Creation and maintaining a Web based Protection

Database and Desktop based Protection setting

calculation tool for Eastern Regional Grid
“ An Overview of Protection System Analysis” for ER
Utilities

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 Agenda
 Introduction
 Project Delivery Milestones
 Scope of work under Operational Studies
 Activities undertaken for Operational Studies
 Load flow study
 Short circuit study
 Validation of simulated results with ERLDC SCADA
records
 Conclusion
 Queries
 Path forward in system studies

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 Creation and maintaining a Web based Protection
Database and Desktop based Protection setting
calculation tool for Eastern Regional Grid

Training Programme on
“ An Overview of Protection System Analysis”
for ER Utilities

1
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 Topics
1. Understanding Power System Protection through
Simulations
2. Power Flow Solution Practical considerations
3. Short Circuit Studies
4. Transient Stability Studies
5. Introduction to Power System Protection
6. Protection Case Studies
7. Principles of Unit Protection
8. Generator Protection
9. Frequency Relays
10. Electromagnetic Transient analysis & Overvoltage
Studies
11. COMTRADE
12. Tripping Analysis - Methodoloy

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 Creation and maintaining a Web based Protection
Database and Desktop based Protection setting
calculation tool for Eastern Regional Grid

“ An Overview of Protection System Analysis” for

ER Utilities

1
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 Understanding Power
System Protection through
Simulation

6
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Organization of the Lecture

 Introduction

 Role of protection Engineer

 Recent Trends

 Simulation Tools

 Simulation Cases

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Introduction

Reliability of a power system operation

Reliable: Equipment used in the system are

in operation and perform the function for
which they are designed for

Reliability Index: Performance index

measured in terms of customer load
affected in a year or particular duration

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Methods to enhance system reliability

Duplicate Minimize the outage

everything During the fault

Economics ?

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 How to achieve minimum outage ?

1. A good and integrated performance of power system

relays.
2. Successful operation of relay for all short circuits in its
zone.
3. Adequate backup protection for the faults in the adjoining
section.

Operations involved in protection engineering:

1. Periodic fault studies

2. Relay setting calculation
3. Checking and co-ordination studies

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 Difficulties:
•Wide variety of relays in operation.
• Functionality
• Manufacturer
• Technology
•System operational changes.
•System growth
It is just impossible to overcome the above
difficulties by a human (Operator).
Solution???
Apply judiciously the computer and simulation tools.

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Damage Minimization

To minimize damage to equipment and

interruption to the services
To incorporate features of design aimed
at preventing failures
To include provisions for mitigating the
effects of failures when it occurs

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 Preventing Electrical
Failure
 Provision for adequate insulation, instantaneous
setting, overload and unbalance factors
 Co-ordination of insulation strength with capabilities
of lightning arrestors
 Use of overhead ground wires and low tower footing
resistance
 Design for mechanical strength to reduce exposure,
and to minimize the likelihood of failure causable by
animals, birds, dirt sleet etc.

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 Damages Caused
1. Loss of equipment (permanent or
partial damage)
2. Loss of production
3. Revenue loss
4. Fire hazard, loss of life
5. Loss of confidence level in using
electricity as a commodity

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 Mitigate The Effects of Failure
1. Features that mitigate the immediate effects of failure
Design to limit the magnitude of short circuit current
Design to withstand mechanical stresses and heating
Time delay under voltage relays on circuit breakers to
prevent dropping loads during momentary voltage dips
Ground fault neutralizers (Petersen coils)

2. Features for promptly disconnecting the faulty elements

Protective relaying
Circuit breakers with sufficient interrupting capacity
Fuses

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Mitigate The Effects of Failure

3. Features that mitigate the loss of faulty element

Alternate circuits
Reserve generator
Automatic re-closing
4. Features that operate throughout the period from
the inception of the fault until after its removal, to
maintain voltage and stability of protective
relaying
Automatic voltage regulators
Stability characteristics of generator

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 Mitigate The Effects of Failure

5. Means for observing the effectiveness of the

foregoing features
Automatic oscillographs

Efficient human observations

Record keeping
6. Frequent surveys as system changes or additions
are made, to be sure that the fore going features are
still adequate

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 Relaying Quantity Behavior

 Fault occurs – Voltage dips, current increases,

reactive power feed increases, speed increases,
rotor angle increases, impedance decreases.
 SLG fault occurs in un-grounded system – Healthy
phase voltage increases, capacitive current will
flow at fault location.
 Generator trips – Frequency falls, Voltage dips
 Load trips – Frequency increases, voltage may
increase

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 Relaying Quantity Behavior
• Line Trips – Voltage dips, overloading of other lines

• Motor Starting – Voltage dips, current increases,

reactive power increases

• Transformer Energization – Inrush current, 2nd

harmonic predominant.

• Loss of Field – Machine draws reactive power from

grid, Active power output reduces.

• Capacitor Energization – Over voltage, inrush current.

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 Types of Protection

 Over voltage protection – Lightning/Surge

arrestors, insulation co-ordination

 Fault protection - Application of relays

 Protection for human (safety) – Earthing and

Earth mat design, clearances, insulation

 Environmental protection?? – Integration of

more and more renewable energy to grid

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Protection - Cricket Field Analogy

Sl. Cricket Field Protection field

No. (Fielding side (Protection Engineer)
Bowler)
1. Positions the fielders Designs the system and sets the
relays
2. Bowls the ball Charges the system
3. Batsman hits the ball Fault occurs
4. Mid-off stops/fails Primary relay operates/ fails
5. Long-off stops/ fails Backup relay operates / fails
6. If boundary, gets dropped If fails, Has to face enquiry commission

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 Intelligent Electronic Device (IED)

Relay has changed its functionality

from
protection to

Protection Monitoring and Control

CONTROL MONITORING

PROTECTION

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Recent Trends –
Application of Phasor measurement unit

A device that samples analog voltage and current data

in synchronism with a GPS-clock.

