medical
sciences
Article
The Effects of Acute High-Intensity Interval Training
on Hematological Parameters in Sedentary Subjects
Muaz Belviranli 1, * ID
, Nilsel Okudan 1 and Banu Kabak 2
1 Division of Sports Physiology, Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Selcuk University,
Konya 42250, Turkey; [email protected]
2 Department of Health, Turkish Republic Ministry of Youth and Sports, Ankara 06820, Turkey;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected]; Tel: +90-3322-2447-31;
Fax: +90-3322-2448-08
Received: 13 July 2017; Accepted: 18 July 2017; Published: 19 July 2017
Abstract: The objective of the study was to determine the effects of acute high-intensity interval
training (HIIT) on hematological parameters in sedentary men. Ten healthy, non-smoker, and
sedentary men aged between 18 and 24 years participated in the study. All subjects performed four
Wingate tests with 4 min intervals between the tests. Blood samples were collected at pre-exercise,
immediately after, 3 and 6 h after the fourth Wingate test. Hematological parameters were analyzed
in these samples. The results showed that hematocrit percentage, hemoglobin values, red cell count,
mean cell volume, platelet count, total white cell count, and counts of the white cell subgroups
increased immediately after the acute HIIT and their values began to return to resting levels 3 h after
exercise, and completely returned to resting levels 6 h after exercise. In conclusion, acute HIIT causes
an inflammatory response in blood.
Keywords: acute high-intensity interval training (HIIT); red blood cell; leucocyte; platelet; Wingate test
1. Introduction
It is generally known that both acute and chronic exercises induce several hematological changes
in humans [1]. It has been ascertained that exercise-induced hematological changes are dependent
on the type, intensity and duration of exercise. Additionally, several factors such as training status,
gender, age, environmental conditions and nutritional status of the subjects also play an important
role [1]. It has been reported that acute exercise has a significant effect on the rheological properties of
the blood, and after acute exercise there is an increase in plasma viscosity and erythrocyte rigidity but
a decrease in sedimentation rate [2].
Athletes who have been participating in an intense training program reported having decreased
hemoglobin and hematocrit values and this situation is known as athlete’s anemia [3]. It has been
generally shown that acute submaximal exercise increases the number of erythrocytes, leucocytes and
platelets, hematocrit values and hemoglobin concentrations significantly as compared to pre-exercise
values and these increments depend on plasma losses caused by the exercise [4]. It is asserted
that short-time exercise performed until exhaustion increases the number of leukocytes and this
situation cannot be explained by the hemoconcentration mechanism alone. Also, it can be associated
with metabolic changes such as ischemia that occur during exercise and increased muscle activity
leads to a greater incidence of capillary swelling and leukocyte adherence to venules [5]. Similarly,
acute submaximal exercise increases leukocyte subgroups and it has been demonstrated that this
elevation is related to the severity of exercise [6]. Studies [7,8] showed that these changes in
hematological parameters occur immediately after exercise; whereas, it returns to resting levels
within 24 h following exercise.
Med. Sci. 2017, 5, 15; doi:10.3390/medsci5030015 www.mdpi.com/journal/medsci
Med. Sci. 2017, 5, 15 2 of 7
High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is defined as short, high-intensity exercise which contains
low-intensity interval exercises or recovery periods [9]. During the training sessions, different forms
of HIIT can be applied by changing several variables such as intensity, duration, interval number,
duration of recovery, etc. [10–12]. An increasing amount of evidence has revealed that HIIT stimulates
physiological parameters just like medium-intensity continuous training in spite of reduced exercise
volume [13]. Furthermore, recent studies [14–16] showed that HIIT is superior to medium-intensity
continuous training.
