Raising Bilingual Children English Spanish
Raising Bilingual Children English Spanish
Raising Bilingual Children English Spanish
T
he purpose of this digest is to help pediatricians, speech delay,” though many also suggest that the long-term benefits of
language pathologists, classroom teachers, and other bilingualism are important (e.g., Fabian, 2003; Foreman, 2002;
professionals who work with bilingual children and their Murkoff, 2003; Pruett, n.d.).
parents understand common parental concerns related to bilin- It is important to differentiate between the popular use of
gual childrearing and become familiar with the current science the term language delay in reference to a child who is perceived
on bilingual child development. Greater insight into both issues to take longer than average to begin to speak but who is well
will allow these professionals to provide more effective and sci- within the normal range of productive vocabulary development
entifically sound advice to parents. (Fenson et al., 1994) and the clinical use of the term to refer to
A growing number of U.S. parents view bilingualism as a significant delays in the development of language, which can be
laudable family goal. The reasons for this trend include a desire either primary (not associated with another disorder) or second-
to maintain ties to the parents’ heritage language and culture, to ary (associated with conditions such as autism). A lack of under-
provide children with academic and cognitive advantages, and to standing of the different uses of the term may result in undue
promote cross-cultural understanding and communication. Yet concern for some parents interested in raising their children with
research indicates that success in raising children to be bilingual two languages.
remains the exception in the United States, as most children Terminology issues aside, the research is quite clear: No
eventually become English dominant or even monolingual in empirical evidence links bilingualism to language delay of any
English (Wong Fillmore, 2000). This is due at least in part to the sort. As De Houwer (1999) summarizes, “There is no scientific
high status of English and the limited number of opportunities evidence to date that hearing two or more languages leads to
available for children to learn languages other than English. delays or disorders in language acquisition. Many, many children
Research also indicates that parents’ beliefs, attitudes, and in- throughout the world grow up with two or more languages from
teractions with their children are important in helping children infancy without showing any signs of language delays or disorder”
become bilingual (De Houwer, 1998; Lanza, 1997). (p. 1). Likewise, Petitto and Holowka’s (2002) extensive literature
In order to better inform early childhood professionals, who review leads them to argue that “very early simultaneous language
can play a key role in shaping parents’ beliefs and behaviors, we exposure does not cause a young child to be delayed with respect
conducted individual in-depth interviews with 24 economically to the semantic and conceptual underpinnings at the heart of
and culturally diverse families in Washington, DC, all of whom all natural language, and this is true regarding each of the young
aimed to raise their children (then ages 0 to 5) as Spanish-English bilingual’s two native languages” (p. 23).
bilinguals (King & Fogle, in press). Here we summarize, in four
key points, the findings of our investigation in light of the current Bilingualism and Language Confusion
research literature on bilingual development: Many of the parents interviewed worried that their children would
experience confusion due to exposure to two languages. Some
• Although many parents believe that bilingualism results in
believed that language delay was the result of this confusion.
language delay, research suggests that monolingual and bilin-
Several advice publications (e.g., Eisenberg, Murkoff, & Hathaway,
gual children meet major language developmental milestones
1989; Honig, n.d.) suggest that confusion could be avoided by
at similar times.
using the one-parent, one-language approach to bilingual child
• Despite many parents’ fear that using two languages will result
rearing, in which each caregiver uses only one language with the
in confusion for their children, there is no research evidence
child and parents refrain from using two languages in the same
to support this. On the contrary, use of two languages in the
conversation.
same conversation has been found to be a sign of mastery of
However, research indicates that the ability to switch back
both languages.
and forth between languages, sometimes called code-switching, is
• Many parents rely heavily on television to teach the second
a sign of mastery of two linguistic systems, not a sign of language
language; yet this is best considered a fun source of secondary
confusion, and that children as young as 2 are able to code-switch
support for language learning. Human interaction is the best
in socially appropriate ways (Lanza, 1992). Research also shows
method for fostering language learning.