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Architectural Hierarchy

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Applications of PMU

 Real time visualization of power system

 Design of advanced warning system
 Analysis for causes of total or partial blackouts
 Enhancement in state estimation
 Real time angular and voltage stability
analysis
 Improved damping of inter area oscillations
 Design of adaptive protection scheme
 Fine tuning of system models

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 Adaptive Relaying

– Online activity
– Modifies preferred protective response to a
change in system conditions or requirements.
– Special application in case of -
* Multi terminal lines.
* Out of step protection.
* Back up protection of distance relays.

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Co-ordination With Different Departments

Finance

Planning/
Design Manufacturer
/supplier
Protection
Engineer

Operational Field
Load Despatch Engineer

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 Data Flow in Simulation

Load flow Results

Transient
Relay setting Stability
co-
Studies/
ordination Relay
Results simulation
Short Circuit

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Computer Aided Protection Co-ordination

Analysis Tools
System Loadflow
Operational Short Circuit
Relay Relay Co-ordination
RESULTS Transient Stability
Over voltage
Database

SLD
Zooming Degitizer
Windowing Mouse
Reports Printer
Graphs Plotter

Peripheral support
GUI (Graphic User Interface)
system

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Duration Spectra of Main Effects
Electrical Electrical System Prime Energy
Switching machine & Governing mover resource
Transients System & load energy dynamics
Dynamics Controls supply
system
dynamics
Over
Voltages

Fault
Transients

s/ms Few Seconds Several Days to

seconds to minutes weeks
minutes

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 Transient Phenomena

s Initial transient, Recovery Voltage

 Scale ms Switching surges, Fault transients

Several cycles Ferro - resonance

 Surge period
 Dynamic period
 Steady State period

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 Simulation Cases

32
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Why Load flow study for protection
Engineer?

33
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Copyright @ Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd 34
Fault Simulation to Aid Protection
Engineer

35
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 Fault calculation to determine
1. Fault current from various sources
2. Post fault voltage
3. Earth fault current
4. Primary and back up relay current
5. Temporary over voltage (during
single line to ground fault)

Copyright @ Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd #36

Earth fault relay operation - Explained

No source in this part of the network

Earth fault relay picks up, because of transformer

Vector group

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 Fault study

1. Symmetrical AC current
2. DC off set current
3. Asymmetrical AC current

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 DC off set current
1. Maximum at voltage zero
2. Minimum at voltage maximum

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 What machine impedance to
consider for fault study and
relay-coordination?

40
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 41
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 Stability study simulation and its
importance

42
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 Sustained fault at the machine terminal
1. Initial Sub-transient current.
2. Intermediate transient current.
3. Final steady state current.

43
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 Frequency plot

1. Under frequency and over frequency relay setting

2. Operate the system around designed values.

44
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 Parallel line, one line trips

1. Directional over current relay should not operate

for the healthy line.
2. There should not be load encroachment

45
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 Initial point

Final point

Terminologies

1. Load encroachment
2. Power swing

46
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 Impedance seen by the distance relay

1. Helps in distance relay setting calculations

2. Re-shaping the relay characteristic to avoid
third zone load encroachment

47
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 Fault cleared in 0.1 seconds

48
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Fault cleared in 0.3 seconds

49
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 Fault cleared in 0.5 seconds

50
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 Out of step detected
and generator tripped

51
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 Power reversal in the line
And the system is saved.

52
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 Understanding single pole auto re-closing facility

Both the lines carry same current

Healthy line carries full load

Healthy line current

Unsuccessful re-closure, once again fault

Faulted line current

Faulty line trips

53
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 Out of step operation
1. Out of step protection for the machine
2. Pole slipping relay

54
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Protection Engineer designs the relay,
based on system behavior

55
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 Loss of excitation
1. Machine draws very large reactive power
2. Over heating of stator
3. If not protected, burning out of stator

56
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Loss of excitation
1. Impedance moves from the first
quadrant
2. Settles in a circle with dia xd and
off set xd’/2
3. Off set mho relay detects the fault

57
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Loss of excitation relay
1. Off set mho relay
2. Off set of xd’/2
3. Diameter of xd

58
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Why current limiting reactor for
capacitor banks?

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 Capacitor charging

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 Inrush current capacitor charging

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2nd Harmonic and 5th Harmonic
restraint for transformer
differential protection

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 Magnetizing inrush current

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 Why to provide surge arrestor
and RC circuit for VCB switching

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 VCB current chopping and voltage raise problem

Solution : Provide surge suppressor/RC circuit or both

after the VCB, close to equipment

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Sympathetic Tipping: What it
means?

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 1. Voltage dip during the fault
2. Healthy feeder motors stall or speed reduces
3. Once the voltage recovers, large current drawn by
motors
4. Healthy feeder may trip

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Copyright @ Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd 68
Ferroresonance: When and
How?

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 Ferroresonance (FR) TOV
 An oscillating phenomena occurring in an electric
 Circuit which must contain at least:
 a non-linear inductance
 a capacitor,
 a voltage source (generally sinusoidal),
 low losses.
 Transients, lightning over voltages, energizing or de-
energizing transformers or loads, occurrence or removal
of faults, etc...may initiate ferroresonance.
 The main feature of this phenomenon is that more than
one stable steady state response is possible for the same
set of the network parameters.

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Examples of Systems at Risk from
Ferroresonance.

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Copyright @ Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd 72
Case study for predicting and
understanding of TOV and FR

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1-pole 3-pole
HT side LR by opening CB2

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 Voltage Current
FR existence when 2-poles opening of CB1

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 Conclusions

1. The various issues in the protection are discussed

2. It is concluded that close co-ordination for

protection department with other departments are
required.

3. The simulation tools help in learning the

protection aspects

4. Automated fault analysis system will help in

understanding the relay tripping incidences better.

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Queries & Discussions

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 Thank You

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MODELLING OF POWER SYSTEM ELEMENTS
&
LOAD FLOW STUDIES

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 Per-unit Calculation
Power base : MVA

Voltage base : VLL (kV)

MVA x1000
Current base =
3VLL


kV 
2

Impedance base = Z base

MVA

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 Base Conversion for
Impedance:
MVAb1 is the old power base

MVAb2 is the new power base

kVb1 is the given voltage base

kVb2 is the new voltage base

Zpu1 is known Zpu2 = ?

