeting, which could be heavy at times
– A lack of pitch authority
– A lack of roll control
– Inability to arrest descent rate
– These characteristics are usually accompanied
by a continuous stall warning
Pilot Tip: Stall recovery is the priority. Only after positive stall recovery, can altitude
recovery be initiated. At high altitudes swept wing turbojet airplanes may
stall at a reduced angle of attack due to Mach effects.
Upset.32

Altitude Exchange for Energy

• Although stall angle of attack is normally constant for a given configuration, at high altitudes
swept wing turbojet airplanes may stall at a reduced angle of attack due to Mach effects. The
pitch attitude will also be significantly lower than what is experienced at lower altitudes. Low
speed buffet will likely precede an impending stall. Thrust available to supplement the recovery
will be dramatically reduced and the pitch control through elevator must be used. The goal of
minimizing altitude loss must be secondary to recovering from the stall. Flight crews must
exchange altitude for airspeed. Only after positive stall recovery has been achieved, can altitude
recovery be prioritized.
The recovery techniques assume the airplane is not stalled.
• An airplane is stalled when the angle of attack is beyond the stalling angle. A stall
is characterized by any of, or a combination of, the following:
– Buffeting, which could be heavy at times
– A lack of pitch authority
– A lack of roll control.
– Inability to arrest descent rate.
• These characteristics are usually accompanied by a continuous stall warning.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

Altitude Exchange for Energy
Stall Recovery (continued)
Pilot Tip Stall recovery requires that the angle of attack must be reduced
below the stalling angle of attack. The elevator is the primary pitch
control in all flight conditions… not thrust.

At High Altitude, recovery requires reducing the angle of attack

● The elevator is the primary control to recover from a stalled
condition
– Loss of altitude (regardless of close proximity to the ground)
– Thrust vector may supplement the recovery - not the
primary control
– Stall angles of attack - drag is very high
– Thrust available may be marginal, the acceleration could
be slow
Upset.33

Stalls
• Fundamental to understanding angle of attack and stalls is the realization that an airplane wing
can be stalled at any airspeed and any altitude. Moreover, attitude has no relationship to the
aerodynamic stall. Even if the airplane is in descent with appears like ample airspeed, the wing
surface can be stalled. If the angle of attack is greater than the stall angle, the surface will stall.
• Most pilots are experienced in simulator or even airplane exercises that involve approach to stall.
This is a dramatically different condition than a recovery from an actual stall because the
technique is not the same. The present approach to stall technique being taught for testing is
focused on “powering” out of the near-stalled condition with emphasis on minimum loss of
altitude. At high altitude this technique may be totally inadequate due to the lack of excess thrust.
It is impossible to recover from a stalled condition without reducing the angle of attack and that
will certainly result in a loss of altitude, regardless of how close the airplane is to the ground.
Although the thrust vector may supplement the recovery it is not the primary control. At stall
angles of attack, the drag is very high and thrust available may be marginal. Also, if the engine(s)
are at idle, the acceleration could be very slow, thus extending the recovery. At high altitudes,
where the available thrust is reduced, it is even less of a benefit to the pilot. The elevator is the
primary control to recover from a stalled condition, because, without reducing the angle of attack,
the airplane will remain in a stalled condition until ground impact, regardless of the altitude at
which it started.
• Effective stall recovery requires a deliberate and smooth reduction in wing angle of attack. The
elevator is the primary pitch control in all flight conditions, not thrust.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

High Altitude Threats
Operating Near Maximum Altitude

● Airplane Icing
● Clear air turbulence
● Convective turbulence
● Wake turbulence
● Mountain wave
● High Level windshear
● Thunderstorms

Pilot Tip
High altitude weather can cause favorable conditions for upsets. Thorough
route analysis is key to avoiding conditions that could lead to an upset.
Upset.34

• High altitude weather can cause favorable conditions for upsets. Thunderstorm, clear air
turbulence, and icing are examples of significant weather that pilots should take into
consideration in flight planning. Careful review of forecasts, significant weather charts, turbulence
plots are key elements to avoiding conditions that could lead to an upset.
• There have been other recent accidents where for various reasons (trying to top thunderstorms,
icing equipment performance degradation, unfamiliarity with high altitude performance, etc.)
crews have gotten into a high altitude slowdown situation that resulted in a stalled condition from
which they did not recover. There have been situations where for many reasons (complacency,
inappropriate automation modes, atmospheric changes, etc.) crews got into situations where
they received an approach to stall warning. Some of the recoveries from these warnings did not
go well. This supplement is intended to discuss these possible situations, and provide guidance
on appropriate training and recommendations for knowledge, recognition, and recovery.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

Slowdown or Stall at High Altitudes
Weather Effects
● Know performance limits of the airplane
● The jet-stream – upper air currents -
significant
– Velocities – can be very high
– Windshear can cause severe turbulence
– Windshear – Substantial airspeed decay
Pilot Tip
With upper air currents of decreasing velocity wind shear – the backside
of the power curve may be encountered.
Pilot Tip: The pilot will have to either increase thrust or decrease angle of attack to
allow the airspeed to build back to normal climb/cruise speeds. This may
require trading altitude for airspeed to accelerate out. Failure to accelerate
out of the backside of the power curve may result in the aircraft stalling.
Upset.35

Weather effects that could cause a slowdown or stall at high altitudes

• High altitude flight, although generally at a relatively high true airspeed or Mach number, can be
close to the performance limits of the airplane. The very low density air at high altitudes can
result in a situation where the aircraft drag is at or near the higher of the two equilibrium points in
the airplane speed - drag relationship, the power curve. Slowing below this point will cause the
aircraft to continue to decelerate to the lower equilibrium speed, even as thrust is held constant.
This situation is commonly called “being on the backside of the power curve”. The lower
equilibrium point may be at or very close to the stall speed of the aircraft, depending on the thrust
available. This phenomenon may be encountered in cruise flight at the upper altitude region of
the flight envelope, and in climbs at lower altitudes.
• At high altitudes the upper air currents such as the jet-stream become significant. Velocities in
the jet-stream can be very high and can present a beneficial tailwind or a troublesome headwind.
Windshear at the boundaries of the jet-stream can cause severe turbulence and unexpected
changes in airspeed or Mach number. This windshear, or other local disturbances, can cause
substantial and immediate airspeed decreases in cruise, as well as climb situations. If the
airplane is performance limited due to high altitude and subsequently encounters an area of
decreasing velocity due to wind shear, in severe cases the back side of the power curve may be
encountered. The pilot will have to either increase thrust or decrease angle of attack to allow the
airspeed to build back to normal climb/cruise speeds. This may require trading altitude for
airspeed to accelerate out of the backside of the power curve region if additional thrust is not
available.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