To the best of our knowledge, two recently published studies [17,18] have investigated the effects
of different acute HIIT protocols on hematological parameters in overweight subjects and hypoxic
conditions; however, no study to date has investigated the effects of acute HIIT on hematological
parameters in different time intervals in the sedentary subjects. Since HIIT stimulates different
physiological responses, in the present study, we hypothesized that acute HIIT may affect hematological
parameters differently when compared to acute aerobic, anaerobic and resistance exercises. Therefore,
the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of acute HIIT on hematological parameters.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
Ten sedentary male subjects aged between 18 and 24 years participated in this study (age:
20.00 ± 1.33 years, body mass: 70.30 ± 8.68 kg, height: 173.2 ± 6.1 cm). All participants were healthy,
none of them had smoking habits, use of any medication or antioxidant supplements. The sedentary
subjects had a sedentary lifestyle with a distinct class of behaviors such as sitting, and watching TV
characterized by little physical movement and low energy expenditure. The study was approved by
Non-invasive Clinical Research Ethics Committee of Medicine Faculty of Selcuk University (Ethical
code: 2015/6). Before starting the study, participants were informed about the method and potential
risks of the study and informed consent was signed. Body mass and height evaluations were performed
in the morning. Body mass was measured with light clothes using an electronic scale and height was
measured in an upright position without shoes.
2.2. Exercise Tests
One-week following the familiarization session, a 30-s Wingate test was performed four times,
separated by a 4-min resting period between the bouts as acute HIIT. The familiarization session
included two Wingate tests separated by a four-minute resting period between the tests. The Wingate
test was performed on an Ergometric 894E Peak Bike (Monark Exercise, A.B.; Varberg, Sweden) against
a resistance of 75 g kg−1 body weight. The participants were allowed to pedal unloaded and instructed
to reach a pedaling rate of 100 revolutions per minute. The predetermined load was applied to the
flywheel automatically by the Monark Anaerobic Test Software and the participants were verbally
encouraged to maintain as high a pedaling rate as possible throughout the 30-s test duration. It has
been demonstrated that this type of exercise protocol corresponded to acute HIIT [19].
2.3. Blood Sampling and Hematological Analysis
On arrival, each participant was asked to lie down and a catheter was inserted into an antecubital
vein. Four blood samples were collected: (1) at rest; (2) immediately after; (3) 3 h after and (4) 6 h
after the exercise tests. Blood samples were collected in K3 EDTA tubes (3 mL vacutainer tube;
BD Vacutainer, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA) and stored at room temperature until measurement, which
was performed in all cases within 2 h after venipuncture. Hematological parameters were analyzed
using Siemens ADVIA 2120® hemoautoanalyzer (Siemens, A.G.; Erlangen, Germany) according to the
manufacturer’s instructions. Hematocrit (%), hemoglobin (g dL−1 ), red cell count (×1012 L−1 ), mean
cell volume (fL), mean cell hemoglobin (pg), platelet count (×109 L−1 ), white cell count (×109 L−1 ),
neutrophil count (×109 L−1 ), Neutrophils (%), eosinophil count (×109 L−1 ), eosinophils (%), basophil
Med. Sci. 2017, 5, 15 3 of 7
count (×109 L−1 ), basophils (%), lymphocyte count (×109 L−1 ), lymphocytes (%), monocyte count
(×109 L−1 ), and monocytes (%) were analyzed in these samples. The coefficient of variation (CV)
values are 2.7% for white cell count, 1.2% for red cell count, 0.93% for hemoglobin, 0.78% for mean cell
volume, 2.93% for platelet count, and 12.5% for reticulocytes.
2.4. Statistical Analysis
In the analysis of data obtained from the results of the study, SPSS 22.0 program for Windows
(Chicago, IL, USA) was used. The descriptive statistics were given as mean ± standard deviation
(Mean ± SD). Repeated measures analysis of variance was used to assess the effects of exercise on
hematological parameters with the time serving as the within-group factor followed by t-tests, with the
Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. The level of p < 0.05 was considered as statistically
significant. Additionally, the effect of size (Cohen’s d) was calculated.