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Z base1 
 Kvb1 
2

Z base 2 
kVb 2 
2

MVAb1 MVAb 2
Z act Z base1.Z pu1 Z act Z base 2.Z pu 2
Z base1.Z pu1Z base 2.Z pu 2

Z pu 2 
Z base1.Z pu1
Z pu1
kVb1  MVAb 2 
2

.
Z base 2 MVAb1 kVb 2 2

If kVb1  kVb 2 ,then

 MVAb 2 
Z pu 2  Z pu1 
 MVA 

 b1 
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Examples:
Base MVA: 100, Base kV : 220,
Base Current, I = 262.43 A, Base Z = 484 ohm

350 MW = 350/100 = 3.5 pu

220 MVAR = 220/100 = 2.2 pu
210 kV = 210/220 = 0.9545 pu
400 A = 400/262.43 = 1.524 pu

220 kV, 145 km line length, R = 0.06 ohm/km,

X = 0.4 ohm/km

In pu, for the entire line length,

R = 0.06x145/484 = 0.018 pu, X = 0.4x145/484 = 0.1198 pu

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Examples:
500 MVA, 12.5% impedance
On 100 MVA, it is 0.125*100/500 = 0.025 pu

5 MVA, 8% impedance
On 100 MVA, it is 0.08*100/5 = 1.6 pu

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Transmission line modelling:
1. Equivalent  Circuit.

2. Balanced operation
No zero sequence.
No mutual.
Perfectly transposed.

3. Series compensation
Series compensation factor Xc/XL

4. Shunt compensation
Shunt compensation factor BL /Bc

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 Power quality – Voltage
 Voltage should be within the acceptable limit as
per the grid code
 Acceptable voltage limits :
Voltage Maximum Minimum
36.3 kV 29.7 kV
33 kV
1.1 pu 0.96 pu
145 KV 122 kV
132 kV
1.099 kV 0.924 pu
245 kV 198 kV
220 kV
1.114 pu 0.900 pu
420 kV
380 kV
400 kV 1.050 pu
0.950 pu

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Types of over voltages:
• Steady state over voltage
• Temporary over voltage
• Switching over voltage
• Lightning over voltage
Mitigation -
• Static var compensators
• Shunt capacitors and shunt reactors
• Strong transmission system

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Types of Reactors:
• Bus reactor to mitigate the problem of steady
state over voltage. Connected at the busbar to
compensate for short lines terminated at a
substation.
• Line reactors to mitigate the problem of
steady state over voltage and switching over
voltage. Connected as part of the transmission
line, after the line breaker.

Line reactor

Bus reactor

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Types of Reactors:
R XL

BC /2 BC /2

400 kV / 100 MVA base; 350 km

R=0.0306  / km --- 0.00669375 pu
XL = 0.305  / km --- 0.06672 pu
Bc = 3.4375   /km --- 1.925 pu

40% series compensation : Xc = 0.026688 pu

60% shunt compensation : BL = 1.155 pu
 115 MVAR
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Types of Reactors:

R XL

57.5 57.5
BC /2 MVAR BC /2 MVAR

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 Surge impedance :
L
Simple Expression :
C
Exact Equation:
z R jX L 2 f L L
Zc    
y 0 jBc 2 f C C
2
V
SIL  MW
SI
Exercise:
For the given transmission line, load the line
1) Less than SIL
2) Equal to SIL
3) More than SIL
and plot the terminal voltage.

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 Transformer Modelling:
p a:1 q

Ypq/a q
p

1/a(1/a-1).Ypq (1-1/a).Ypq

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 Transformer Modelling:

With R=0, a=1.05, Xt =

10%
p (-j) (9.52381) q p q

(-j) (-0.4535) (-j) (0.476190)

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 Transformer Modelling:
For a = 0.95,
p q p q
(-j) 10.5263

(-j)(0.554) (-j) (-0.526315)

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 Transformer Impedance

 Reactive power loss

 Voltage drop
 Fault level

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 Reactive Power Loss
 100 MVA, 10% Z, fully loaded, reactive power
loss = 0.1*1*1 = 0.1 pu = 10 MVAR
 If it is 50% loaded, reactive power loss = 2.5
MVAR
 500 MVA, 12.5 % impedance consumers 62.5
MVAR, when it is fully loaded.
 From generation to load at LT, there are about
six transformation levels and at each level,
there is reactive power loss.
 It is not just the load reactive power, we need
to compensate the reactive power loss within
the transformer.

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 Voltage Drop
 100 MVA transformer, 10% impedance implies X is
close to 10%, as the resistance is neglected.
 If the transformer is fully loaded at unity power
factor, the voltage drop is negligible.
 If the transformer is fully loaded at zero power
factor, the voltage drop is 10%.
E IX = 0.1 pu
E = sqrt (1*1+0.1*0.1) = sqrt(1.01), approximately = 1.0
I= 1pu V = 1 pu VR = (1-1)/1 = 0

IX = 0.1 pu
E = 1+0.1 = 1.1 pu
I= 1pu V = 1 pu
VR = (1.1-1)/1 = 0.1=10%

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 Transformer Modelling:

220 kV/132 kV, 8% impedance on own rating of 115

MVA.

1 pu
1 pu
current

220/132 kV
Z=8%

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 Transformer Modelling:
Points to Note :
 Usual impedance range.
 R considered or not.
 Number of units in parallel.
 Tap position.
 Tap reference.