Icing
Use of Anti-Ice on Performance
● Icing Conditions
Know anti-ice equipment limitations (flight manual requirements)
– Temperature limitations
– SAT (Static Air Temperature)
– Changing environmental conditions
● Thermal anti-ice – bleed penalty
Negative effect on the ability to recover from decaying airspeed
– Airplane may not maintain cruise speed or cruise altitude
Pilot Tip
The bleed penalty for anti-ice results in a reduction of available thrust -
increase in specific fuel consumption.
Upset.36

ICING – Use of Anti-Ice on Performance

• Icing conditions, as defined by the Airplane Flight Manual, determine when anti-icing equipment
must be operated. Failure to do so would be a violation of AFM or company procedures. Pilots
must be cognizant of all anti-ice equipment limitations and flight manual requirements and must
be particularly aware of maximum and minimum temperature limitations and use anti-ice
appropriately. Flight in changing temperature conditions may require different use of anti-ice
equipment based on the SAT (Static Air Temperature) and changing environmental conditions.
While some texts and aircraft manuals state that there is minimal chance of icing conditions
occurring above 30,000 feet, pilots must understand that occasionally icing does occur at high
altitudes and they must be prepared to use anti-ice. Careful monitoring of flight conditions is
critical in this decision making.
• It must be remembered that thermal anti-ice robs the engine of bleed air. While bleed air is
available at any time the engine is operating, it comes at a price. Power is required from the
turbines to heat and compress the high pressure air that is bled from the engines. The penalty for
air taken from the engine before going into the combustion chambers is a reduction in available
thrust and an increase in specific fuel consumption.
• Appropriate and judicious use of anti-ice equipment at high altitude is very important. One must
be aware of the fact that the use of anti-ice has a negative effect on the ability of an airplane to
recover from a decaying airspeed situation. In some cases, it may not be possible to maintain
cruise speed or cruise altitude at high altitude with anti-ice on. Pilots should also be aware of the
specific flight planning parameters for their particular flight.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

In-Flight Icing Stall Margins
● Ice accumulation increases aircraft
weight / drag
● Airplane may exhibit stall onset
characteristics before stick
shaker activation
● Automation during icing encounters
– Autopilot and Auto-throttles can mask
the effects of airframe icing
– Autopilot can trim the airplane up to a stall
– upset thus masking heavy control forces
– Pilots have been surprised when the autopilot
disconnected just prior to a stall
Pilot Tip In-flight icing - Serious Hazard - stalls at much higher speeds and lower
angles of attack. If stalled, the airplane can roll / pitch uncontrollably.
Upset.37

In-flight Icing Stall Margins

• In-flight icing is a serious hazard. It destroys the smooth flow of air on the airplane, increasing
drag, degrading control authority and decreasing the ability of an airfoil to produce lift. The
airplane may stall at much higher speeds and lower angles of attack than normal. If stalled, the
airplane can roll or pitch uncontrollably, leading to an in-flight upset situation.
• Even with normal ice protection systems operating properly, ice accretion on unprotected areas
of the airplane may significantly increase airplane weight and drag.
• Activation of an artificial stall warning device, such as a stick shaker, is typically based on a pre-
set angle of attack. This setting gives a warning prior to actual stall onset where buffeting or
shaking of the airplane occurs. For a clean airplane, the pilot has adequate warning of impending
stall. However, with ice, an airplane may exhibit stall onset characteristics before stick shaker
activation because of the effect of ice formations on reducing the stall angle-of-attack. In this
case, the pilot does not have the benefit of a stick shaker or other stall warning.
• Flight crews must be especially wary of automation during icing encounters. Autopilots and auto-
throttles can mask the effects of airframe icing and this can contribute to ultimate loss of control.
There have been several accidents in which the autopilot trimmed the airplane right to a stall
upset situation by masking heavy control forces. If the autopilot disengages while holding a large
roll command to compensate for an asymmetric icing condition (or other similar problem causing
roll), an immediate large rolling moment ensues for which the pilot may not be prepared, resulting
in a roll upset. Pilots have been surprised when the autopilot automatically disconnected with the
airplane on the brink of a stall.

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High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

In-Flight Icing Stall Margins (continued)
● Adverse Weather Conditions: Stay Alert – Avoidance/Monitor

● Thunderstorm, clear air turbulence, and icing

Avoid potential upset conditions
– Monitor significant weather
– Update weather information
– Important - Trend monitoring
of turbulence
– Review turbulence charts
Pilot Tip Adverse weather avoidance is crucial. It is most important that proper
airspeed is maintained. Keep an adequate margin above stall, remember
that indicated stall speed is increasing and stall alpha is lowering. There
are no reliable rules of thumb for icing speeds.
Upset.38

In-flight Icing Stall Margins

• Wing ice accretion sometimes causes the wing to stall before stick shaker activation. Some
autopilots are designed with control laws that enable them to continue to operate until they get to
stick shaker. Alternatively, the autopilot may disconnect early because of excessive roll rates, roll
angles, control surface deflection rates, or forces that are not normal. These autopilots are not
malfunctioning; they are conforming to design parameters.
• It is most important that proper airspeed is maintained. It is important to keep an adequate
margin above stall, remembering that indicated stall speed is increasing and stall alpha is
lowering. Unfortunately, there are no reliable rules of thumb for icing speeds.
• High altitude weather can cause favorable conditions for upsets. Thunderstorm, clear air
turbulence, and icing are examples of significant weather that pilots should take into
consideration in flight planning. Careful review of forecasts, significant weather charts, turbulence
plots are key elements to avoiding conditions that could lead to an upset.
• Once established in cruise flight, the prudent crew will update weather information for the
destination and enroute. By comparing the updated information to the preflight briefing, the crew
can more accurately determine if the forecast charts are accurate. Areas of expected turbulence
should be carefully plotted and avoided if reports of severe turbulence are received. Trend
monitoring of turbulence areas is also important. Trends of increasing turbulence should be noted
and if possible avoided. Avoiding areas of potential turbulence will reduce the risk of an upset.