3. Results
Changes in hematocrit, hemoglobin, red cell parameters and platelet counts before and after acute
HIIT are given in Table 1. Hematocrit levels were significantly increased immediately after exercise
(p = 0.002, Cohen’s d = 1.84), but were significantly reduced 3 and 6 h after the exercise when compared
to the pre and post values (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 2.67, and p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 3.17; respectively).
Hemoglobin concentrations were significantly increased immediately after the exercise (p < 0.001,
Cohen’s d = 1.07), but were significantly reduced 3 and 6 h after the exercise when compared to the post
values (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.61, and p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 2.00; respectively). Red cell count and
mean cell volume significantly increased immediately after the exercise (p = 0.009, Cohen’s d = 2.18,
and p = 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.45; respectively), but were significantly reduced 3 and 6 h after the
exercise when compared to the pre and post values (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 2.88, and p < 0.001, Cohen’s
d = 2.93; respectively and p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.70, and p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.62; respectively).
Mean cell hemoglobin values remained unchanged in all time intervals (p = 0.980). Platelet counts
were significantly increased immediately after the exercise (p = 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.28), but were
significantly reduced 3 and 6 h after the exercise when compared to the post values (p = 0.008, Cohen’s
d = 1.11, and p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.97; respectively).
Table 1. Changes in hematocrit, hemoglobin, red cell parameters and platelet counts before and after
the acute high-intensity interval training (HIIT) (mean ± standard deviation (SD)) (n = 10).
Pre Post 3 h Rec 6 h Rec
a
Hematocrit (%) 47.43 ± 2.91 52.74 ± 2.85 46.27 ± 1.90 a,b 44.69 ± 2.18 a,b
Hemoglobin (g dL−1 ) 15.75 ± 0.76 16.59 ± 0.81 a 15.25 ± 0.85 b 15.12 ± 0.65 b
Red cell count (×1012 L−1 ) 5.44 ± 0.22 5.92 ± 0.22 a 5.30 ± 0.21 b 5.23 ± 0.25 a,b
Mean cell volume (fL) 86.38 ± 2.26 87.50 ± 2.66 a 85.66 ± 2.56 a,b 85.96 ± 2.31 b
Mean cell hemoglobin (pg) 28.71 ± 1.22 29.16 ± 1.53 28.94 ± 1.61 29.17 ± 1.05
Platelet count (×109 L−1 ) 239.20 ± 46.61 314.10 ± 68.22 a 248.40 ± 48.39 b 257.20 ± 46.48 b
a p < 0.05 vs. statistically significant compared to the pre-exercise. b p < 0.05 vs. statistically significant compared
to the post-exercise. Pre: at rest, Post: immediately after, 3 h Rec: 3 h after the exercise tests, 6 h Rec: 6 h after the
exercise tests.
Total and differential white cell counts and percentages before and after acute HIIT are shown in
Table 2. White cell counts were significantly increased immediately and 3 h after exercise (p < 0.001,
Cohen’s d = 2.03), but were significantly reduced 6 h after exercise when compared to the pre and
post values (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.00, and p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.85; respectively). Neutrophil
counts and percentages were significantly increased 3 and 6 h after exercise (p = 0.007, Cohen’s d = 1.68,
and p = 0.003, Cohen’s d = 2.69; respectively), but were significantly reduced 6 h after exercise when
compared to 3 h after exercise (p = 0.037, Cohen’s d = 0.92). Eosinophil counts were significantly
Med. Sci. 2017, 5, 15 4 of 7
increased immediately after exercise (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.22), but were significantly reduced 3 and
6 h after exercise when compared to the pre and post values (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.81, and p < 0.001,
Cohen’s d = 0.62; respectively). However, eosinophil percentages remained unchanged in all time
intervals (p = 0.301). Basophil counts were significantly increased immediately after exercise (p < 0.001,
Cohen’s d = 0.57), but were significantly reduced 3 and 6 h after exercise when compared to the
post values (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.48, and p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.26; respectively). However,
basophil percentages were lowest 3 h after exercise (p < 0.001) and returned to the baseline values 6 h
after exercise (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.57). Lymphocyte counts and percentages were significantly
increased immediately after exercise (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.17, and p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.18;
respectively), but were significantly reduced 3 and 6 h after exercise when compared to the pre and
post values (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 2.35, and p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 3.89; respectively). Monocyte
counts were significantly reduced 3 and 6 h after exercise when compared to the post values (p = 0.005,
Cohen’s d = 1.67 and p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.07; respectively). However, monocyte percentages were
significantly increased immediately after exercise (p = 0.004, Cohen’s d = 0.67), but were significantly
decreased 3 h after exercise compared to the all-time intervals (p = 0.030).