Typical Transformer Data:

Transformer impedance on its own MVA rating:
Generating unit : 14-15%
Interconnecting unit : 12.5%
Power transformers : 9-10%
Distribution transformers : 4.0-4.5% or even less

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Three Winding Transformers:

s p-s - t
p H-M-L

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Three Winding Transformers :
Zps = Zp+Zs -----------(1)
Zst = Zs+Zt -----------(2)
Zpt = Zp+Zt -----------(3)

Zp

Zs Zt
s

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Example 1
220/11/11 kV ; 10%; 10%; 15% on 50 MVA rating
Zps = 10% Zpt = 10% Zst = 15%
Zp = 2.5% Zs = 7.5% Zt = 7.5%

P 220 kV
2.5%

7.5% 7.5%
S

t 11 kV 11 kV

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Example 2
220/132/11kV,
Primary-80 MVA, Secondary-60 MVA, Tertiary 20 MVA.
Zps = 9.5% on primary rating, Zpt = 11.5% on primary rating,
Zst = 16.5% on secondary rating

80
Z st  16.5   22%
60
1
Zp   9.5  115
.  22  0.5%
2
1
Z s  22  9.5  115 .   10%
2
1
Z t  115 .  22  9.5  12%
2
on primary rating
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Example 2 : Equivalent Circuit

P 220 kV
-0.5%

10% 12%
S

t 132 kV 11 kV

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 Types of Buses
Slack bus : P and Q are un-known, Voltage
magnitude and angle are known. Voltage angle is
generally taken as zero.

Load bus : P and Q are known, Voltage magnitude

and angle are un-known

PV or generator bus : P and V are known. Voltage

angle and Q are un-known. Q to be within the
reactive power limit

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Slack Bus:
 Can be one of the largest unit size, however, need not be. Any
machine can be taken as slack bus.
 In the system, it corresponds to the physical generator or tie line
or import/export point.
 The limits on the physical entity should be met.
 If the machine rating is 500 MW, and at the end of load flow, the
slack bus generation is 550 MW, solution is not acceptable.
 If the machine rating is 250 MW, and at the end of load flow, the
slack bus generation is (–50) MW, solution is not acceptable.
 The import and export limit should be within the slack bus
generation, if the slack is taken as a tie line.
 In case of industrial system, import/export should be within the
contract demand.

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 Generator Modelling

Terminal voltage and P scheduled known.

Q and angle to be determined
Q limits : Qmin to Qmax

Vspec  Voltage should increase

Q = Qmin

Vspec  Voltage should decrease

Q = Qmax

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 Generator Modelling

P, Q
Initial
V
P, V Q

 
Qmax, V, Vspec

Qmin, V, Vspec
S  P Q 2 2

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 Capability Curve
P- active
Stator heating
limit

Rotor heating
Stability limit limit

Leading Q- Reactive Lagging

Q -ve Q +ve
Under excited Over excited

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 Generator Droop

52
50
48

P
Rated

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 Generator Droop
f
PG  PG set  f  f  f0
R
All units in per unit.
 f p.u.  f Hz f 0 Hz
R 
 Pp.u  PMW Prate  MW
R  4% implies  f  f 0   2 H Z . f 0  50 H Z
Re al power changes by rated MW.
For 1Hz change;
1 1 .P Prate MW
50 50 rate MW
0.04    PMW  
 PMW 0.04 2
Prate MW

Copyright @ Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd

 Generator Droop
 fHz
f0 Hz
R
 PMW
Prated  MW
R  f pu

Prated  MW  Ppu  New baseMVA
New base MVA  f pu
R. 
Prated  MW  Ppu
R New base MVA
 R  '
Prated  MW

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 CASE-1

G 10+j0
11kV 10% 220kV
100MVA

Pmin = 0
Pmax = 100 MW
Prated = 100 MW
Pscheduled = ? = X {Flat tie line control}
Droop = 5%

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 CASE-2

60+j0
G
11kV 10% 220kV
100MVA

Pmin=0
Pmax=100MW Droop=5%
Prated=100MW
Pscheduled=X

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 Generator Cost Curve
CRs = C0+C1P+C2P2
C0 =Constant cost in Rs
C1= cost proportional to MW power in Rs/MW
C2 = Cost proportional to MW2 (Power2) in Rs/MW2
C0  Capital investment (Hydro, Thermal, Nuclear)
C1 & C2  Running cost
Used in economic despatch.
Cost C2P2 C1P
Rs

C0

P operating P
Copyright @ Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd
 Load Modelling
PL=PL0(1+Cpf . f) * (Cpp+CpiV+CpzV2)
PL0 : Base load (Nominal load)
Cpf : Frequency dependence factor
f : Change in frequency
Cpp : Constant power factor
Cpi : Constant current factor
Cpz : Constant impedance factor

10,000 MW 7% change in load for 1 Hz change in frequency

Cpf = 3.5 Exactly same analogy holds good for reactive load modelling
also (Q).

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 Load Modelling
Load Modelling

Static Dynamic
Induction Motor
Synchronous Motor

This model expresses the characteristic of the load at

any instant of time as algebraic functions of the bus
voltage magnitude & frequency

P    1  p
P0 CP p
C I .V p
CZ .V 2
K f . f
p

Q  Q  C  C .V  C .V 1  K .f 
0
q
P
q
I
q
Z
2 q
f

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 Load Modelling:
Loads are modelled as a function of Voltage and Frequency


P  P0 C Pp  CIp .V  CZp .V 2 1  f . C fp  
Q  Q C 0
q
P  CIq .V  CZq .V 2 1  f . C 
q
f

CP =1 CI = 0.0 CZ = 0.0 Constant power load

CP =0.0 CI = 1 CZ = 0.0 Constant current load

CP =0.0 CI = 0.0 CZ = 1 Constant impedance

load

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 Load Modelling:
CzV2 CIV
Power

Cp

Voltage

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Bus Admittance Matrix
1

P yp1
Ip V1
Ip1
yp2 2
yp0 Ip2

V2
n
Ip0 ypn
Ipn

Vn
Vp

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 Bus Admittance Matrix
I p  I p 0  I p1  I p 2  I pn