that many normally developing bilingual children mix their two
• Contrary to the widespread notion among parents that bi- languages, with the type and amount of code-switching depend-
lingualism results in “bigger, better brains,” parents more ing on environmental factors, such as how much the parents or
realistically can expect their bilingual children to gain specific wider community engage in code-switching.
advantages in targeted areas, such as greater understanding of
As to the effectiveness of the one-parent, one-language ap-
language as an abstract system.
proach, there is evidence that it can lead to the development of
children’s active competence in two languages, but it can also
Bilingualism and Language Delay result in passive bilingualism (Döpke, 1992; Yamamoto, 1995),
Many of the parents we interviewed believed that their children in which children understand both languages but speak only
had experienced or were likely to experience language delay as a the majority language (i.e., the high status language of the wider
result of their dual language environment. The same view is preva- community). This approach is one option for raising bilingual
lent in the popular parenting literature. Such sources frequently children, but parents do not need to fear language confusion if
note that acquisition of two languages can result in “language they opt for another approach, such as using only the minor-
Center for Applied Linguistics • 4646 40TH ST NW • WASHINGTON DC 20016-1859 • 202-362-0700 • www.cal.org
ity language in the home or using both languages in the same both languages and to think about creating a “safe space” for the
contexts. Parents instead should be encouraged to think about the minority language to flourish at home.
total quantity and quality of exposure to both languages that their
children receive.
References
Bialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy, and
Language Learning and Television cognition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Many parents we interviewed relied heavily on commercial language De Houwer, A. (1998). Environmental factors in early bilingual devel-
materials such as books, videos, television programs, and music CDs opment: The role of parental beliefs and attitudes. In G. Extra & L.
to help their children learn a second language. Likewise, much of Verhoeven (Eds.), Bilingualism and migration (pp. 75–96). New York:
the popular press and advice literature stresses the value of books Mouton de Gruyter.
and videos, often providing long lists of language learning televi- De Houwer, A. (1999). Two or more languages in early childhood: Some
sion and video programs (Eisenberg et al., 1989; Langley, 1999; general points and practical recommendations. Washington, DC: Center
Lichtenberger, n.d.). for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved March 4, 2005, from www.cal
Yet research clearly indicates that some activities are more ef- .org/resources/digest/earlychild.html
fective than others in promoting second language acquisition and Döpke, S. (1992). One parent one language: An interactional approach.
bilingualism. In particular, we know a growing amount about the Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
limits of television and video as instructional aides with young Eisenberg, A., Murkoff, H., & Hathaway, S. E. (1989). What to expect the
children. For instance, recent studies have examined the process first year. New York: Workman.
of perceptual narrowing in infants, that is, infants’ gradual loss of Fabian, K. (2003, March). Is your child late to speak? Parenting, 93.
the ability to perceive sounds unlike those in the language(s) to Fenson, L., Dale, P. S., Reznick, J. S, Bates, E., Thal, D. J., & Pethick,
which they are regularly exposed. Researchers have found that live S. J. (1994). Variability in early communicative development.
interaction (e.g., reading or talking to a child) is more effective Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(5,
than exposure to recorded sounds (e.g., television) in reversing the Serial No. 242).
narrowing process (Kuhl, Feng-Ming, & Huei-Mei, 2003). Other Foreman, J. (2002, October 7). Health sense: The evidence speaks well
studies have found that, for older children, being read aloud to in of bilingualism’s effect on kids. Los Angeles Times, p. S1.
the second language increases second language vocabulary much Honig, A. S. (n.d.). Raising a bilingual child. Retrieved January 21,
more than watching television in that language (Patterson, 2002). 2005, from www.scholastic.com/earlylearner/experts/language/
In short, while audio and video materials can serve as a positive 0_2_bilingualch.htm
and entertaining source of support for language learning, human King, K., & Fogle, L. (in press). Bilingual parenting as good parenting:
interaction is the best method for fostering both first and second Parents’ perspectives on family language policy for additive bilingual-
language development. ism. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism.
