132 KV Transmission Line

GENERAL

Overhead transmission lines play a significant role in the operation of a reliable electrical power
system. Sustained industrial throughout and efficiency of operations of vital sectors of the national
economy depend enormously on safety and reliability of power lines.

Transmission Lines
Design Criteria
Transmission line is linear project and one of the key factors that govern the design of transmission
projects is the possible infringement of populated/forest/cultivated area and scarce land. For selection of
optimum route, the following design criteria are usually taken into consideration by project proponents:
(i) Normally, the route of the transmission lines does not involve any human habitation. As a principle,
alignments are generally cited at-least 500 m away from major towns, whenever possible, to account for
future urban expansion and electromagnetic field for at-least 50 m away from any houses or structures.
(ii) Any monument of cultural or historical importance is not affected by the route of the transmission line.
(iii) The proposed route of transmission line does not create any threat to the survival of any community
or indigenous peoples.
(iv)The proposed route of transmission line does not affect any public utility services, playgrounds,
schools, community places, temples and other establishments etc.
(v) The line route does not pass through any sanctuaries, protected park etc. Similarly, plantations/forests
are avoided to the maximum extent possible. Whenever it is not possible, a route is selected in
consultation with the forest department that causes minimum damage to existing plantation/forest
resources.
(vi)The line route does not infringe with area of natural resources. Alignments selected to avoid wetlands
and unstable areas for both financial and environmental reasons.

METHODS ADOPTED FOR CONDUCTOR INSTALLATIONS IN 132 KV T/L

a)Mechanized Paying out of conductors and installation
Manually
b)Manual Paying out of conductor and its manual
installation.
TYPE OF RISK ASSOCIATED:
a)Fall of workmen from height
b)Fall of objects from height, on workers and co-passers –by
c)Collapse of towers, conductors and hardware Fittings on workers
and passers –by
d)Electrocution due to contact of person /Conductors with live wires
e)Hit by Vehicles (Workmen and co passers-by)
CONSEQUENCES OF ACCIDENTS:
a)Fatality / Injuries to workers
b)Fatality / Injuries to co-passers by
c)Loss to properties including public property
d)Lost of man-hours resulting in time and cost overruns
e)Public resentments, disgrace
f)Punishment under the relevant laws
VARIOUS STAGES OF WORK IN THE INSTALLATION OF
CONDUCTORS IN TRANSMISSION LINE
a) Insulator and aerial roller hoisting
b) Paying out of pilot wire
c) Paying out and sagging of Earth wire.
d) Paying out of conductor
e) Rough sagging
f) Final sagging
g) Clipping and fixing of line spacers
h) Fixing of jumpers
i) Stringing of river crossing reaches
j) Power line crossing
k) Stringing across Highways and other service roads
l) Transportation and stacking of conductor drums and Hardware
fittings

CALCULATIONS

1. Line Current (I)

2. Cross section of conductor (mm)
3. Geometric mean radius (GMR)
4. Geometric mean distance (GMD)
5. Capacitance
6. Inductance
7. Inductive Reactance
8. Capacitive reactance
9. Reactance
10. A Parameter
11. B Parameter
12. C Parameter
13. D Parameter
14. Receiving end voltage
15. Receiving end current
16. Sending end voltage
17. Sending end current
18. Resistance (R)
19. Impedance (Z)
20. Relative Density (δ)
21. Critical voltage gradient(gV)
Transmission line towers are used to support the electrical power conductors at the stipulated
clearances from ground and other conducting media. From the point of power transmission, the
tower structure is considered as non-productive. Conductors are considered as productive and costs
36% of transmission line system. The tower structure and foundation costs are 33% and 14%
respectively. This clearly indicates that the nonproductive costs are much higher than the productive
costs and emphasizes the importance of affecting all possible economies in towers and foundations
from design level to erection. Transmission line towers are erected in large numbers and therefore
their designs have to be commercially competitive. Substantial savings in materials can be achieved
through selection of efficient structural configuration and optimum designs without compromising on
the safety and reliability of towers. The geometry of the tower is mainly governed by the functional
and structural requirements such as

• The line voltage

• Number of circuits to be carried

• The location of the tower in the line

• Arrangement of conductors and earth wires

• Sag-tension properties of the conductors and ground wires

• Electrical clearance requirements

• Arrangement of insulator strings

• Landscape / terrain Bracing members are used to reduce the slenderness ratio of the main members
thereby increasing their carrying capacity.