  
Vp . y p 0  Vp  V1 . y p1  Vp  V2 y p 2  Vp  Vn y pn   

I p  y p 0  y p1  y p 2  y pn V   y . V   y V  y . V
p p1 1 p2 2 pn n

I p  Yp1 V1  Yp 2 V2 Ypp Vp  Ypn Vn

I 1  Y11 Y12  Y1p  Y1n   V1 
I   Y Y22  Y2 p

 Y2 n   V2 
 2   21  
     
   
I p  Yp1 Yp 2  Ypp  Ypn   Vp 
    
     
I n  Yn1 Yn 2  Ynp  Ynn   Vn 

 I  bus  Y  bus V  bus

nx1 nxn nx1

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 Iterative Techniques:
f k  x1 , x 2 ,  , x k ,  , x n 1 , x n   Yk


x k  Yk  f k' x1 , x 2 ,  , x k 1 , x k 2 ,  , x n 1 , x n 
Gauss


x ki  Yk  f k1 x1i 1 , x 2i 1 ,  , x ki11 , x ki12 ,  , x ni11 , x ni1 
Gauss  Seidel
xki  Yk  f k1 x1i , x2i ,, xki 1, xki 12 ,, xni 11, xni 1 

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Application to Power Systems
Pp  jQ p
S p  Vp I p *
Ip           1
V p*

I p  Yp1V1  Yp2V2 YppV p YpnVn         2

 
 n 

1 I p 
Vp  Ypq Vq 
Ypp  
 q 1 
 qp 

 
 P  jQ n 

1  Ypq Vq 
p p
Vp  
Ypp  *
Vp 
 q 1 
 qp 

  p 1 
1  Pp  jQ p
n
V pi 
Y pp  V p* i 1
 


Y pq V q
i
 Y pq V q
i 1  


 
 q 1 q  p 1

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NR - Method
 i 1 i 1
f k x  x1,x  x2 ,........  x  xk  ......  x  xn  yk
1 2
i 1
k
i 1
n 
 fk  fk  fk  fk
fk x , x ,....x ,....x    x1
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
  x2  ......  xk  .....  xn  yk
 x1 i1  x2 i1  xk i1  xn n
1 2 k n

 fk  fk  fk  fk
yk  f k x , x ,....x ,.....x    x1
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
  x2  ......  xk  ........  xn
 x1 i1  x2 i1  xk i1  xn i1
1 2 k n

f k f k f k f k
y k  x1  x 2 ...... x k ........ x n
x1 i 1
x 2 i 1
x k i 1
x n i 1

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 y1   f 1 f 1  f1  f1   x1 
  x ........  
  x2  xk xn 
  1
  
 yk   : : ......... : :   : 
 :   f k f k f k f k   xk 
  
........
   x1 x2 xk xn
   f f n f n f n   
  n   xn 
 yn 
  x1 x2 xk f n  i 1 
 


S k  Vk . I *k
n *

 Vk V
m 1
m Ykm 
n
 Vk  k . V
m 1
m   m . Ykm   km

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 n
Pk  jQk  VkVmYkm  k   m   km
m 1
n
Pk  VkVmYkm cos  k   m   km 
m 1
n
Qk  VkVmYkm sin  k   m   km 
m 1

Whenthesolutionisobtained

 
n

 k m km
V '
V
m 1
'
Y cos  '
k   m   km Ps pec
'

Vk'  k' ,Vm'  m' solution set

Ps pec:Net injected real power atthebus

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 PG PG : Net Generation (MW)

PC PL : Net Load (MW)

PL PC : Net Convertor power drawn (MW)

Pspec = PG-PC-PL
PG : After generator regulation characteristic
PL : After load modelling
Pk = Pspec - Pk

 
n


m1
Vk' Vm' Ykm sin  'k   'm   km  Q s pec

Q s pec : Net injected reactive power at a bus

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 QG

QC

QL
QComp

Qspec = QG - Qc - QL + Qcomp
QG = After Q checking
QL = After load modelling
Qcomp = Fixed compensation given along with load data.
Qk = Qspec - Qk

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 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2   2  P2 
      V2
 
Vk Vn     
 2 k n
    
   k  Pk 
 P     

 k  k  kP  P  P  P  P    
k
 k  k 
  2  k  n V2 Vk Vn   n   Pn 
     
   V2  Q2 
 Pn Pn Pn Pn Pn Pn     
         
 2  k  n  V2  Vk  Vn  Vk  Qk 
 Q deravitives  V  Q 
 n  n
2(n  1)  2(n  1) 2n  1  1 2n  1  1

n
Pk  V V Y
m1
k m km cos  k   m   km 

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 Pk n
 VkVmYkmsin  k   m   km  1
  k m 1
m k
 Pk
 VkVmYkm sin  k   m   km  1 1
 m
 Pk n
 VmYkmcos k   m   km   2Vk .Ykk cos k   k   kk 
 Vk m1
m k
 Pk
 VkYkmcos k   m   km 
 Vm
n
Qk  VkVmYkmsin  k   m   km 
m1
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 Qk n
 VkVmYkmcos k   m   km 
  k m1
m k
 Qk n
 VkVmYkmcos k   m   km  1
  m m1
 Qk n
 VmYkmsin  k   m   km   2VkYkk sin  k   k   kk 
 Vk m1
m k
 Qk
 VkYkmsin  k   m   km 
 Vm
 J1 J 2     P 
J  
 3 J 4 V  Q 
 
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 Decoupled N-R Method
J1    P  V iteration
J 4 V   Q

Copyright @ Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd

Fast Decoupled Load Flow:
 k   m  
Pk
 VkVmYkmsin k   m   km 
 m
 VkVmYkmsin  km  VkVm km
 Pk n n
 VkVm Bkm  Vk Vm Bkm
 k m 1 m 1
m k m k
 Qk
 Vk Bkm
 Vm
 Qk n
   Vm Bkm  2Vk  BkK 
 Vk m 1
m k
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 Fast Decoupled Load Flow:
   
 Vm B1m  V2 B12  Vk B1k  Vn B1n  1   P1 
m k    V1 
    
  k   Pk 
 V1Bk 1  V2 Bk 2 Vm Bkm   Vn Bkn    Vk 
 mk
   Pn 
 V1Bn1  V2 Bn 2Vk Bnk  Vm Bnm   
 m 1     Vn 
 n 
Assuming voltage as 1 pu in the Jacobian terms,
since neglecting shunt ;
B
m1
1m   B11 ;
 P1 
 
  B11  B12   B1k   B1n  1   V1 
 : : : :  :   
    Pk 
  Bk 1  Bk 2  Bkk  Bkn   k  
 : V
: : :  :   k 
    
  Bn1
  Bn 2   Bnk   Bnn 
  n 
  Pn 

 Vn 

 veof imaginaryof Y bus
Copyright @ Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd
 Fast Decoupled Load Flow:
Since the shunt reactance to ground are neglected,
transformers tap as unity, above approximation can
be done.
Iteration :
-V iteration.
1. Solve for  ; from P
2. Re-compute Q. solve for V.
3. With new V, compute P & go to 1.
repeated till convergence.