Kuhl, P., Feng-Ming, T., & Huei-Mei, L. (2003). Foreign-language experi-
Bilingualism and Intelligence ence in infancy: Effects of short-term exposure and social interaction
None of the parents in our survey feared any negative impact of on phonetic learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
bilingualism on their children’s intelligence. In fact, many felt of the United States of America, 100(15), 9096–9101.
that their children would benefit cognitively from being bilingual.
Langley, M. (1999, October 6). Bringing up (bilingual) baby—Marketers
However, both parents and the popular press overstate the known
rush to meet demand for toys, tapes and classes; achieving "total
cognitive advantages of bilingualism, noting, for instance, that bi-
immersion." Wall Street Journal (Eastern ed.), p. B1.
lingualism will make children smarter overall, when in fact, research
Lanza, E. (1992). Can bilingual two-year-olds code-switch? Journal of
suggests advantages only in very specific areas.
Child Language, 19, 633–658.
For instance, while our knowledge is far from complete, lead-
Lanza, E. (1997). Language mixing in infant bilingualism. New York:
ing researchers (e.g., Bialystok, 2001) have been careful to identify
Oxford University Press.
the benefits of bilingualism in specific areas such as metalinguistic
awareness (awareness about language as a system) and cognitive Lichtenberger, N. (n.d.). Bilingual parenting: A personal account. Retrieved
processing. They note that other factors, such as the child’s level of January 19, 2005, from www.foreignwivesclub.com/pages/articles/
mastery of each language and the child’s literacy skills, also influence art4.html
the benefits derived from being bilingual. Therefore bilingualism Murkoff, H. (2003, June/July). “What to expect”: Answers to your ques-
may contribute to the strengthening of some specific cognitive tions about baby’s first year. Baby Talk, p. 20.
skills for some children, but it should not be viewed as an overall Patterson, J. L. (2002). Relationship of expressive vocabulary to fre-
indicator of greater intelligence or as a predictor of high academic quency of reading and television experience among bilingual tod-
performance. dlers. Applied Psycholinguistics, 23, 493–508.
Petitto, L. A., & Holowka, S. (2002). Evaluating attributions of delay and
Summary confusion in young bilinguals: Special insights from infants acquiring
In responding to parents’ questions or concerns about raising bilin- a signed and a spoken language. Sign Language Studies, 3(1), 4–33.
gual children, professionals should warmly encourage the use of two Pruett, K. D. (n.d.). Important speech milestones. Retrieved January
languages in the home. We know that parents’ use of their first lan- 21, 2005, from www.scholastic.com/earlylearner/age1/language/
guage is important in providing children a rich linguistic environment todd_milestones.htm
(Snow, 1990) as well as in promoting bilingualism, which can become Snow, C. (1990). Rationales for native language instruction: Evidence
an important resource for the child, family, and wider community. from research. In A. M. Padilla, H. H. Fairchild, & C. M. Valadez
Parents should be directed to practical resources such as The Bilingual (Eds.), Bilingual education issues and strategies (pp. 47–59). Newbury
Family Newsletter (www.bilingualfamilynewsletter.com) and the Why, Park, CA: Sage Press.
How, and When Should My Child Learn a Second Language? brochure Wong Fillmore, L. (2000). Loss of family languages: Should educators
(www.cal.org/resources/brochures/whyhowwhen_brochure.pdf). be concerned? Theory into Practice, 39(4), 203–210.
Perhaps most importantly, parents should be encouraged to be Yamamoto, M. (1995). Bilingualism in international families. Journal of
aware of the quantity and quality of their children’s exposure to Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 16, 63–85.
