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Introduction to Sanskrit

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 Introduction to Sanskrit

A Study Guide to Accompany

Michael Coulson's
Sanskrit, An Introduction to the Classical Language
(a.k.a. Teach Yourself Sanskrit)

Stephen M. Beall, Ph.D.

[email protected]

This work is licensed under a

Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
Foreword

This text is intended to accompany Sanskrit, An Introduction to the Classical Language, by Michael
Coulson. Coulson's book provides a complete overview of Sanskrit grammar, along with
exercises, vocabulary lists, and answer keys. His explanation of certain features of the language is
superior, in my opinion, to that found in other texts. Unfortunately, the book can be heavy-going
for the true beginner. Thus, I have focused this Study Guide on essential grammatical
information, which I have divided into daily units. Coulson's long vocabulary lists are
partitioned here into Memorization Vocabulary, which consists of essential, high-frequency
words, and Reading Vocabulary, which need not be memorized but is necessary to complete the
exercises. I have also rewritten the Sanskrit-to-English sentences in two ways: first in unbroken
Roman type, as they would appear in a typical printed book, and again without sandhi, so that
the original forms will be easier to recognize. In some of the longer exercises I have made a
selection of sentences.

Coulson's fuller explanations, Devanagari exercises, and answer keys remain indispensable.
A PDF of the book is available here: http://www.scribd.com/doc/34076502/Teach-Yourself-
Sanskrit. It is also available for sale: http://www.amazon.com/dp/0844238252

Chapter 1

To read this chapter in RTF, you will need to download two TTF fonts, which can be found here:

URW Palladio CSX+ (for Romanized Sanskrit)

http://www.sanskritweb.net/fonts/#CSX
RK Sanskrit (for Devanagari)
http://reinhold.kainhofer.com/rk_fonts/

Subsequent chapters will be entirely in Romanized Sanskrit.

Day 1

The Sounds of Sanskrit

Sanskrit is usually written and printed in a script called Devanagari, '(the script of) the City of the
Gods'. This alphabet is derived from the simpler Brahmi script of ancient India, which in turn
appears to be related to the ancient Phoenician alphabet, on which the Hebrew, Arabic, Greek and
Roman systems are also based. This would explain why some Devanagari characters look like
'backward' and 'squared off' versions of familiar letters.

Unlike our Roman alphabet, which is a random sequence of sounds, the Sanskrit writing system
is arranged according to phonetic principles. Vowels are grouped separately. Sanskrit vowels
may be long or short. As in Latin in Greek, long vowels were originally held for an instant longer
than short vowels, but this feature has disappeared from the language. The long vowels are:

Vowel Sound
à fa (in the musical scale)
ã mi
å oo
é K-ri-shna
The short vowels are:

Vowel Sound
a Americ-a
i mi
u put
ç K-ri-shna

Note that in practice, the quality of i and ç is the same, whether the quantity is long or short.
Sanskrit also has a number of diphthongs, or vowels originally composed of two vowel sounds.
These are:

Diphthong Sound
e re (in the musical scale)
o do
ai re (or ai, as in aisle)
au do (or au, as in hofbrau)

E and o are written and pronounced as simple vowels, but they derive from the diphthongs ai
and au, in which a is short. Ai and au are derived from ài and àu, respectively. In modern Sanskrit
pronunciation, the long and short diphthongs have the same sound, but they have different
Devanagari characters, and you may choose to use the alternative pronunciations given above.

There is another vowel (ë), commonly pronounced 'li'. This vowel rarely occurs in Classical
Sanskrit, except in hypothetical root forms.

Now for the consonants. These are sounds produced by the 'sounding together' of various speech
organs, such as the tongue, lips, teeth, and palate. Sanskrit grammarians arranged most of the
consonants into five groups. Each group contains all the sounds that are articulated in a certain
part of the mouth, starting at the opening of the throat and moving forwards toward the lips:

Name of Consonant Place of Articulation Example

Group
velar, guttural back of mouth g
palatal soft palate ch, but with tongue
placed farther back
retroflex hard palate (with a d, with tongue curled
curling of the tongue)
dental teeth d, but with tongue
placed farther foward
labial lips b

The alphabet is also divided into columns that distinguish between stops and aspirates, and
between voiced, unvoiced, and nasalized consonants. For example, the following sounds are all
made in the same place in the back of the mouth (the velar position), but they have different
qualities:

unvoiced stop unvoiced voiced stop voiced nasal

aspirate aspirate
k kh g gh ng (written ï)
As aspirate is a consonant that includes a puff of air. A voiced consonant is one that is
accompanied by a vibration of the vocal cords. A nasal consonant is vibrated through the nose.