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 User Defined Filters:
At fundamental frequency capacitive in nature.

1. HVDC converters
2. Harmonic elimination
3. Industrial plants
AC Bus
1
1 4 7 10 13
2 4 6 8
10
2 5 8 11
3 5 7 9
14 15
3 6 9 12

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 User Defined Filters:
Branch Expression - Y

 1 

 R  j0 

R  
 1 

 0  j 2 f L 

L  

C 0  j 2 fC

R = 1, L = 2, C = 3
XL = 2fL and XC = 1/2 fC
f : system frequency

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 User Defined Filters:

R +jX
G+jB
Filter B +ve for C
B -ve for L

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 Contingency Ranking
When (n-1) contingency is considered for the
outage of series elements.
 Exact load flow is performed.
 Weightage for buses and lines can be given.
 Ranks on voltage performance index and overload
performance index.

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 Bus Weightage
B3
B1

B2

 Normal weightage is unity (Default).

 Tells how important is the requirement to

maintain the bus voltage at the specified bus.

 If at B1 weightage is 1, B2 weightage is 3, and B3

weightage is 4, say then for same voltage
deviation, B3 is 4 times important compared to
B1, while B2 is 3 times important, in terms of
maintaining the voltage.
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 Bus Weightage
2
nb  Vinew  Vi sp 
PIV  Wi  
i 1  Vi max 
nb : number of buses
Wi : Contingency weightage at bus i
Vi new : Post voltage magnitude at bus i
Vi sp : Specified voltage magnitude at bus i = 1
pu
 Vmax : Maximum allowable voltage change
 Vmax = Vmax - Vspec if Vi  Vmax
= Vmin - Vspec if Vi Vmin
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 Line Weightage:

L2
L1

 Normal weightage is unity.

 Weightage is given high value  1, if it is not desired to
overload.
 Tie lines can be given higher weightage, so that over
loading on those lines will result in higher ranking.

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 Line Weightage:
2
 Pi new nl 
PIP   Wi   i  contingency line
i 1  Pi lim it 

where,
nl : Total number of series elements.
Wi : Line weightage for ith line
Pinew : New real power flow in the line
Pilimit : Real power flow limit on the line

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 Contingency Analysis
Methodology Exact Load Flow:
Instead of real power loading MVA loading is
considered.

Features added:

 Multiple contingencies

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 Reactive Power
Optimisation:
Data Requirements:

1. Normal load flow data.

2. Voltage (minimum and maximum) at
buses.
3. Compensation constraints.
4. Minimum, maximum and step size
5. Cost details
– Probable compensation buses.
– Substation space constraint.
– Sizing constraints.

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 Methodology
Minimise the voltage deviation at buses

i.e.Minimize Vspec  Vact i. comp

i

where Vspec Vm ax,if Vact Vm ax

Vm in ,if Vact Vm in

Subject to:
 Voltage is within the specified limits.
 Tap is within the limits.
 Compensation is within the limits

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 Methodology

At each compensation iteration,

 Load flow is performed.
 Losses are determined.

Program termination:
 Voltages are within the limits
 No more VAR source is available

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Present Worth of An Annuity:
 1  i n  1.0 
P.W .  n 
*X
 i1  i  

where,
X is the annual expenditure / income.
i : interest rate per annum.
n : Scheme period in years.

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 Present Worth of An Annuity:
Capital investment :
Cost per MVAR * MVAR installed

Annual expenditure :
Capital investment * (O & M)

Annual benefit :
Reduced loss(in MW)*loss load factor * 8760*1000 *
Unit charge in Rs. (kwhr)

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 Present Worth of An Annuity:

average power loss

Llf 
power loss at peakload
Llf 0.3( Lf )  0.7( Lf ) 2
L f : Load factor
Llf : Loss load factor
Project is economically feasible if net present worth is +ve
Net present worth =
(net annual savings present worth - capital investment)

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 Economic Scheduling
1 Data Requirement:
 Normal load flow data
 Minimum & Maximum generator schedules.
 Generator cost curve.
 Unit charge (cost details)

2 Methodology:
 Minimize: The total cost (generation + cost).
 Subject to: Generation schedule being within minimum
& maximum limits.

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 Economic Scheduling

3 Technique :
 Linear Programming technique
 Minimize the objective function (total cost)
 Subject to equality and inequality constraints

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 Economic Scheduling
C2.MW2
Generation cost function
G cost = C0 + C1 MW + C2 MW2 C1.MW

Gcost = Rupees per hour

Cost C0
C0 : Constant cost, Rs/hour Rs/hour
C1 : Cost in Rs/MW . hour
C2 : Cost in Rs/(MW)2 hour
MW
Loss cost :
Loss in MW * 1000 x Energy charge in Rs.
Note :
Schedule for particular hour & operating
condition. Hence no loss load factor is
considered.
Loss cost is per hour.
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Frequency Relay (Load Shedding):
P/Q
100%
75%

50%

25%

47 48 49 50
Hz

f - Hz Shedding (S) Actual load

49 0.25 0.75P
48 0.50 0.50P
47 0.75 0.25P
f 3  f 2  f1 f : frequency
S3 S2 S1 S:shedding
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 Tie Line Scheduling:
Area -n
Area -2

PTn Tie-line

PT2 Area -x
Area -1
PT1

PT scheduled PT 1  PT 2    PTn

  PTi
i 1 ,n

PT actual PT scheduled  PT PT : Tolerance

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 HVDC
Rdc

No. of poles = 2
3 XC
Rc 
No. of bridges = 2

Xc = Transformer reactance on own
Rdc MVA rating

Vac  Idc

1:a Rdc Equivalent

Vdc

Iac Firing angle 

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Base Quantities:
Pac base : 3 phase power
Vac base : line to line rms value of AC voltage

Pac
I ac base  A base

3Vac base

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In DC System:

Pdc base = Pac base

Vdc base = Kb .Vac base Kb = (32/)nb
. np
Idc base = Pdc base/Vdc base
Zdc base = Vdc base/Idc base

RC  X C  .
baseMVA 
x
1 
  
 nbnp 
6 T .MVA
r

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Types of Controls:
· Constant voltage control - Vdc
· Constant current control - Idc
· Constant power control - Pdc

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 Types of Controls:
1. Current is controlled and voltage is regulated in the
DC link - why?
2. Why voltage is maintained at designed value?