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 APPENDIX
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High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

Primary Flight Display Airspeed Indications
● Modern aircraft are equipped with
a primary flight display (PFD)
– Help you maintain a safe
airspeed margins
– Airspeed trending

Important
These displays do not indicate
if adequate thrust is available
to maintain the current
airspeed and altitude
Upset.39

Primary Flight Display Airspeed Indications

• Modern Aircraft airplanes that are equipped with a primary flight display (PFD) typically provide
information that will help you maintain a safe airspeed margin between the low and high speed
limits. Most of these airplanes have an indication of airspeed trending. This is important because
these displays do not indicate that adequate thrust is available at that altitude to maintain the
current airspeed. Older airplanes had charts in the performance section that depicted adequate
speed ranges for a given altitude and weight.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

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 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

Flight Techniques of Jet Aircraft
Automation During High Altitude Flight
● Automation during cruise
– Attempts to maintain altitude and airspeed
– Thrust will increase to selected cruise limit
– Select MCT (Max Cont Thrust) - to increase available thrust
and stop airspeed decay
● Airspeed continues to deteriorate - the only option is to descend

Pilot Tip Pilot must take action before excessive airspeed loss
● The pilot’s action - pitch down - increase the airspeed while being in an automation
mode that keeps the throttles at maximum thrust
● Autopilot engaged - select a lower altitude - use an appropriate mode to descend
● If the aircraft is not responding quickly enough you must take over manually
● Re-engage autopilot once in a stable descent and the commanded speed has
been reestablished
Upset.40

Automation During High Altitude Flight

• During cruise at high altitude the autopilot will be engaged with the pitch in an altitude hold mode
and the throttles in a speed mode. However, it is possible that due to changing conditions
(increasing temperature, mountain wave, etc.) or poor planning, an airplane could be thrust
limited and not be able to maintain the desired altitude and/or airspeed. Regardless, the
airplane’s automatic control system will try to maintain this altitude by increasing thrust to its
selected limit. When the thrust is at the maximum limit the pitch may continue to increase to
maintain altitude and the airspeed then continues to decay. The only option then is to descend.
The pilot’s action should be to pitch down and increase the airspeed while being in an
automation mode that keeps the throttles at maximum thrust. If the autopilot is still engaged,
select a lower altitude and use an appropriate mode to start the aircraft down. However, if the
aircraft is not responding quickly enough you must take over manually. Pilots must assess the
rate at which vertical speed and airspeed increase is occurring to make this determination. This
does not imply that aggressive control inputs are necessary. The autopilot can then be
reengaged once the airplane is in a stable descent and the commanded speed has been
reestablished. Do not attempt to override the autopilot, it is always better to disconnect it before
making manual control inputs. Due to RVSM considerations and large altitude losses, crews
should consider turning off course, avoiding large bank angles during descent, and monitoring
TCAS to reduce the potential for collisions. Crews should also inform ATC of their altitude
deviations.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

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 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

Flight Techniques of Jet Aircraft
Automation During High Altitude Flight (continued)
● Vertical Speed Mode (VS) at high altitude - must be clearly
understood
– Energy management, available thrust is reduced at high altitude
– Manage speed on either elevator or with thrust
– VS mode, airplane speed controlled by thrust
– Use of VS has considerable risk during high altitude climb
– VS mode prioritizes the commanded VS rate
– Speed can decay, thrust available is less than thrust required
– Improper use of VS can result in speed loss
Pilot Tip General guideline - VS mode should not be used for climbing at high altitudes
Pilot Tip VS can be used for descent - selecting excessive vertical speeds can result in
airspeed increases into an overspeed condition
Upset.41

• The consequences of using Vertical Speed (VS) at high altitude must be clearly understood. Most
autoflight systems have the same logic for prioritizing flight path parameters. The fundamental
aspect of energy management is to manage speed by either elevator or with thrust. When using
the VS mode of the Auto Flight System (AFS), airplane speed is normally controlled by thrust. If a
too high vertical descent rate is selected the autothrottle will reduce thrust to idle and the
airspeed will start to increase above the commanded airspeed. The reverse situation can occur
with considerable risk if an excessive climb rate is selected. In that case, if the thrust available is
less than the thrust required for that selected vertical speed rate the commanded speed will not
be able to be held and a speed decay will result. On some airplanes, improper use of VS can
result in speed loss and eventually a stall.
• Pilots must understand the limits of their airplanes when selecting vertical modes. As a general
guideline, VS should not be used for climbing at high altitudes. Reduced thrust available at high
altitudes means that speed should be controlled through pitch and not with thrust. VS can be
used for descent; however, selecting excessive vertical speeds can result in airspeed increases
into an overspeed condition. Using a mode that normally reduces thrust, when the need arises to
descend immediately, may not be appropriate for a low speed situation. Either disconnect
autothrottles, or use a mode that keeps the throttles at maximum available thrust in these
situations.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

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 APPENDIX
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High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets

● The Startle Factor

– Dynamic buffeting and large changes in airplane attitude

Upset.42

Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets

• The flightcrew may be startled by unexpected low airspeed stall warnings, dynamic buffeting and
large changes in airplane attitude (design dependent) especially when the airplane is on
autopilot. While flightcrews receive training on systems such as stick shakers to alert the pilots of
impending stall, normally they do not receive training in actual full stall recovery, let alone stall
recovery at high altitudes.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