The force in the bracing depends on the stiffness of the bracing. The most commonly used bracing
systems in transmission line towers are Single lattice bracings X or Cross bracing and K- bracing. A
typical transmission line tower, its components and the loads to which they are subjected are shown
in Figure 1.1. The design of transmission line towers, which are mass-produced, is generally based on
minimum weight philosophy. The towers, in general, are of lattice type consisting of legs, primary,
secondary bracings and cross arm members. The structural design of the tower is mainly governed by
the wind loads acting on the conductor /tower body, self-weight of the conductor /tower and other
loads due to line deviation, broken wire condition, cascading, erection, maintenance, etc. The towers
are also checked for other incidental environmental loads like icing, wind effect on icing and day to
day temperature variations, etc. The tower is modelled as a pin jointed space truss for the analysis.
For the member design, end restraint (either as pinned or as partially restrained) and end
eccentricities within reasonable limits are considered. Linear static analysis is carried out to obtain the
member forces assuming that all members are subjected to only axial forces and the deformations are
small. The members are designed based on the prevailing codes of practice. Bearing type bolted
connections are used to connect the tower members with nominal bolts.
PEAK

MIDDLE

BOTTOM

TOWER

CROSS ARM

CROSS ARM

EXTENSION

VERTICAL LOAD

LONGTUDINAL LOAD

WIND LOAD

DUE TO CONDUCTOR

BREAKAGE

FROM CONDUCTOR

DUE TO CONDUCTOR

LEG

SECONDARY

BRACING

TOP CROSS

ARM

BELT

PANEL

X BRACED

K BRACED PANEL

LOADS ON CROSS ARMS

SINGLE LATTICE
BRACING

GROUND WIRE

A DETAIL A HIP BRACING Figure 1.1 Double Circuit Transmission Line Tower (Typical)

Hot rolled steel equal leg angle sections with different grades such as mild steel, high tensile and
super high tensile steels are generally used in transmission line towers. High and super high tensile
steels are normally used for leg and cross arm members. In a transmission line tower, the leg member
weight is 50 to 60% and the main bracing member is about 20 to 30%. The weight of secondary
bracing member is in the order of 15 to 20%. The load carrying capacity of the tower, not only
depends on the individual member capacity but, also on the joint detailing, uncertainties in framing
eccentricities of members, force fitting of members, unequal force distribution in bolts and gusset
plate connections, etc. Proof testing of structures is essential to verify the engineering aspects of the
design process. The proof test demonstrates the efficiency of the analysis procedures used in
calculating the load effects from design loads, the adequacy of the strength and the detailing of the
structural components. Full scale testing of towers provide an insight into the actual stress
distribution in unique tower configurations, force-fit verification, and action of the structure in
deflected positions, adequacy of connections and other detailing. Generally, these tests are made on
the prototype towers prior to the manufacturing process or under certain conditions, these tests may
also be made as acceptance test for a batch of towers. In view of the above, most of the power
transmission tower industries all over the world have made proof testing of transmission line towers
mandatory. Study of test results gives an insight into the behaviour of the system and it also helps in
arriving at appropriate remedial measures in the event of premature failure of towers. Since towers
are vital components of the transmission lines, accurate prediction of their failure is very important
for the reliability and safety of the transmission system. When failure takes place, direct and indirect
losses are high, leaving aside other costs associated with power disruption and litigation. The tower
may fail due to the failure of any part or as a consequence of foundation failure. Failure of tower
during construction is one of the common phenomena. Tower body can also fail due to excessive
tensile forces either during the stringing operation or during the life of the tower due to increase in
the tension in the conductor or earth wire. Stringing accidents have also led to failure of towers. There
is always a need to strike a balance between the economy and reliability. Thus within a given
constraint of desired performance, it is possible to optimize the design. Stringent tests on the towers
increase the reliability of the detailing adopted and help in optimising and verifying the design.

The data from full-scale tower tests were compared with the predicted results using current
techniques and concluded that the behaviour of towers under complex loading condition cannot be
consistently predicted using the present techniques. Results from the Tower Testing Stations reflected
that around 23% of the towers failed before reaching 100% design loads during testing and the
location of failure were unpredicted. Further, available test data showed considerable discrepancies
between member forces computed from linear elastic truss analysis and the measured values from
fullscale tests.

In the Tower Testing and Research Station, Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai, India,
out of 157 towers tested so far, around 37 towers failed prematurely much earlier than predicted.
There are many deviations from the standard practice of structural design. Almost all the
Transmission line Towers are invariably fabricated with steel angle sections with their joints being
lapped and are spliced without considering the stresses developed due to eccentricity in the
connections since bracing members are connected through one leg only. Moreover, economic
considerations call for taller and lighter structures that could support heavier conductors and use less
right of way. Therefore, a more refined analysis that could accurately simulate transmission tower
responses under different loading conditions is needed.