Vdc1 Vdc2
Idc

Pdc = Vdc * Idc ,When Vdc is less Idc has to be more for
same Pdc . Idc2Rdc is the loss

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 Types of Controls:
Current Control - Rectifier

1. P increase - r is reduced  Q decreases

2. Inverter can operate with minimum  (extinction
angle)  Q decreases.

Voltage control - Inverter

1 2 I2
I1

V1 V2
3

V3
I3

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 Voltage Control:
With voltage control bus as reference,
Vbus = Rbus Ibus+Vm
Vm : voltage control bus Vdc
Vdc = M (a . Vac cos  - Rc .Idc)
Vdc : DC bus voltage
a : Tap
 : Control angle (firing angle, extinction angle)
Rc : commutation reactance
Idc : DC current
M : Constant = 0.97 for 3% voltage margin

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 Voltage Control:
Vdc
aVac  cos   Rc I dc
M
Vdc
 Rc I dc
aVac  M
cos

Pac  Pdc  Vdc I dc

Vdc  aVac cos    aVac cos
Vdc
cos 
aVac
Pac Pac
Qac  Qdc  Pac tan 
Note:
Qac is always positive Qac Qac
Rectifier Inverter

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 Modelling of DC Link:
1 2

Vdc1 Vdc2
Steady state operation : R alone L & C not considered

I dc 
Vdc1  Vdc2 
Rdc
Pdc1  Vdc1 * I dc
Pdc2  Vdc2 * I dc
our approachPdc, I dc  ve for rectifier , ve for inverter ,Vdc:always  ve
Rdc is accepted in ohms
Rdc ohm
Rdc pu 
Z dc base
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 Modelling of DC Link:

Line Reactors:

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 Major references used in the development of
Load Flow Studies Module

1. Stott and O.Alsac, "Fast Decoupled Load Flow", IEEE

Transaction on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol PAS-
93, May 1974, PP : 859-869.

2. D.Thukaram, K.Parthasarthy etal., "Steady State

Power Flow Analysis Incorporating Load and Generator
Regulation Characteristics", Journal of the Institution of
Engineers(1),Vol.64, pt.El.5, April 1984, PP : 274 - 279.

3. H.Fudeh, C.M.Ong etal., "A Simple and Efficient AC-

DC Load-Flow Method For Multi-terminal DC Systems",
IEEE PES summer Meeting, Portland, Oregon, July
1981, PP : 26 - 31.

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 Major references used in the development of
Load Flow Studies Module

4. D.Thukaram, K.Parthasarthy etal., "Optimum Allocation

of Reactive Power in AC-DC Power Systems", Proceedings of
The 53rd Research and Development sessions,
Bhuvaneshvar, May 1986, pp : 39 - 47.

5. R.Nagaraja, S.A.Soman, K.Parthasarathy, D.Thukaram

etc, "Fast Decoupled Power flow Incorporating Load and
Generation regulating Characteristics", Eighth National
Power systems conference. New Delhi, Dec. 1994.

6. Stagg and A.H. El-Abiad, "Computer Methods in Power

System Analysis", Mcgraw- Hill, 13th print, New Delhi,
1988.

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Queries & Discussions
Thank You
POWER FLOW SOLUTION PRACTICAL
CONSIDERATIONS

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Data to be collected
1. Single line diagram of the system

2. Transformer Name plate details

• Voltage rating, MVA rating
• Impedance on own rating

3. Transformer Tap details

• Tap no. : 1 to 19
• Voltage at minimum tap no.
• Voltage at Maximum tap no.
• Type of tap change : OLTC/OFTC

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 Typical data for a
Transformer
• MVA rating : 145
• Voltage rating : 132kV/66kV
• Number of taps : 6
• Minimum tap voltage : 122.1 kV
• Maximum tap voltage : 138.6 kV
• Impedance on own rating : 11%
• Type of tap change : OLTC

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Line or Cable details

• Number of circuits
• Positive sequence resistance - ohms/km
• Positive sequence reactance - ohms/km
• Positive sequence susceptance - mho/km
• Line length
• Loading capability

17
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 Typical values for line
Voltage R X B Bp
KV ohm/km ohm/km mho/km 100 km
400 0.02640 0.329440 3.365e-6 0.5384
220 0.07986 0.399784 2.867e-6 0.1388
132 0.102 0.401 1.46e-6 0.0254
110 0.18906 0.398961 2.834e-6 0.0343
66 0.31882 0.466684 2.892e-6 0.0127
33 0.201 0.395 2.72 e-6 0.0029

Per unit susceptance value for the package

B or B/2 is always a confusion.