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 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets
(continued)
● Pilot training – conventional
– Typical crew training
– Trained to respond to stall warnings – “Approach to Stall”
– Usually limited to low altitude recovery
● High altitude - stalls
– Low speed buffet mistaken
for high speed buffet
– Actual full “Stall Recovery”
– Higher altitudes
Available thrust is insufficient
Reduce the angle of attack
Trade altitude for airspeed.
● Recognition for recovery is sometimes delayed
Upset.43

Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets

• Flight crews are inclined to respond to high altitude stalls like they have been trained to respond
to stall warnings, but the procedures for the latter are neither effective nor proper for stall
recovery. Furthermore, unlike the conditions for which the flightcrew is trained to respond to stall
warnings at lower altitudes, at the higher altitudes the available thrust is insufficient, alone, to
recover from a stall. The only effective response is to reduce the angle of attack and trade
altitude for airspeed. Pilots have also reported that low airspeed buffet was mistaken for high
speed buffet which prompts an incorrect response to reduce airspeed when approaching a low
airspeed stall. As in any emergency situation, if the airplane is designed with effective alerting
(actual and/or artificial) and the flightcrew is adequately trained to recognize the indicators of the
stall, these will lead to appropriate flight crew recovery actions as discussed in the next
paragraph. Equally important is that crews be familiar with stall warning and recognition devices,
such as stick pushers, in order to understand their operation.

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 APPENDIX
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High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques

Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets
(continued)
Reasons for delayed recovery
1. Concern for passenger and crew safety following large
control movements
2. Previous training emphasized altitude loss
3. Anxiety associated altitude violations and other ATC concerns
4. Less experience with manual flight control at high speed /
altitude
5. Lack of understanding - Unaware of the magnitude of altitude
loss as it relates to the recovery from the upset condition

Upset.44

Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets

• Once the pilot recognizes the airplane is in full aerodynamic stall, immediate corrective actions
and decisions required for airplane recovery are sometimes delayed by the flightcrew. Some of
the reasons for the delay include 1) legitimate concern for passenger and crew safety following
large control movements, 2) previous training emphasizing altitude loss of only a few hundred
feet even for high altitude stalls 3) anxiety associated altitude violations and other air traffic, 4)
less experience with manual flight control and 5) even the de facto acknowledgement of loss of
control represented by loss of altitude. While the magnitude of required flight control input will
vary by airplane design for recovery, flightcrews should be trained to expect a longer recovery
time and greater altitude loss while the airplane accelerates to gain airspeed following high
altitude stall.
• Also, since there is no detailed checklist or procedure telling the pilot when to start the stall
recovery and how much back pressure should be used for return to level flight after stall
recovery, these techniques need to be adequately trained. For example during stall recovery,
pilots gauge how assertively they can pull back by using stick shaker activation to indicate when
to reduce back pressure. Other pilots may use angle of attack limit indications on the attitude
indicator (if equipped) to aid in the stall recovery. Pilots should also be aware that an aggressive
stall recovery and subsequent altitude recapture can result in a secondary stall during stall
recovery as the pilot discovers the correct level of control inputs required to recover the airplane.
On the other side there is the concern of accelerating into high speed buffet during the recovery if
the airplane is allowed to accelerate too much.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

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 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Operations

Additional Considerations

Upset.45

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

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 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Operations – Additional Considerations

Multi-Engine Flame Out
Demands Immediate Action
● Prompt recognition of the engine failures – utmost importance
● Immediately accomplishment of the recall items and/or checklist
associated with loss of all engines
– Establish the appropriate airspeed (requires a manual pitch
down) to attempt a windmill relight
– Driftdown will be required to improve windmill starting
capability
– Inflight start envelope is provided to identify proper windmill
start parameters
Pilot Tip Regardless of the conditions and status of the airplane - strict adherence to
the checklist is essential to maximize the probability of a successful relight.
Pilot Tip Recognition tip – autopilots and A/T may disconnect or indications of
electrical problems may exist with a multi-engine flameout. Upset.46

Additional Considerations
Multi-Engine Flame Out
• At high altitudes, as a result of very low airspeed, stall conditions, or other occurrences an all
engine flameout may occur. This is easily detected in cruise but may be more difficult to detect
during a descent. The all engine flameout demands prompt action regardless of altitude and
airspeed. After recognition, immediate accomplishment of the recall items and/or checklist
associated with the loss of all engines is necessary to quickly establish the appropriate airspeed
(requires a manual pitch down) and to attempt a windmill relight. It should be noted that loss of
thrust at higher altitudes (above 30,000 feet) may require driftdown to a lower altitude to improve
windmill starting capability. Additionally, even though the inflight start envelope is provided to
identify the region where windmill starts can occur, it is often demonstrated during certification
this envelope does not define the only areas where a windmill start may be successful.
Regardless of the conditions and status of the airplane, strict adherence to the checklist is
essential to maximize the probability of a successful relight.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

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 APPENDIX
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High Altitude Operations – Additional Considerations

Corelock
● Turbine engine – abnormal thermal event (e.g flameout at low
airspeed)
Result - the “core” of the engine stops or seizes
● Insufficient airspeed - insufficient airflow through the engine
● Engine – restart capability only when seized engine spools begin to
rotate
Pilot Tip After all engine flameouts
• The first critical consideration is to obtain safe descent speed
• Determine engine status
• If engine spools indicate zero - core lock may exist/mechanical
engine damage
• Crews must obtain best L/DMax airspeed instead of accelerating
to windmill speed
● Critical: The crew must follow the approved flight manual
procedures, maintain sufficient airspeed to maintain core rotation
Upset.47

Corelock
• Core lock is a phenomenon that could, in theory, occur in any turbine engine after an abnormal
thermal event (e.g. a sudden flameout at low airspeed) where the internal friction exceeds the
external aerodynamic driving forces and the “core” of the engine stops. When this occurs,
differential contraction of the cooler outside case clamps down on the hotter internal components
(seals, blade tips etc.) preventing rotation or “locking the core.” This seizure may be severe
enough to exceed the driving force available by increasing airspeed or from the starter. If
differential cooling locks the core, only time will allow the temperature difference to equalize,
reduce the contact friction caused by differential contraction and allow free rotation.
• After all engine flameouts, the first critical item is to obtain safe descent speed. Then flight crews
need to determine engine status. If any of the engine spools indicate zero RPM then a situation
of core lock may exist or mechanical engine damage could have occurred. If this case applies to
all engines, crews must obtain best L/D airspeed instead of accelerating to windmill speed, to
obtain an optimum glide ratio. Crews then should consider their forced landing options. In the
event the seized spool(s) begin to rotate a relight will be contemplated and windmill airspeed may
be necessary.