Febrero 2009
Center for Applied Linguistics • 4646 40TH ST NW • WASHINGTON DC 20016-1859 • 202-362-0700 • www.cal.org
que se refiere a retrasos significativos en el desar- Con respecto a la efectividad del enfoque “un
rollo lingüístico, retrasos que pueden constituir sín- padre, una lengua,” existe evidencia de que puede
tomas primarios (no asociados con otro desorden) o conducir al desarrollo de competencia activa de los
secundarios (asociados a condiciones tales como el niños en dos lenguas, pero también puede resultar en
autismo). Desconocer los diferentes usos del mismo bilingüismo pasivo (Döpke, 1992; Yamamoto, 1995),
término puede producirles preocupación innecesaria en cuyo caso los niños entienden las dos lenguas,
a algunos padres interesados en criar a sus hijos en pero hablan sólo una la mayoría del tiempo (es decir,
dos lenguas. la lengua con el estatus más alto en la comunidad en
Aparte de problemas de terminología, los estu- general). Este acercamiento es una opción para criar a
dios son claros en que no existe ninguna eviden- niños bilingües, pero los padres no tienen que temer
cia empírica que asocie el bilingüismo con retraso la confusión lingüística si escogen otro enfoque,
lingüístico alguno. Como resume De Houwer (1999), como por ejemplo utilizar sólo la lengua minoritaria
“No existe evidencia científica hasta la fecha que sos- en el hogar o utilizar ambas lenguas en los mismos
tenga que escuchar dos o más lenguas cause retrasos contextos. A los padres se les debe animar a pensar
o desórdenes en la adquisición lingüística. Muchos, sobre la cantidad y la calidad total de la exposición a
muchos niños por todo el mundo crecen con dos o ambas lenguas que reciben sus hijos.
más lenguas desde la infancia sin que demuestren
El aprendizaje de una lengua y la
ninguna señal de retraso lingüístico o desorden” (p.1).
De manera similar, una revisión extensa de investiga- televisión
ciones publicadas lleva a Petitto and Holowka (2002) Muchos padres que entrevistamos dependían mucho
a argumentar que “la exposición simultánea muy de materiales lingüísticos comerciales tales como
temprana no causa retrasos en un niño pequeño con libros, videos, programas de televisión, y grabacio-
respecto a las bases semánticas y conceptuales que nes de música para ayudar a sus hijos a aprender
son la base de toda lengua natural, y esto es cierto una segunda lengua. De manera similar, gran parte
con respecto a cada una de las lenguas nativas del de la prensa popular y las publicaciones populares de
pequeño bilingüe” (p.23). consejos resaltan el valor de los libros y los videos,
proveyendo largas listas de programas de televisión y
El bilingüismo y la confusión lingüística videos para aprender idiomas (Eisenberg et al., 1989;
Muchos de los padres entrevistados se preocupaban Langley, 1999; Lichtenberger, n.d.).
que sus niños experimentan confusión debido a la Sin embargo, las investigaciones indican clara-
exposición a dos idiomas. Algunos padres piensan mente que algunas actividades son más efectivas que
que el retraso lingüístico era el resultado de esta con- otras para promover la adquisición de un segundo
fusión. Varias publicaciones populares de consejos (p. idioma y el bilingüismo. En particular, sabemos cada
ej., Eisenberg, Murkoff, & Hathaway, 1989; Honig, vez más sobre los límites de la televisión y los vídeos
n.d.) sugieren que la confusión se podría evitar uti- como ayudas para la instrucción de niños pequeños.
lizando el enfoque conocido como “un padre, una Por ejemplo, estudios recientes han examinado en los
lengua” en la crianza bilingüe, donde cada progeni- infantes un proceso de pérdida gradual de la capaci-
tor utiliza sólo una de las lenguas con el niño y ambos dad para percibir sonidos diferentes a los de las len-
se abstienen de utilizar dos lenguas en la misma guas que se les exponga regularmente (conocido en
conversación. las publicaciones en inglés como perceptual narrowing).