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 Load data

 Real and Reactive Power at all the load

buses
Or
 Real Power and Power Factor

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Shunt Reactor and Capacitor
Data
 Rated kV and MVAR at rated kV

 400 kV bus/line reactors are rated at 420 kV

 11 kV capacitors are rated at 12.5 kV

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Generator Data

 Scheduled real power and voltage

 Reactive power limits

 Capability curve

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Node Numbering and Naming

Node numbers are for easy understanding

Ex :
1 - 100 : Generator buses
101 - 200 : 400 kV buses
201 - 400 : 220 kV buses
401 - 600 : 132 kV buses
601 - 800 : 66 kV buses

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Node Numbering and Naming
Further,
1 - 1000 : Area 1 buses
1001 - 2000 : Area 2 buses
2001 - 3000 : Area 3 buses
3001- 4000 : Area 4 buses

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 Naming
Close to the user
Last digit to indicate the voltage level
Say,
NLMG400 - Nelamangala 400 kV
NLMG220 - Nelamangala 220 kV
NLMG66 - Nelamangala 66 kV
RAWI132 - Rarawai 132 kV

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 New substation arrangement
Tap or T-off
105

Dummy node
108 107
106

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New substation arrangement
Loop in and Loop out (LILO)
105

107
106

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Generator Arrangement

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Shunt Arrangement

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 Selection of base MVA
• For utility networks : 100 MVA

• For distribution networks : 10 or 1 MVA

• Industrial system : 20 MVA, 50 MVA, based on

incoming transformer rating

• Depends on largest MVA equipment and smallest MVA

equipment

• Depends on largest load and smallest load

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 Per Unit calculation
Most of the packages convert the name
plate
details to PU internally. No additional
calculations are involved by the user

However, knowledge of pu calculation and

conversion is very important.

Z base = (kV)2/MVA

Zpu = Z actual / Z base

Voltage base remaining same,

Zpu(new)=Zpu(old)*[MVA(new)/MVA(old)]

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Per Unit calculation
Thumb Rule
Conversion from smaller MVA base to larger
MVA base : Zpu_new increases

Conversion from larger MVA base to smaller

MVA base : Zpu_new decreases
Ex.
10 MVA, 8% on own base : 80% on 100
MVA base
500 MVA, 10% on own base, 2% on 100
MVA base

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 Special Consideration
for Transformer
kV rating : 220/34.5

Base voltage on primary : 220 kV

Base voltage on secondary : 33 kV

Even for nominal tap of unity, transformer

tap need to be different, i.e.,
0.95652

+/- 5% becomes : 0.908694 to 1.004346

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 Basic Checks for Load
Flow Analysis
1. Load and generation balance

Total scheduled generation : 3000 MW

Total scheduled load : 2800 MW

Total scheduled generation : 3000 MW

Total scheduled load : 1000 MW

Total scheduled generation : 3000 MW

Total scheduled load : 4000 MW

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 Basic Checks for Load
Flow Analysis
2. Line charging susceptance

3. Transformer pu value on own Rating

4. Line and cable parameters ohm/km

– High voltage lines : R << X
– Cable and medium voltage lines : R~=X
– LT cables and LT lines : R >> X

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 Basic Checks for Load
Flow Analysis
5. MVAR limits on generators

Load MVAR 2000,

Generator Qmin : -1000 MVAR
Generator Qmax : 3000 MVAR

Load MVAR 2000,

Generator Qmin : -1000 MVAR
Generator Qmax : 1000 MVAR

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 Convergence
1. Validity of the data

2. Reactive power support in the system

In case of convergence problem, to get some

acceptable convergence which will enable to
check the results

Disable reactive power limit checking on generators

Reduce reactive power load in the system

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 Convergence
Model reactive power load as a function of
voltage

Reduce both real and reactive power load

Model both real and reactive power load as a

function of voltage

Check for over voltage and low voltage in

some pockets of the system

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 Convergence
Over voltage in some pockets :

Line reactors and bus reactors might not have

been modelled

Shunt susceptance value may be wrong

Shunt capacitance value may be wrong

19
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 Convergence
Low voltage in some pockets :

Bus reactors which are normally opened at

peak load may be present

Some ICT connections may be left out

Double circuit line data may be given as single

circuit

Reactive power support in the network may

not be adequate

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 Convergence
Every thing perfect, but unable to converge

X/R ratio : uniform, no problem

X/R ratio : Non uniform, normally

transmission and distribution networks
represented together

Try to separate and solve independently

Long and short lines at a bus

Neglect the short line and merge the buses

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 Convergence
Tolerance value for convergence

Base MVA : 100

Smallest load at the bus, P = 50MW

Smallest load at bus, Q = 25 MVAR

Tolerance value of 0.01 on P : error = 0.01*100 =

1 MW on 50 MW is acceptable.

Tolerance value of 0.005 on Q : error = 0.005*100

= 0.5 MVAR on 25 MVAR is acceptable.

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 Convergence
Tolerance value for convergence

Base MVA : 100

Smallest load at the bus, P = 5 MW

Smallest load at bus, Q = 2.5 MVAR

Tolerance value of 0.01 on P : error = 0.01*100 =

1 MW on 5 MW is not acceptable.

Tolerance value of 0.005 on Q : error = 0.005*100

= 0.5 MVAR on 2.5 MVAR is not acceptable.

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 Convergence
Select the tolerance based on smallest real and
reactive power loads.

Tolerance value : 0.001,

minimum mismatch at the end of the
iterations = 0.002

Message : Load flow is unable to converge to given

tolerance

Values can be accepted if the actual error is small.

Check the trend and increase the iterations, if

required

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 Analysis of Results
• Voltage should be within the acceptable limits

Voltage Max Min

33kV 36.3kV 29.7kV

1.1 p.u 0.9 p.u

132 kV 145 kV 122 kV

1.099 p.u 0.924 p.u

220 kV 245 kV 198 kV

1.114 p.u 0.900 p.u

400 kV 420 kV 380 kV

1.050 p.u 0.950 p.u

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 Analysis of Results

Generator Q limits

Thermal and nuclear units should never be

operated in the leading power factor,

i.e., absorbing reactive power, even though

the capability exists

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Analysis of Results

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 Analysis of Results
Line loading
Permissible line loading depends on
•Voltage regulation
•Stability
•Thermal (current carrying) capacity
Voltage regulation : 5% and phase angle
difference less than 30 degrees

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 Analysis of Results
• Thermal capacity
• Design practice
• Ambient temperature
• Maximum permissible conductor temperature
• Wind velocity

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 Analysis of Results
•Short lines can be loaded above SIL and long lines
should be loaded less than SIL because of stability
limitations.

•Double circuit line should not be loaded more than

50% of its capacity to account for one circuit outage

•For generating stations and important lines, tower

outage (n-2 contingency) should be considered.

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Queries & Discussions

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 Thank You

20
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