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 APPENDIX
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High
High Altitude Operations –– Additional
Altitude Operations Additional Considerations
Considerations
Rollback
●● Turbine
Turbine engine
engine rollback
rollback -- uncommanded
uncommanded loss
loss of
of thrust
thrust
–– Reduced
Reduced N N11 RPM
RPM -- increase
increase in
in EGT
EGT
–– Many
Many causal
causal factors:
factors:
–– Moisture
Moisture
–– Icing
Icing
–– Fuel
Fuel control
control issues
issues
–– High
High angle
angle of
of attack
attack disrupted
disrupted airflow
airflow
–– Mechanical
Mechanical failure
failure

Pilot
Pilot Tip
Tip IfIf airspeed
airspeed stagnation
stagnation occurs,
occurs, check
check appropriate
appropriate thrust
thrust level.
level. This
This is
is
important
important asas well
well as
as increasing
increasing airspeed
airspeed in
in the
the case
case of
of an
an engine
engine has
has
rollback.
rollback.
Upset.48
Upset.48

Rollback
• Turbine engine rollback is an uncommon anomaly consisting of an uncommanded loss of thrust
(decrease in EPR or N1), which is sometimes accompanied by an increase in EGT. Rollback can
be caused by a combination of many events including moisture, icing, fuel control issues, high
angle of attack disrupted airflow, and mechanical failure and usually results in flameout or core
lockup. Modern airplanes alleviate most rollback issues with auto-relight. Additionally, updated
progressive maintenance programs identify potential problems and help to decrease rollback
events. It is conceivable that pilots would recognize the results of rollback rather than the rollback
event itself depending on workload and flight experience. If airspeed stagnation occurs, checking
of appropriate thrust levels is important as well as increasing airspeed in the case where an
engine has rolled back.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

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 APPENDIX
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High Altitude Loft Training

Upset.49

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

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 APPENDIX
3-E

High Altitude Loft

Overview

● Recommendation
A high altitude loft is recommended by industry
● Purpose
To familiarize crews with high altitude slowdowns and
approach to stall
● Training Imperatives
– Crews should always recover at the first
indication of an impending stall
– Operators may modify this scenario for specific
airplane models within their operation

Upset.50

High Altitude Loft Scenario

• The following loft scenario is recommended by industry as a way of familiarizing crews with high
altitude slowdowns and approach to stall. Crews should always recover at the first indication of
an impending stall.

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

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 APPENDIX
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High Altitude Loft

Purpose
Purpose of the High Altitude LOFT training:
1. Train crews to recognize the high altitude threat due to
airplane slowdown and approach to stall
2. Assist crews in how to manage this threat
3. The exercise is not intended to train an actual jet upset
or full stall
4. Train only to the indications of an approach to stall
before a recovery is initiated

Operators Should consider all the scenario factors that will lead
to realistic recovery techniques. Operators should
determine the optimum conditions in setting up this
scenario.
Upset.51

• The purpose of this LOFT training aid is to assist operators of high altitude jet aircraft. The high
altitude slowdown to an approach to stall represents a threat that has resulted in accidents and
incidents when mismanaged. This simulator training is to assist crews in managing this threat.
The exercise is not intended to train an actual jet upset or full stall, it only has the airplane reach
the indications of an approach to stall before a recovery is initiated. Operators should consider a
number of factors to determine how realistic their simulator will respond to this training scenario.
Operators should determine the optimum manner to set up this scenario to achieve the high
altitude training goals.

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High
High Altitude
Altitude Loft
Loft
Training Goal
●● Reinforce
Reinforce understanding
understanding of
of high
high altitude
altitude characteristics
characteristics
●● How
How to
to determine
determine cruise
cruise altitude
altitude capability
capability
●● Reinforce
Reinforce acceptable
acceptable climb
climb techniques and –– understand
techniques and understand the
the risks
risks
associated
associated with
with various
various climb techniques –– ie.
climb techniques ie. vertical
vertical speed
speed (VS)
(VS)
●● Recognize
Recognize an
an approach
approach to
to stall
stall and
and apply
apply proper
proper recovery
recovery
techniques
techniques
●● Discuss
Discuss automation
automation factors
factors -- ie.
ie. mode
mode protections,
protections, hazards
hazards of
of split
split
automation
automation and
and inappropriate
inappropriate modes
modes
●● Address
Address intuitive
intuitive and
and incorrect
incorrect reactions
reactions to
to stall
stall warning
warning indications
indications
●● Develop
Develop procedures
procedures that
that are
are widely
widely accepted
accepted to
to recover
recover from
from
impending
impending high
high altitude
altitude stall
stall conditions
conditions with
with and
and without
without auto-flight
auto-flight
systems
systems
Upset.52
Upset.52

Training Goals
• Reinforce understanding of high altitude characteristics
• How to determine cruise altitude capability
• Reinforce acceptable climb techniques and – understand the risks associated with various
climb techniques – ie. vertical speed (VS)
• Recognize an approach to stall and apply proper recovery techniques
• Discuss automation factors - ie. mode protections, hazards of split automation and
inappropriate modes
• Address intuitive and incorrect reactions to stall warning indications
• Develop procedures that are widely accepted to recover from impending high altitude stall
conditions with and without auto-flight systems

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High Altitude Loft

Summary
Purpose of this training module
● Present an overview of operational issues and how they
may contribute to unintentional slowdowns in the high
altitude environment
● Discuss aerodynamic principles relating to flight in high
altitude environment
● Present pilot tips and techniques for high altitude upset
recovery and slowdowns
● Identify factors to aid in early recognition of unintentional
slowdowns
● Discuss the training goals for simulator high altitude loft
training
Upset.53

Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid

High Altitude Operations App. 3-E.53
 Section 4

AirplaneUpset_Tabs.indd 9 10/21/2008 12:44:38 PM

 SECTION 4

References for Additional Information

4.0 Introduction 4.1 References

4
The overall goal of the Airplane Upset Recovery • Aerodynamics For Naval Aviators, H. H. Hurt,
Training Aid is to increase the ability of pilots to Jr., University of Southern California, United
recognize and avoid situations that can lead to States Navy NAVAIR 00-80T-80: January 1965,
airplane upsets and improve the pilots’ ability to The Office of the Chief of Naval Operations,
recover control of an airplane that has exceeded the Aviation Division.
normal flight regime. Several primary references
used during the research and development of this • Airplane Performance, Stability, and Control,
training aid provide excellent additional information Courtland D. Perkins and Robert E. Hage, John
that is beyond the scope of this training aid. The Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York: January 1967
references listed in this section are intended to assist
those responsible for development of classroom • Handling the Big Jets, D. P. Davis, Brabazon
material in locating additional material. These refer- House, Redhill, Surrey, England, third edition,
ences may also be used as a resource for answering December 1971.
questions raised in the training process.
• Instrument Flight Procedures, United States Air
Force Manual 11-217, Volume I, 1 April 1996,
Department of the Air Force, HQAFFSA/CC,
Publishing Distribution Office.

• Instrument Flying Handbook, U.S. Department of

Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration,
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.

• Turbulence Education and Training Aid, U.S.

Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation
Administration, Air Transport Association of
America, The Boeing Company, National Techni-
cal Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road,
Springfield, VA 22161.

• Van Sickle’s Modern Airmanship, 6th edition,

edited by John F. Welsh, TAB Books, division
of McGraw-Hill, Inc.

• Wake Turbulence Training Aid, U.S. Depart-

ment of Transportation, Federal Aviation
Administration, DOT/FAA/RD-95/6, DOT-
VNTSC-FAA-95-4, Final Report April 1995,
National Technical Information Service, 5285
Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.

• Windshear Training Aid, U.S. Department of

Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration,
Boeing Commercial Airplane Group, National
Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal
Road, Springfield, VA 22161.

4.1
SECTION 4

4.2
Index
 INDEX

A 3-B.63, 3-B.75–3B.82, 3-B.84, 3-B.86,

Academic Training Program, 1.2, 3.1–3.3 3-B.88, 3-C.19, 3-C.21, 3-C.27, 3-C.32–
Accident statistics, 1.1, 2.2, 2.3 3-C.35
Aeronautical Information Manual, 2.4 Bank Indicator, 2.45, 3.4, 3-A.9, 3-A.23, 3-B.57
Air temperature, 2.27, 2.34, 2.37 Buffet boundaries, 2.35, 2.43, 3-B.45
Air traffic control (ATC), 2.41 Buffet Boundary charts, 2.39
Airplane upset Buffeting, 2.20, 2.35, 2.38, 2.40, 2.41, 2.47,
causes, 1.1, 2.2–2.12, 3-A.3, 3-A.15 3-A.5, 3-A.9, 3-A.19, 3-A.23, 3-B.37,
conditions, 1.1, 2.1 3-B.45, 3-B.64, 3-C.24
definition, 1.1, 2.1
C
frequency, 2.2
induced by environmental factors, 1.2, Camber, 2.18, 2.21, 2.28, 3-B.38
2.3–2.8, 2.40, 3-A.3, 3-A.15, 3-B.4, Camber line, 2.21, 3-B.38
3-B.8–3-B.9, 3-B.16–3-B.17, 3-B.28 CD-ROM DOS format, 3.3
induced by human factors, 2.3 Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT), 2.2
induced by pilots, 2.10–2.12, 3-A.3, Chord line, 2.18–2.19, 2.21, 3-B.36, 3-B.38,
3-A.11 Control surfaces, 2.22, 2.30, 2.34, 3-B.39–
induced by systems anomalies, 2.8–2.10, 3-B.40, 3-B.49, 3-B.53, 3-C.16–3-C.17
3-A.3, 3-A.13, 3-B8, 3-B.17–3-B.19, Counter-intuitive factors, 3.5, 3-B.58,
3-B.28 3-B.62
recovery from, 1.2, 2.12, 2.44, 3.7, 3-A.3, Crossover speed, 2.26, 3-B.44, 3-C.16
3-A.5, 3-A.9, 3-A.11, 3-A.15, 3-A.19, Crosswind landing, 2.25, 2.32–2.33, 3-B.51
3-A.23, 3-A.25, 3-B.48, 3-B.56, 3-B.57 Cruise Maneuver Capability charts, 2.35
recovery team, 2.46
D
Angle of attack, 2.28–2.31, 2.34, 2.37, 2.40,
2.42–2.43, 2.46–2.49, 3.4–3.5, 3.14, Dihedral, 2.25, 2.33, 3-A.5, 3-A.17, 3-B.42,
3.18–3.19, 3-A.3, 3-A.5, 3-A.7, 3-A.9, 3-B.43
3-A.17, 3-A.21, 3-A.23, 3-B.36–3-B.37, Dihedral effect, 2.25, 2.35, 3-A.5, 3-A.17,
3-B.39, 3-B.44, 3-B.47, 3-B.49–3-B.50, 3-B.43
3-B.52, 3-C.12, 3-C.15–3-C.16, 3-C.18, Dive speeds, 2.18
3-C.24–3-C.25, 3-C.27, 3-D.1–3-D.11 Dutch roll, 2.33, 3-A.11, 3-A.27, 3-B.51
Angle-of-attack indicator, 2.19
E
Angle of sideslip, 2.15–2.16, 2.24–2.26, 2.31,
3.4, 3-A.7, 3-A.21, 3-B.43, 3-B.51, 3-C.15, Energy, 2.9, 2.13–2.14, 2.29, 2.31, 2.42, 2.44–
3-D.1–2 2.45, 2.47–2.49, 3.4, 3.7, 3.11, 3.14, 3.17,
Approved Flight Manual, 2.16, 2.17, 2.20, 2.21, 3.21, 3.23, 3-A.3, 3-A.9, 3-A.11, 3-A.15,
2.27, 3-A.5, 3-A.17, 3-B.37, 3-B.45 3-A.23, 3-A.25, 3-B.29–3-B.32, 3-B.50,
Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI), 2.38, 3.5, 3-B.54–3-B.55, 3-B.57, 3-C.11–3-C.12,
3B.57 3-C.28, 3-C.33
Attitude Indicator, 2.19, 2.42–2.43, 3-C.22 Energy management, 2.13, 2.42, 3-C.12, 3-C.33
Autoflight systems, 2.9, 3-B.21, 3-B.28 Engine performance, 2.11, 2.46
Automation, 2.9, 2.12, 3.1, 3.5, 3-A.3, 3-A.15, Environmental factors, 1.2, 2.3, 3-A.3, 3-A.15,
3-B.23, 3-B.27–3-B.28, 3-C.9 3-B.4, 3-C.22
Autopilot and autothrottle, 2.12, 2.47–2.49, 3.9,
F
3.11, 3.13, 3.14, 3.15, 3.17–3.19, 3.21–3.22,
3-A.3, 3-A.9, 3-A.15, 3-A.23, 3-B.65, Field of view, 2.44
3-B.70–3-B.71, 3-B.75, 3-B.78, 3-B.82– Flight envelope, 2.13, 2.17–2.18, 2.32, 2.34–
3-B.83, 3-B.86–3-B.87, 3-C.22, 3-C.28, 2.35, 2.45, 3-B.25, 3-B.29, 3-B.35, 3-B.52,
3-C.31, 3-C.33 3-B.55
B Flight instruments, 2.9–2.11, 2.44, 3-B.18,
“Ball in a cup” model, 2.27 3-B.20, 3-B.23, 3-B.25–3-B.26, 3-B.28,
Bank angle, 1.1, 2.1, 2.16, 2.30, 2.33, 2.35, 2.37– 3-B.57, 3-D.1
2.38, 2.47–2.50, 3.9, 3.14–3.15, 3.17–3.19, Flight path angle, 2.19, 3-B.36
3.21–3.23, 3-A.7, 3-A.11, 3-A.19, 3-A.21, Fly-by-wire, 2.46–2.47, 3.9, 3-C.13, 3-C.20,
3-A.25, 3-B.7, 3-B.44, 3-B.45, 3-B.48, 3-C.25