Safe Work Practices

Safe work practices are applicable to all overhead line working situations and are to be used (as
applicable) for all overhead line work.

It is essential when developing safe working procedures to carefully assess the possibility of hazardous
voltage rises occurring at the work site and where appropriate, give consideration to the following basic
safe working practices and safeguards.

These safeguards (controls) are to be used in conjunction with TransGrid’s Health and Safety Risk
Assessment.

4.2 Persons to Keep Clear of Equipment

Workers engaged in work on HV overhead lines shall ensure that all persons:

(a) Keep clear (at least 3 metres) of structures, plant, and equipment associated with the work.

(b) Directly engaged in the work are aware of the specific safeguards applying to the work; and

(c) Keep clear of and do not touch conductor near the ground, unless under insulated working
conditions or under bonded work area conditions.

4.3 Persons Working at Ground Level

4.3.1 Persons Working at Ground Level (Other than on Conductors)

For persons working at ground level, other than on conductors, it is essential that: Access Authority
EarthStructure Earth WireStructure Earth Connection PointEarth WireBattenBonding LeadEarth
StakeNon-metallic Bucket

(a) Safety boots are worn;

(b) In wet conditions ‘Wellington‘ type safety boots are worn; and

(c) Prior to application of Access Authority earths:

• Ensure batten on pole earth wire is in place; and

• Locate the standard portable earthing stake no closer than 1.5m to the pole and place a non-
conductive cover (eg non-metallic bucket) over any projecting earth stakes as illustrated right.

(d) After application of access authority earths:

• Avoid unnecessary approach to structure earth system and to the base of the structure (to avoid high
step and touch voltages);

• Use an approved insulating ladder for access to both poles and towers. Refer Attachment

B.

Title: Safe Work Practices on High Voltage Overhead Lines Revision: 1 Page 12 of 32

4.3.2 Persons Working on Conductors at Ground Level

Bonded work areas at ground level may be used as an alternative to insulated working where higher
levels of safeguards are required than could be reasonably obtainable from Insulated Working.

4.3.3 Safeguards for Persons While Working at Ground Level

To protect persons from hazards whilst working at ground level in bonded work areas, the following
safeguards shall be adopted:

4.3.3.1 Provision of Insulated Access to Bonded Work Spaces at Ground Level

This can be achieved by:

a) Wearing insulating boots while working; or

b) Providing taped barriers around the work area with special insulated access ways.

4.3.3.2 Provision of Bonding and Access Authority Earths to form an Equipotential Work Area
Bonding and the application of Access Authority Earths ensure that a bonded work area at ground level
is a true equipotential area. The following arrangements illustrate these principles:

(a) Substation type earth mats (mat arrangement for making a conductor joint at ground level).

The mat arrangement shown below is for making a conductor joint at ground level. This provides a
separate earth mat for each operator, assistant and for the compressor head.

The following safeguards are required in this example:

i. All persons working in the area must wear insulating boots.

ii. Bonding leads are used to connect the various parts of the bonded work area.

iii. Standard portable earthing leads are used to provide the Access Authority Earths which connect the
conductor/s to a standard portable earthing stake.

iv. Where the bonded work area is within 30 metres of a structure earth system, the main earth stake of
the bonded work area shall be connected to the structure earth system by a standard portable earthing
lead.

Design and Construction

the design and construction of the proposed transmission line.
Electrical Clearances.
Typical high-voltage overhead transmission lines are composed of bare conductors connected to
supporting structures by means of porcelain, glass, or plastic insulators. The air surrounding the
energized conductor acts as the insulating medium. Maintaining sufficient clearances, or air
space, around the conductors to protect the public and utility workers is paramount to the safe
operation of the line. The safety clearance required around the conductors is determined by
normal operating voltages, conductor temperatures, short-term abnormal voltages, and
windblown swinging conductors, contamination of the insulators, clearances for workers, and
clearances for public safety. Minimum clearances are specified in the California Public Utility
Commission (CPUC) General Order 95 (GO-95). Electric utilities, State regulators, and local
ordinances may specify additional (more restrictive) clearances. Typically, clearances are
specified for the following:
• Distance between the energized conductors themselves,
• Distance between the energized conductors and the supporting structure,
• Distance between the energized conductors and other power or communication wires on the
same supporting structure, or between other power or communication wires above or below the
conductors,
• Distance from the energized conductors to the ground and features such as roadways, railroads,
driveways, parking lots, navigable waterways, airports, etc.,
• Distance from the energized conductors to buildings and signs, and
• Distance from the energized conductors to other parallel power lines.