Table 2. Total and differential white cell counts and percentages before and after acute HIIT
(mean ± SD) (n = 10).
Pre Post 3 h Rec 6 h Rec
White cell count (×109 L−1 ) 7.32 ± 1.83 12.84 ± 3.37 a 11.22 ± 3.58 a
9.99 ± 3.30 a,b
Neutrophil count (×109 L−1 ) 4.02 ± 1.23 5.05 ± 1.57 8.45 ± 3.50 a,b 6.64 ± 2.93 a,c
Neutrophils (%) 49.83 ± 7.35 42.83 ± 6.27 72.76 ± 9.57 a,b 64.52 ± 8.28 a,c
Eosinophil count (×109 L−1 ) 0.30 ± 0.23 0.35 ± 0.22 a 0.16 ± 0.08 a,b 0.19 ± 0.09 a,b
Eosinophils (%) 3.66 ± 2.38 3.20 ± 2.32 1.53 ± 0.83 2.16 ± 1.26
Basophil count (×109 L−1 ) 0.09 ± 0.08 0.13 ± 0.06 a 0.06 ± 0.03 b 0.07 ± 0.03 b
Basophils (%) 1.03 ± 0.34 1.06 ± 0.46 0.58 ± 0.25 a,b 0.75 ± 0.34 c
Lymphocyte count (×109 L−1 ) 3.11 ± 1.59 5.22 ± 1.99 a 1.88 ± 0.30 a,b 2.31 ± 0.41 a,b
Lymphocytes (%) 36.70 ± 5.25 43.09 ± 5.65 a 18.55 ± 6.90 a,b 24.55 ± 6.3 a,b
Monocyte count (×109 L−1 ) 0.74 ± 0.37 1.16 ± 0.37 0.68 ± 0.17 b 0.79 ± 0.32 b
Monocytes (%) 8.79 ± 1.33 9.80 ± 1.67 a 6.59 ± 2.27 a,b 10.16 ± 7.59 c
a p < 0.05 vs. statistically significant compared to the pre-exercise. b p < 0.05 vs. statistically significant compared to
the post-exercise. c p < 0.05 vs. statistically significant compared to 3 h after exercise. Pre: at rest, Post: immediately
after, 3 h Rec: 3 h after the exercise tests, 6 h Rec: 6 h after the exercise tests.
4. Discussion
In this study, we investigated the responses of blood parameters to acute HIIT in the sedentary
male subjects. In the present study, in general, all measured blood parameters increased immediately
after exercise and returned to the baseline levels 3 or 6 h after exercise.
It has been generally shown that blood parameter values returned to resting levels 30 min after
the single Wingate test or acute submaximal exercise test [20–22]. Current studies [17,23] showed
increased blood and plasma viscosity in response to different exercise protocols. In our study, red
cell counts significantly increased immediately after exercise, but these values reduced 3 and 6 h after
exercise when compared to the pre and post values. In a study of Halson et al. [24], 4 weeks of intensive
training significantly reduced red cell counts (10%). In contrast, Green et al. [25] did not observe any
significant difference after a 4-week exercise program in the red cell counts of the sedentary subjects.
In the present study, we observed a 12% increase in the hematocrit, 5.3% increase in the hemoglobin,
and 8% increase in the red cell counts. This increase was similar to the previous studies.