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 INDEX

G National Transportation Safety Board, 1.3, 2.2,

G force, 2.45, 2.48–2.49, 3.5, 3.17–3.19, 3-A.9, 3-B.2
3-A.23, 3-A.25, 3-B.50, 3-b.58, 3-B.60, Newton’s first law, 2.13, 3-B.30
3-C.34 Newton’s second law, 2.14, 3-B.33, 3-B.48
Graveyard Spiral, 2.30
P
Ground Training Program, 3.4
Pilot Not Flying (PNF) instruments, 2.45, 3.23
H Pitch angle, 2.13, 3-B.36, 3-C.12, 3-D.1
High Altitude Operations, App. 3-E.i Pitch control, 2.28, 2.40, 2.49, 3.9, 3-B.64,
High Altitude Stall Warning, 3.23-3-25 3-C.25
Pitching moments, 2.23–2.24, 2.28, 2.39, 3-B.41,
I 3-B.47, 3-C.14. See also moments
Icing, 2.3, 2.8, 3-A.3, 3-A.15, 3-B.9, 3-B.17,
R
3-B.26, 3-B.28
Inattention, 2.10, 3-B.23, 3-B.25, 3-B.28, 3-C.28 Roll, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7–2.13, 2.20, 2.22, 2.24–2.26,
Incapacitation, 2.10–2.11, 3-C.10 2.30–2.33, 2.35–2.36, 2.40–2.43, 2.47–2.50,
Instrument cross-check, 2.10, 2.11, 3-B.23, 3.4, 3.7–3.9, 3.13–3.14, 3.17–3.19, 3.21–
3-B.24, 3-B.28 3.22, 3-A.5, 3-A.7, 3-A.9, 3-A.11, 3-A.19,
International Civil Aviation Organization 3-A.21, 3-A.23, 3-A.25, 3-A.27, 3-B.7,
(ICAO), 3.3, 3-D.1 3-B.42–3-B.44, 3-B.49–3-B.51, 3-B.64–
3-B.67, 3-B.69, 3-B.75, 3-B.77–3-B.78,
J 3-B.80, 3-B.82, 3-B.84–3-B.86, 3-B.88,
Jet stream, 2.3–2.4, 2.43 3-B.14–3-C.16, 3-B.18–3-B.19, 3-B.24,
3-B.27–3-B.29, 3-B.32–3-B.35, 3-D.1–
L 3-D.2
Lateral control, 2.26, 2.31, 2.49, 3-B.50, 3-C.15, Rudder, 2.25–2.27, 2.30–2.33, 2.46–2.49,
3-C.16, 3-C.18 3.8–3.9, 3.21–3.22, 3-A.5, 3-A.7, 3-A.11,
Lateral stability, 2.25, 3-A.5, 3-A.17, 3-B.42, 3-A.13, 3-A.17, 3-A.21, 3-A.25, 3-A.27,
3-B.43 3-B.43–3-B.34, 3-B.51, 3-B.60, 3-C.13–
Load factors, 2.14–2.16, 2.20, 2.27, 2.43, 3-B.29, 3-C.16, 3-C.18–3-C.19, 3-C.23, 3-C.27–
3-B.33–3-B.25, 3-B.37, 3-B.55 3-C.28, 3-C.34
Logitudinal axis, 2.19, 2.24, 2.29, 2.30–2.31, Rudder trim, 2.33, 3-A.11, 3-A.27,
3-A.3, 3-A.5, 3-A.17,
S
M Sideslip, 2.15, 2.16, 2.24–2.26, 2.31–2.33, 2.46,
Mach number, 2.17, 2.21, 2.27, 2.33–2.34, 2.37, 3.4–3.5, 3.9, 3-A.5, 3-A.7, 3-A.9, 3-A.11,
2.39–2.40, 2.43, 3-A.5, 3-A.15, 3-A.17, 3-A.17, 3-A.19, 3-A.21, 3-A.25, 3-A.27,
3-A.19, 3-B.36, 3-B.34, 3-B.42–3-B.44, 3-B.51, 3-C.14–
3-B.49, 3-C.15 3-C.16, 3-C.18, 3-D.1–3-D.11
Mach trim, 2.27 angle. See angle of sideslip
Manual of Criteria for the Qualification of Flight pilot-commanded, 2.25–2.26, 3-B.42,
Simulators, 3.3, 3-D.1 3-B.44,
Microburst, 2.3, 2.6, 3-A.3, 3-A.15, 3-B.9, Simulator, 1.1–1.3, 2.1, 2.40, 2.45, 3.1–3.5, 3.7,
3-B.13, 3-B.15, 3-B.28 3.11, 3.13–3.14, 3.17–3.19, 3.21, 3.23,
Moments, 2.7, 2.13, 2.23–2.26, 2.28, 2.30–2.32, 3-B.58, 3-C.8–3-C.10, 3-C.15, 3-C.17,
3.34, 3-A.5, 3-A.17, 3-B.30, 3-B.41– 3-C.21–3-C.22, 3-C.26, 3-C.28, 3-C.33,
3-B.44, 3-B.47, 3-B.51, 3-B.53, 3-C.10, 3-D.1–11
3-C.14–3-C.15 Simulator limitations, 3.3
Simulator Training Program, 1.2, 3.1, 3.3–3.5
N Situation awareness, 2.44
NASA ASRS reports, 2.2 Slip-skid indicator, 2.26
National Technical Information Service, 2.3, 2.7, Spatial disorientation, 2.11
4.1 Speed margins, 2.35, 3-B.23, 3-B.26, 3-B.28,
3-C.21