Impact Analyses
Electrical Effects

The electrical effects of high-voltage transmission lines fall into two broad categories:
Corona effects and
Field effects.
Corona is the ionization of the air that occurs at the surface of the energized conductor and the
attachment hardware due to very high electric field strength at the surface of the metal during
certain conditions. Corona may result in radio and television reception interference, audible
noise, light, and production of ozone.
Field effects are the voltages and currents that may be induced in nearby conducting objects. A
transmission line's inherent electric and magnetic fields cause these effects.
Electric and Magnetic Fields

Operating power lines, such as the energized components of electrical motors, home wiring,
lighting, and all other electrical appliances, produce electric and magnetic fields, commonly
referred to as electromagnetic field (EMF). The EMF produced by the alternating current
electrical power system in the United States has a frequency of 60 hertz (Hz), meaning that the
intensity and orientation of the field changes 60 times per second.

Electric fields around transmission lines are produced by electrical charges on the energized
conductor. Electric field strength is directly proportional to the line's voltage; that is, increased
voltage produces a stronger electric field. At a given distance from the transmission line
conductor, the electric field is inversely proportional to the distance from the conductors, so that
the electric field strength declines as the distance from the conductor increases. The strength of
the electric field is measured in units of kilovolts per meter (kV/m). The electric field around a
transmission line remains steady and is not affected by the common daily and seasonal
fluctuations in usage of electricity by customers.
Magnetic fields around transmission lines are produced by the level of current flow through the
conductors, measured in terms of amperes. The magnetic field strength is also directly
proportional to the current; that is, increased amperes produce a stronger magnetic field. The
magnetic field is inversely proportional to the distance from the conductors, and thus, like the
electric field, the magnetic field strength declines as the distance from the conductor increases.
Magnetic fields are expressed in units of milligauss(mG). The amperes and, therefore the
magnetic field around a transmission line, fluctuate daily and seasonally as the usage of
electricity varies.
Considerable research has been conducted over the last 30 years on the possible biological
effects and human health effects from EMF. This research has produced many studies that offer
no uniform conclusions about whether long-term exposure to EMF is harmful or not. In the
absence of conclusive evidence, some states, California in particular, have chosen not to specify
maximum acceptable levels of EMF. Instead, California mandates a program of prudent
avoidance whereby EMF exposure to the public would be minimized by encouraging electric
utilities to use low-cost techniques to reduce the levels of EMF.

EMF Assumptions

It is important that any discussion of EMF include the assumptions used to calculate the values
and to remember that EMF in the vicinity of power lines varies based on a variety of factors
including, line design, the presence of other lines in the ROW, line loading, and distance from
the line. The electric field depends upon the line voltage. An actual voltage of 220-KV is used in
the calculations for this EMF study while 230 kV has been used nominally throughout this AFC.
The Department of Water and Power utilizes the nominal voltage of 220-kV while SCE uses
230-kV. The use of either voltage in this document is consistent with the industry use of the 230-
kV term to describe the nominal voltage for this class of system. The magnetic field is
proportional to the line loading (amperes), which varies based on the interconnected power
system loading, and the power output of the generating facility as output changes to meet
increases or decreases in demand for electric power. The line loading values were based on the
maximum load carrying capability of each line section, which will produce a worst case value for
the magnetic field. The arrangement of the transmission lines in the ROW is another important
consideration for the field calculation. The phase arrangement of each line has been entered into
the model used for the field calculation. As such, there will be some field calculation where
adjacent lines on double-circuit towers are configured with phases A, B, and C arranged from top
to bottom, while the other circuit is configured with phases C, B, and A from top to bottom.
EMF Calculations

EMF values were calculated at three feet above the flat terrain using the “Fields” program
developed by SCE. Measurements for electric and magnetic fields at three feet above the ground
are in accordance with the Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEEE) standards, and the SCE
program also was developed in accordance with the IEEE standards. The program calculates the
electric fields expressed in kilovolts per meter (kV/M) and the magnetic fields expressed in milli-
Gauss (mG). The various inputs for the calculations include voltage, maximum load in amperes,
current angle (phasing), conductor diameter and spacing, number of sub-conductors for bundled
lines, along with relative location of conductors and shield wires. The elevation used for the
conductors is the attachment height at the structure.
Audible Noise