With this arrangement, the Sanskrit alphabet becomes an accurate phonetic table. Here is the
entire table, in Roman characters. As a short a is the most common vowel in Sanskrit, it is added
to the consonants on this table, for ease of pronunciation:

Group Unvoiced Unvoiced Voiced stop Voiced Nasal

stop aspirate aspirate
Velar ka kha ga gha ïa
Palatal ca cha ja jha ¤a
Retroflex ña ñha óa óha õa
Dental ta tha da dha na
Labial pa pha ba bha ma

Note that ca is pronounced like cha (as in cha-cha), but with the tongue against the soft palate.
The aspirated consonants are always pronounced as written; for example, tha is pronounced as in
'that hat', not as in 'thin' or 'there'.

Sanskrit also has a few semi-vowels. These are vowel sounds that acquire the quality of consonants
when they are placed before another vowel. The semi-vowels are:

palatal ya
retroflex ra
dental la
labial va (closer to wa)

Sanskrit possesses a row of sibilants or 'hissing' consonants, which are listed separately. These are:

velar ha
palatal ÷a
retroflex ùa
dental sa

Both ÷a and ùa sound like sha, but the palatal consonant is pronounced with the tongue curled
further back.

Finally, the Sanskrit alphabet contains two 'variable' consonants. The first is called anusvara, and
it is written in Roman as a dot under the letter m (ü). This indicates that the sound of m is
nasalized before consonants. The other 'variable' consonant is called visarga, and it is written in
Roman as a letter h with a dot under it (þ). This letter sounds like an h with a slight repetition of
the preceding vowel, so that aþ sounds like a-ha, and uþ. sounds like u-hu.

You are now familiar with all the sounds of Sanskrit, and you are ready to pronounce complete
words. But you may be wondering where to place the stress. English words often contain two or
more syllables, which are clusters of sounds around a vowel or diphthong. One of these syllables
bears the weight of the voice, as in SYL-lable and com-PLETE. Occasionally, stress distinguishes
homographs, such as PER-fect and per-FECT.

When pronouncing Sanskrit, one can follow the rules for stress used in Latin, except that in
Sanskrit the stress can fall on the fourth syllable from the end, if the second and third syllables are
both 'short'. When reciting solemn texts, however, there is a tendency to stress ANY syllable that
contains a long vowel or diphthong or which ends in a consonant cluster. This gives the language
an undulating rhythm, which is pretty cool.

Exercise 1: Using the phonetic charts, pronounce the transliterated words and sentences in
Exercise 1a in Coulson.

Day 2

Reading Devanagari: Part 1

Now that you are familiar with the Sanskrit sound system, you are ready to learn the characters
used in Devanagari script. These, as you have seen, were derived from previous alphabets,
including perhaps the Phoenician alphabet, which is the foundation of the Roman and Greek
writing systems. We will note the similarities between these alphabets as we go along.

Note: It will be possible to complete this course without mastering Devanagari. But since it is a
cool-looking alphabet and it is really more logical than the Roman system, your efforts will be
repaid. Moreover, the gods will be pleased.

Coulson reviews the consonants going down the columns; we will review them going across the
rows. Let's start with the velar consonants:

    
ka kha ga gha ïa

Note that ka looks like a stylized, backward k. Kha is the same character with an additional stroke
to the left. Ga resembles a backwards Greek gamma. Gha is a gamma with a stroke added
underneath. ða looks to me (at least) like a tongue choking on something--a rather graphic
reminder of the sound it represents.

Here are the palatal consonants in Devanagari:

    
ca cha ja jha ¤a

Ca resembles the Cyrillic character for the same sound (ч). The initial stroke in ja resembles the
letter 'j'. The initial stroke in ¤a, as we shall see later, resembles the Devanagari character for na
with the addition of a tilde.

Let's pause for a little practice. See if you can read these mostly fake words (the vertical stroke at
the end is equivalent to our comma).

Remember that each character includes the vowel 'a', so that  is pronounced jaja.


Now it's time to learn the retroflex consonants, which are articulated by curling the tongue on the
hard palate:
    
ña ñha óa óha õa

òa resembles the letter t; ñha closes the 'hook' at the bottom. ôa is harder to associate with another
letter, but óha is the same letter with the 'tail' curled the other way. öa looks like a backwards n.

Now try your hand at reading these combinations:


That will do for now--Benares wasn't built in a day. But this would be a good time to talk about
vowels. As you know, many ancient alphabets did not HAVE vowel signs. All the letters were
consonants, and one had to supply the vowels from conjecture or by using special signs written
above and below the line. This is still the case in Hebrew and Arabic, for example. Similarly,
Devanagari usually indicates vowel sounds by modifying the consonant signs. Here are different
vowels associated with the consonant, ka:

     

ka kā ke ki kī ko

     

ku kū kai kau kç ké

Remember that the simple form of the character is pronounced ka. On those rare occasions when
you want to pronounce the k sound alone, an additional stroke must be added below ().

The mark for a long à is an additional stroke to the right of the basic character. The mark for the i
sound was originally a loop written over the character, which pointed left for the short vowel and
right for the long vowel. But eventually this loop was extended with a downward stroke,
producing the graphemes you see above. This means that when you want to write ji, you will
have to leave space for the i stroke before j. When typing, hit the i key first.