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Speed stability, 2.27, 3-B.45 V

Speedbrakes, 2.22, 2.37, 2.42, 3.9, 3.18–3.19, Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI), 2.19, 2.45
3-B.54, 3-C.13, 3-C.24, 3-C.30 Vortices, 2.6, 2.7
Spoilers, 2.22, 2.24,2.26–2.27, 2.32, 2.34, 2.41–
2.42, 3.9, 3-A.5, 3-A.19, 3-B.40, 3-B.44, W
3-B.49, 3-C.9, 3-C.15–3-C.16, 3-C.27 Wake Turbulence Training Aid, 2.7, 4.1
Stall, 2.1, 2.3, 2.9, 2.12–2.23, 2.25–2.27, 2.30– Wake vortices, 3-B.15, 3-C.7
2.49, 3.1, 3.4, 3.7, 3.9, 3.14, 3.17–3.19, Windshear Training Aid, 2.4, 4.1
3.22, 3-A.3, 3-A.5, 3-A.7, 3-A.9, 3-A.15, Windshear, 2.3–2.5, 2.33, 2.41, 3-A.3, 3-A.15,
3-A.17, 3-A.19, 3-A.23, 3-B.32, 3-B.35– 3-B.9–3-B.10, 3-B.13, 3-B.28, 3-C.7, 4.1
3-B.37, 3-B.39–3-B.40, 3-B.49, 3-B.52, Wing sweep, 2.25, 3-A.5, 3-A.17, 3-B.43
3-B.55, 3-B.61–3-B.62, 3-B.64, 3-B.70,
3-B.72, 3-B.86, 3-B.87, 3-C.12, 3-C.17– Y
3-C.19, 3-C.24–3-C.25, 3-C.30–3-C.33, Yaw, 2.1, 2.4, 2.24, 2.26, 2.30–2.33, 2.44, 3.9,
3-C.35, 3-D.1–3-D.2 3.21, 3-A.5, 3-A.7, 3-A.11, 3-A.19, 3-A.21,
Stall warning, 2.9, 2.20–2.21, 2.40–2.41, 3-A.9, 3-A.27, 3-B.7, 3-B.49, 3-B.51, 3-C.9,
3-A.23, 3-B.37, 3-C.24, 3-C.30 3-C.12–3-C.18, 3-D.1
Standby Attitude Indicator, 2.38 Yaw damper, 2.26, 2.30, 2.33, 3-A.7, 3-A.11,
Startle factor, 2.38, 3-B.58–3-B.59 3-A.21, 3-A.27, 3-C.9,
Static stability, 2.28, 3-A.5, 3-A.19, 3-B.46,
3-C.13

T
Thunderstorms, 2.4–2.6, 3-B.9, 3-B.11, 3-B.13–
3-B.15, 3-B.28, 3-C.8
Trim, 2.9, 2.12, 2.20, 2.23–2.24, 2.27–2.28,
2.33–2.34, 2.41, 2.47–2.50, 3.3, 3.9, 3.13–
3.15, 3.17–3.19, 3-A.11, 3-A.25, 3-A.27,
3-B.41, 3-B.46, 3-B.52, 3-B.66, 3-B.70,
3-B.73, 3-B.78, 3-B.81, 3-B.86, 3-B.89,
3-C.13, 3-C.24, 3-C.26, 3-C.30, 3-C.32,
3-C.35
Turbulence Education and Training Aid, 2.3, 4.1
Turbulence, 2.3
clear air turbulence (CAT), 2.3–2.4,
3-B.11, 3-B.28
extreme, 2.3–2.4, 3-A.11, 3-A.25, 3-B.25,
3-B.48, 3-C.20
light, 2.3–2.4
mechanical, 2.4
microburst, 2.3, 2.6
moderate, 2.3–2.4
mountain wave, 2.4, 3-B.9, 3-B.12, 3-B.28,
3-C.8
severe, 2.3–2.4, 3-B.12, 3-C.8
thunderstorms, 2.4–2.6, 3-B.9, 3-B.11
wake turbulence, 2.6–2.8, 3-A.3, 3-A.13
Turning, 2.27, 2.29–2.30, 2.36, 2.41–2.43,
2.48–2.49, 3-B.48, 3-C.37

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index.4