In a recent study, Lippi et al. [26] reported a significant increase in the mean cell volume (2%)
immediately after moderately long-distance half marathon running and this value returned to resting
levels 3 h after exercise. Strenuous exercise is known to cause structural damage in the erythrocyte,
resulting in hemolysis. Increasing the number of erythrocytes deformed by exercise can be reflected as
Med. Sci. 2017, 5, 15 5 of 7
an increase of mean cell volume in the circulation [27]. In this study, immediately after exercise, mean
cell volume values were significantly increased and these values returned to resting levels 3 h after the
exercise. In the present study, we observed a 1.5% increase in the mean cell volume—similar to the
previous study.
In our study, platelet counts significantly increased immediately after exercise, but were
significantly reduced 3 and 6 h after exercise when compared to the post values. In the present study,
we observed a 31% increase in the platelet counts. Consistent with our findings, Ahmadizad et al. [22]
found a significant increase in the platelet count after a single session of anaerobic exercise. It has
been reported that platelet secretion increases by increasing the secretion of epinephrine during
high-intensity interval training [28]. This increase was similar to the previous studies.
Heidari et al. [28] have confirmed that the white cell counts increased (more than 100%) even
30 min after single session anaerobic exercise. White blood cells are involved in all aspects of the
immune system. The immune system can be activated directly via cells or the release of soluble
factors. Physical activity caused changes in the distribution of the number of white blood cells [29,30].
In our study, the number of the white blood cells significantly increased immediately and 3 h after
exercise, but significantly reduced 6 h after exercise when compared to the pre and post values. In the
present study, we observed a 75% increase in the white cell counts. This increase was similar to the
previous studies.
In the present study, after acute HIIT, an elevation was observed in all leukocyte subgroups
and the values of these parameters returned to resting levels 3 h after exercise. In a review of
Gabriel et al. [31], the authors noted that leukocyte subgroups such as lymphocytes percentage,
basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes and monocyte percentage increased
after acute anaerobic exercise. In another study, Peake et al. [32] suggested a decrease in lymphocyte
values in the first hour after exercise. In the study of Close et al. [33], a 15–30% elevation in the
leucocyte, neutrophil and lymphocyte counts after exercise was reported, but red blood cells remained
unchanged. Moreover, in the study of Kappel et al. [34], it was found that acute exercise applied to the
sedentary group caused an increase in the number of leukocytes. In the present study, we observed a
67% increase in the lymphocyte counts, and 56% increase in the monocyte counts. This increase was
similar to the previous studies.
5. Conclusions
In conclusion, all blood parameters increased immediately after acute high-intensity interval
training and their values began to return to resting levels 3 h after exercise, and completely returned to
resting levels 6 h after exercise. As was seen in the current study, acute high-intensity interval exercise
is considered a serious challenge to the hemorheological state in the sedentary subjects. Since some of
these responses potentially could threaten subjects’ health and performance, it is recommended that
subjects apply their insight about the response and adaptation of blood variables to exercise training
and also further studies are needed to examine the effects of acute high-intensity interval exercise on
blood parameters.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Selcuk University Scientific Research and Project
Coordinator (project number: 15202017).
Author Contributions: Muaz Belviranli: Study concept, design, analysis and interpretation of data and
preparation of the manuscript. Nilsel Okudan: Study concept, design and interpretation of data. Banu Kabak:
Acquisition of subjects and data, analysis and interpretation of data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Wardyn, G.G.; Rennard, S.I.; Brusnahan, S.K.; McGuire, T.R.; Carlson, M.L.; Smith, L.M.; McGranaghan, S.;
Sharp, J.G. Effects of exercise on hematological parameters, circulating side population cells, and cytokines.
Exp. Hematol. 2008, 36, 216–223. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Med. Sci. 2017, 5, 15 6 of 7
2. Ajmani, R.S.; Fleg, J.L.; Demehin, A.A.; Wright, J.G.; O’Connor, F.; Heim, J.M.; Tarien, E.; Rifkind, J.M.
Oxidative stress and hemorheological changes induced by acute treadmill exercise. Clin. Hemorheol. Microcirc.