Sin embargo, las investigaciones indican que la Los investigadores descubrieron que la interacción
capacidad de intercambiar entre las lenguas, a lo cual directa (p. ej., leerle o hablarle a un niño) es más efec-
se le llama algunas veces cambio de código, es una tiva que la exposición a sonidos grabados (p.ej., los de
señal del dominio de dos sistemas lingüísticos y no la televisión) para evitar dicho proceso de pérdida en
una señal de confusión lingüística, y que niños de la percepción (Kuhl, Feng-Ming, & Huei-Mei, 2003).
tan temprana edad como dos años son capaces de Otros estudios han descubierto que leer a los niños
cambiar entre códigos de manera socialmente apropi- mayores en voz alta en la segunda lengua aumenta el
ada (Lanza, 1992). Las investigaciones también dem- vocabulario en esa lengua mucho más que ver televi-
uestran que muchos niños bilingües cuyo desarrollo sión en ese idioma (Patterson, 2002). En resumen, si
sigue un curso normal mezclan sus dos lenguas, y que bien los materiales audiovisuales pueden servir como
el tipo y la cantidad de cambios de código dependen un recurso positivo y entretenido de apoyo para el
de factores ambientales, tales como con cuánta fre- aprendizaje del lenguaje, la interacción humana es el
cuencia los padres o la comunidad en general cam- mejor método para cultivar el desarrollo tanto en la
bian de código. primera como en la segunda lengua.
El bilingüismo y la inteligencia Referencias
Ninguno de los padres que participaron en nues- Bialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in development:
tra encuesta temía algún impacto negativo sobre la Language, literacy, and cognition. Cambridge:
inteligencia de sus hijos por el bilingüismo. De hecho, Cambridge University Press.
muchos creían que el bilingüismo beneficiaría en tér- De Houwer, A. (1998). Environmental factors in
minos cognoscitivos a sus hijos. Sin embargo, tanto early bilingual development: The role of parental
los padres como la prensa popular exageran sobre las beliefs and attitudes. In G. Extra & L. Verhoeven
conocidas ventajas cognoscitivas del bilingüismo, (Eds.), Bilingualism and migration (pp. 75-96). New
y señalan, por ejemplo, que el bilingüismo conver- York: Mouton de Gruyter.
tirá a sus hijos en niños más inteligentes en general, De Houwer, A. (1999). Two or more languages in early
cuando en realidad las investigaciones sólo indican childhood: Some general points and practical recom-
ventajas en áreas específicas. mendations. Washington, DC: Center for Applied
Por ejemplo, aunque nuestro conocimiento está Linguistics. Retrieved March 4, 2005, from www
lejos de ser total, los investigadores principales en .cal.org/resources/digest/earlychild.html
esta materia (p. ej., Bialystok, 2001) han sido cuida- Döpke, S. (1992). One parent one language: An interac-
dosos en identificar los beneficios del bilingüismo en tional approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
áreas específicas tales como la consciencia metalin- Eisenberg, A., Murkoff, H., & Hathaway, S. E. (1989).
güística (consciencia del lenguaje como un sistema) y What to expect the first year. New York: Workman.
el procesamiento cognoscitivo. Señalan que otros fac- Fabian, K. (2003, March). Is your child late to speak?
tores, tales como el nivel de dominio de cada lengua Parenting, 93.
y las destrezas de lectura del niño, también afectan Fenson, L., Dale, P. S., Reznick, J.S, Bates, E., Thal,
los beneficios derivados de ser bilingüe. Por lo tanto, D. J., & Pethick, S. J. (1994). Variability in early
aunque el bilingüismo puede contribuir a fortalecer communicative development. Monographs of the
algunas destrezas cognoscitivas específicas de algunos Society for Research in Child Development, 59(5,
niños, no se debe tomar el mismo como un indicador Serial No. 242).
general de mayor inteligencia o como factor de pre-
Foreman, J. (2002, October 7). Health sense; The
dicción de desempeño académico de alta calidad.
evidence speaks well of bilingualism’s effect on
Resumen kids. Los Angeles Times, p. S1.