Corona may result in the production of audible noise from a transmission line. Corona is a
function of the voltage of the line, the diameter of the conductor, and the condition of the
conductor and suspension hardware. The electric field gradient is the rate at which the electric
field changes and is directly related to the line voltage. The electric field gradient is greatest at
the surface of the conductor. Large-diameter conductors have lower electric field gradients at the
conductor surface and, hence, lower corona than smaller conductors, everything else being equal.
Also, irregularities (such as nicks and scrapes on the conductor surface) or sharp edges on
suspension hardware concentrate the electric field at these locations and, thus, increase corona at
these spots. Similarly, contamination on the conductor surface, such as dust or insects, can cause
irregularities that are a source for corona. Raindrops, snow, fog, and condensation are also
sources of irregularities. Corona typically becomes a design concern for transmission lines
having voltages of 345-kV and above. Since the Project will be connected at 230-kV, it is
expected that no corona-related design issues will be encountered. The construction and
operation of the VV2 Project, including its interconnection with SCE's transmission system, is
not expected to result in significant increases in EMF levels or audible noise.
Induced Current and Voltages

A conducting object, such as a vehicle or person in an electric field, will experience induced
voltages and currents. The strength of the induced current will depend on the electric field
strength, the size and shape of the conducting object, and the object-to ground resistance. When a
conducting object is isolated from the ground and a grounded person touches the object, a
perceptible current or shock may occur as the current flows to ground. Proper design standards
will be implemented to prevent hazardous and nuisance shocks by ensuring that metallic objects
on or near the right-of-way are grounded and that sufficient clearances are provided at roadways
and parking lots to keep electric fields at these locations low enough to prevent vehicle short-
circuit currents from exceeding 5 milliamperes (mA). Magnetic fields can also induce voltages
and currents in conducting objects. Typically, this requires a long metallic object, such as a wire
fence or above-ground pipeline that is grounded at only one location. A person who closes an
electrical loop by grounding the object at a different location will experience a shock similar to
that described above for an ungrounded object. Design standards for managing this issue dictate
multiple grounds on fences or pipelines, especially those that are oriented parallel to the
transmission line. The VV2 Project 230-kV transmission interconnection will be constructed in
conformance with CPUC GO-95 and Title 8 CCR 2700 requirements. These regulations require
sufficient grounding to ensure that hazardous shocks do not occur. Therefore, hazardous shocks
are unlikely as a result of Project construction, operation, or maintenance. A shield wire will be
installed as a feature of the Project.
Communications Interference

Corona caused by the power line can cause interference with radio and television reception. The
line will be designed to minimize corona noise by proper selection of the conductor and
associated hardware. Pre-construction surveys of ambient noise levels will be performed, and
then compared to the noise levels after construction. Interference complaints from the public will
be investigated, and repairs made as needed to resolve the interference complaint.
Aviation Safety

As discussed in Section 6.13.3.3, Traffic and Transportation, FAA regulations, Part 77, establish
standards for determining obstructions in navigable airspace and sets forth requirements for
notification of proposed construction. Section 6.13 finds that the Project is in conformance with
FAA requirements and that visible plumes from the HRSGs and cooling tower and potential
turbulence from the HRSG stack plumes are not expected to pose hazards for aircraft operations
at SCLA. The HDPP is located immediately adjacent to SCLA whereas the VV2 Project is
located further to the northwest with its transmission facilities further west. Appendix L is a
letter from SCLA’s Airport Operations Supervisor citing that the HDPP has not posed “any
hazard to aircraft operations.” As EMF issues that affected aircraft communications or avionics
likely would be considered a hazard to aircraft operations, it is reasonable to assume that such
issues have not arisen for HDPP. As EMF issues for the VV2 Project would be similar to those
associated with HDPP because of the similarities between the two projects, it is expected that
VV2 Project transmission line impacts on aviation safety would be less than significant. The
design of the VV2 Project transmission system will incorporate the needed measures to ensure
aviation safety.

Fire Hazards

The proposed 230-kV transmission interconnection lines will be designed, constructed, and
maintained in accordance with the CPUC’s GO-95, which establishes clearances from other
man-made and natural structures as well as tree-trimming requirements to reduce/avoid fire
hazards. SCE will maintain the transmission line corridor and immediate area in accordance with
existing regulations and accepted industry practices that will include identification and
abatement of any fire hazards.
Mitigation Measures

No significant transmission line-related impacts were identified as a result of the VV2 Project
studies.
The VV2 Project will be designed, constructed, operated, and maintained in accordance with the
applicable LORS and to minimize EMF at the edges of the right-of-way. Impacts will be less
than significant with Project implementation as described in this section (e.g., insulators and
hardware selected to minimize corona noise; pre- and post- Project noise surveys performed to
document ambient condition change caused by the line, and procedures to investigate and resolve
interference complaints). No additional mitigation is required. However, should additional
currently unforeseen issues arise; they will be addressed to ensure that impacts remain less than
significant.