2003, 28, 29–40. [PubMed]
3. Mairbäurl, H. Red blood cells in sports: effects of exercise and training on oxygen supply by red blood cells.
Front. Physiol. 2013, 12, 332. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Brun, J.F. Exercise hemorheology as a three acts play with metabolic actors: is it of clinical relevance?
Clin. Hemorheol. Microcirc. 2002, 26, 155–174. [PubMed]
5. Haas, T.L.; Lloyd, P.G.; Yang, H.T.; Terjung, R.L. Exercise training and peripheral arterial disease.
Compr. Physiol. 2012, 2, 2933–3017. [PubMed]
6. Lambert, C.P.; Flynn, M.G.; Braun, W.A.; Mylona, E. Influence of acute submaximal exercise on T-lymphocyte
suppressor cell function in healthy young men. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2000, 82, 151–154. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Atan, T.; Alacam, H. The Effects of acute aerobic and anaerobic exercise on blood Parameters. Anthropologist
2015, 19, 87–93.
8. Rama, L.M.; Minuzzi, L.G.; Carvalho, H.M.; Costa, R.J.; Teixeira, A.M. Changes of hematological markers
during a multi-stage ultra-marathon competition in the heat. Int. J. Sports Med. 2016, 37, 104–111. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
9. Gibala, M.J.; Little, J.P.; Macdonald, M.J.; Hawley, J.A. Physiological adaptations to low-volume,
high-intensity interval training in health and disease. J. Physiol. 2012, 1, 1077–1084. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
10. Wisløff, U.; Ellingsen, Ø.; Kemi, O.J. High-intensity interval training to maximize cardiac benefits of exercise
training? Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 2009, 37, 139–146. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Tjønna, A.E.; Stølen, T.O.; Bye, A.; Volden, M.; Slørdahl, S.A.; Odegård, R.; Skogvoll, E.; Wisløff, U. Aerobic
interval training reduces cardiovascular risk factors more than a multitreatment approach in overweight
adolescents. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 2009, 116, 317–326. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Hwang, C.L.; Wu, Y.T.; Chou, C.H. Effect of aerobic interval training on exercise capacity and metabolic
risk factors in people with cardiometabolic disorders: a meta-analysis. J. Cardiopulm. Rehabil. Prev. 2011, 31,
378–385. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Gibala, M.J.; McGee, S.L. Metabolic adaptations to short-term high-intensity interval training: A little pain
for a lot of gain? Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 2008, 36, 58–63. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. MacInnis, M.J.; Gibala, M.J. Physiological adaptations to interval training and the role of exercise intensity.
J. Physiol. 2017, 595, 2915–2930. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. MacInnis, M.J.; Zacharewicz, E.; Martin, B.J.; Haikalis, M.E.; Skelly, L.E.; Tarnopolsky, M.A.; Murphy, R.M.;
Gibala, M.J. Superior mitochondrial adaptations in human skeletal muscle after interval compared to
continuous single-leg cycling matched for total work. J. Physiol. 2017, 595, 2955–2968. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Knowles, A.M.; Herbert, P.; Easton, C.; Sculthorpe, N.; Grace, F.M. Impact of low-volume, high-intensity
interval training on maximal aerobic capacity, health-related quality of life and motivation to exercise in
ageing men. Age (Dordr) 2015, 37, 25. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Ahmadizad, S.; Bassami, M.; Hadian, M.; Eslami, M. Influences of two high intensity interval exercise
protocols on the main determinants of blood fluidity in overweight men. Clin. Hemorheol. Microcirc. 2016, 64,
827–835. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18. Camacho-Cardenosa, M.; Camacho-Cardenosa, A.; Martínez Guardado, I.; Marcos-Serrano, M.; Timon, R.;
Olcina, G. A new dose of maximal-intensity interval training in hypoxia to improve body composition and
hemoglobin and hematocrit levels: a pilot study. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit. 2017, 57, 60–69.