Al responder a las preguntas y las preocupaciones Honig, A. S. (n.d.). Raising a bilingual child.
de los padres sobre la crianza de los niños bilingües, Retrieved January 21, 2005, from Scholastic,
los profesionales deben alentar a los padres a utili- Your Early Learner Expert Advice Web site: www
zar las dos lenguas en el hogar. Sabemos que el uso .scholastic.com/earlylearner/experts/language/
de la lengua nativa de los padres es importante para 0_2_bilingualch.htm
facilitar un ambiente lingüístico enriquecedor para King, K., & Fogle, L. (in press). Bilingual parent-
los niños (Snow, 1990), así como para promover el ing as good parenting: Parents’ perspectives on
bilingüismo, el cual se puede convertir en un recurso family language policy for additive bilingualism.
importante para el niño, la familia, y la comuni- International Journal of Bilingualism and Bilingual
dad en general. Los padres deben dirigirse a fuentes Education.
prácticas tales como The Bilingual Family Newslet- Kuhl, P., Feng-Ming, T., & Huei-Mei, L. (2003).
ter (www.bilingualfamilynewsletter.com) y el opús- Foreign-language experience in infancy: Effects
culo Why, How, and When Should My Child Learn a of short-term exposure and social interaction
Second Language? (www.cal.org/resources/brochures/ on phonetic learning. Proceedings of the National
whyhowwhen_brochure.pdf). Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
Quizás lo más importante es que a los padres se 100(15), 9096-9101.
les debe alentar a ser conscientes de la cantidad y la Langley, M. (1999, October 6). Bringing up (bilin-
calidad de la exposición de sus hijos a ambas lenguas gual) baby – Marketers rush to meet demand for
y a pensar en crear un “espacio seguro” para que la toys, tapes and classes; achieving ‘total immer-
lengua minoritaria florezca dentro del hogar. sion.’ Wall Street Journal (Eastern ed.), p. B1.
Lanza, E. (1992). Can bilingual two-year-olds code-
switch? Journal of Child Language, 19, 633-658.
Lanza, E. (1997). Language mixing in infant bilingual- Pruett, K. D. (n.d.). Important speech milestones.
ism. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved January 21, 2005, from Scholastic,
Lichtenberger, N. (n.d.). Bilingual parenting: A person- Language & Communication Web site: www
al account. Retrieved January 19, 2005, from .scholastic.com/earlylearner/age1/language/
Foreign Wives Club, Articles, Web site: www todd_milestones.htm
.foreignwivesclub.com/pages/articles/art4.html Snow, C. (1990). Rationales for native language
Murkoff, H. (2003, June/July). ”What to expect”: instruction: Evidence from research. In A. M.
Answers to your questions about baby’s first year. Padilla, H. H. Fairchild, & C. M. Valadez (Eds.),
Baby Talk, p. 20. Bilingual education issues and strategies (pp. 47-59).
Patterson, J. L. (2002). Relationship of expressive Newbury Park, CA: Sage Press.
vocabulary to frequency of reading and televi- Wong Fillmore, L. (2000). Loss of family languages:
sion experience among bilingual toddlers. Applied Should educators be concerned? Theory into Prac-
Psycholinguistics, 23, 493-508. tice, 39(4), 203-210.
Petitto, L. A., & Holowka, S. (2002). Evaluating attri- Yamamoto, M. (1995). Bilingualism in international
butions of delay and confusion in young bilin- families. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural
guals: Special insights from infants acquiring a Development, 16, 63-85.
signed and a spoken language. Sign Language Stud-
ies, 3(1), 4-33.
Sobre CAL
CAL es una organización privada, sin fines de lucro, que trabaja por mejorar la comunicación mediante una
mejor comprensión del lenguaje y la cultura. Establecida en 1959, CAL se ha ganado una reputación internacio-
nal por sus aportaciones a los campos de la educación bilingüe, el inglés como segunda lengua, el alfabetismo, el
aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras, los studios de dialectos, políticas lingüísticas, la orientación de refugiados y la
educación de adultos y niños de diversos trasfondos culturales y lingüísticos. Los experimentados investigadores
y educadores del personal de CAL realizan investigaciones, diseñan y desarrollan materiales para la enseñanza y
exámenes de idiomas, proveen asistencia técnica y desarrollo profesional, conducen estudios de necesidades y
evaluación de programas, y difunden información y recursos relacionados con el lenguaje y la cultura.
Center for Applied Linguistics • 4646 40TH ST NW • WASHINGTON DC 20016-1859 • 202-362-0700 • www.cal.org