19. Little, J.P.; Safdar, A.; Bishop, D.; Tarnopolsky, M.A.; Gibala, M.J. An acute bout of high-intensity interval
training increases the nuclear abundance of PGC-1α and activates mitochondrial biogenesis in human
skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2011, 300, R1303–R1310. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. Whittlesey, M.J.; Maresh, C.M.; Armstrong, L.E.; Morocco, T.S.; Hannon, D.R.; Gabaree, C.L.; Hoffman, J.R.
Plasma volume responses to consecutive anaerobic exercise tests. Int. J. Sports Med. 1996, 17, 268–271.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
21. Kordie, M.R.; Chobineh, S.; Hematinafar, M.; Molaesmaeili, Z. The effect of acute anaerobic exercise on blood
rheology agents’ response in active young women. Appl. Manag. Res. Life Sci. Sports 2012, 2012, 45–52.
22. Ahmadizad, S.; El-Sayed, M.S.; MacLaren, D.P. Effects of time of day and acute resistance exercise on platelet
activation and function. Clin. Hemorheol. Microcirc. 2010, 45, 391–399. [PubMed]
Med. Sci. 2017, 5, 15 7 of 7
23. Varlet-Marie, E.; Brun, J.F.; Raynaud de Mauverger, E.; Fédou, C. Exercise-induced changes in hematocrit and
hematocrit/viscosity ratio in male rugby players. Clin. Hemorheol. Microcirc. 2016, 64, 817–826. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
24. Halson, S.L.; Lancaster, G.I.; Jeukendrup, A.E.; Gleeson, M. Immunological responses to overreaching in
cyclists. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2003, 35, 854–861. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Green, H.J.; Sutton, J.R.; Coates, G.; Ali, M.; Jones, S. Response of red cell and plasma volume to prolonged
training in humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 1991, 70, 1810–1815. [PubMed]
26. Lippi, G.; Salvagno, G.L.; Danese, E.; Tarperi, C.; Guidi, G.C.; Schena, F. Variation of red blood cell distribution
width and mean platelet volume after moderate endurance exercise. Adv. Hematol. 2014. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
27. Gnanou, J.; Caszo, B.; Khalin, I.; Leong, S.; Knight, V.F.; Bidin, M.Z.B. The Effect of 6-weeks military training
on blood hematological parameters in untrained recruits in a military university. Med. Sci. 2014, 3, 1479–1490.
[CrossRef]
28. Heidari, N.; Dortaj, E.; Karimi, M.; Karami, S.; Kordi, N. The effects of acute high intensity interval exercise
of judo on blood rheology factors. Turk. J. Kinesiol. 2016, 2, 6–10.
29. El-Sayed, M.S. Effects of exercise and training on blood rheology. Sports Med. 1998, 26, 281–292. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
30. El-Sayed, M.S.; Ali, N.; El-Sayed, A.Z. Haemorheology in exercise and training. Sports Med. 2005, 35, 649–670.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
31. Gabriel, H.; Kindermann, W. The acute immune response to exercise: what does it mean? Int. J. Sports Med.
1997, 18 (Suppl. 1), S28–S45. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
32. Peake, J.M.; Neubauer, O.; Walsh, N.P.; Simpson, R.J. Recovery of the immune system after exercise.
J. Appl. Physiol. 2016. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. Close, G.L.; Ashton, T.; Cable, T.; Doran, D.; MacLaren, D.P. Eccentric exercise, isokinetic muscle torque and
delayed onset muscle soreness: the role of reactive oxygen species. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2004, 91, 615–621.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
34. Kappel, M.; Poulsen, T.D.; Galbo, H.; Pedersen, B.K. Effects of elevated plasma noradrenaline concentration
on the immune system in humans. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 1998, 79, 93–98. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