Occasionally, vowels appear alone or at the beginning of words, and so they cannot be attached
to a consonant sign. There are special forms for these situations, which we shall learn in the next
unit.

Exercise 2: Read and transliterate the following combinations:



 
Read and transliterate the following words. It is not necessary to learn them. We will begin
acquiring vocabulary in Chapter 2.

 camp
 tone of voice

 one-eyed

 elephant

 strand, string

 sing

 ox, cow

 pot

 matted hair

 be awake

Day 3: Reading Devanagari, Part 2.

Today we will continue learning the characters for the consonants, going across the rows. Here
are the dental consonants, which are formed on the back of the teeth:

    
ta tha da dha na

These characters are mostly counter-intuitive, but they are so frequently seen that that they will
be assimilated quickly. Notice that da resembles óha, except that the loop extends below the tail,
and that na resembles ¤a without the tilde.

The final complete row in the Sanskrit consonant table gives the labial consonants, pronounced
with the lips:

    
pa pha ba bha ma

Note that pa resembles a backward 'p', and pha adds a loop to the right. Ba resembles the letter 'b'.
Ma looks like the Greek letter mu.

Again, let's pause for a little practice:


The semi-vowels are fairly easy to learn:

   
ya ra la va

Ya looks like a 'y'. Ra resembles a cursive 'r', turned on its side. La looks like a stylized lambda,
turned backwards. Va resembles the character for ba without a line through the loop.

The sibilants are also quite distinctive:

   
÷a ùa sa ha
Sa may remind you of the Hebrew letter samekh or its Greek equivalent, sigma. Ha looks like an
h gone wild.

Here is a little practice with the semi-vowels and sibilants:


You have probably already noticed that some Devanagari characters resemble others, leading to
potential confusion in reading. This is not much of a problem when the similar characters belong
to the same consonant group; you can learn them as variants of each other. But occasionally
similar characters come from different groups, with quite different sound-values. Here is a table
of the most troublesome look-alikes:

   
gha dha tha bha

   
ïa óa óha da

I mentioned in the last class that there are special characters for vowels when they appear at the
beginning of words or by themselves. In general, they appear as stylized versions of the simple
vowel signs you have already learned:

           
a à e i ã o u å ai au ç é

A stylized form of the AU character appears in the symbol for the sacred word AUM
(pronounced OM): .
Sanskrit is a full-bodied language, and consonants are often combined without an intervening
vowel, as in the words Sa-nsk-rit and E-ngl-ish. To mark these combinations, writers of Sanskrit
devised various special graphs, which for the most part show the two letters attached to each
other. One way of combining them is to write only the characteristic element of the first letter,
and to join it to the second:

 kçùna

 tatvamasi ('thou art that')

Note that in the first example, the character is ùa is abbreviated before the full character for õa; in
the second, ta is abbreviated before va. This is the most convenient method for printing and
typing. But for many centuries Sanskrit was written by hand, and it was often easier to write one
character above the other, producing combinations such as these:

  
ùña dva ïga

Because they are common and traditional in manuscripts, these junctures often show up in
printed books, as well. Coulson gives you a comprehensive list at the end of the chapter. Most are
fairly easy to decipher, although there are a few tricky ones, such as these:

     
÷va dya tta kta kùa hva

Fortunately, all the exercises in Coulson's book are transliterated, so that you can check or
complete your decipherment of Devanagari as needed.

There are two other common signs for conjunct consonants. When 'r' follows a vowel and
precedes a consonant, it is written as a loop above the following consonant:

 sårya (sun)

 àcàrya (teacher)

When 'r' follows a consonant and precedes a vowel, it is written as a diagonal stroke on the
preceding consonant:

  
pra gra tra

Finally, the character for anusvara (ü) is a dot above the line, and for visargha (þ) it is a colon:

 vanaü (forest)

 àcàryaþ (teacher)

Exercise 3: From the answer key in the back of the book, read and transliterate the words in
Devanagari script for Coulson, Exercise 1a. Do not try to read the longer sentences. After that,
read and transliterate the words in Exercise 1b, again skipping the sentences at the end of the
exercise. Check your answers against the key in the back of the book.

Chapter 2

Day 1

Verb Classes and the Present Tense

The classification of Sanskrit verbs appears at first glance to be a complicated mess, but the
principles are quite simple. The ten classes of Sanskrit verbs are distinguished by the way they
form the stem of the present tense.

Coulson begins by setting out the system of vowel gradation used in Sanskrit verbal formations.
This may look like one of his learned digressions, but the chart will come in handy as we learn
various forms over time. Here is how it works.

Every verb has a root form, which is found in dictionaries but never in actual Sanskrit. The root is
a 'grammatical fiction' used to identify the common, underlying element in the forms that
actually occur. For example, the root bhç is the point of reference for the participle bhçta (carried),
the present tense bharati (he carries), and the perfect tense babhàra (he carried). These forms show
a lengthening of the vowel ç in bhç to ar in bharati and to àr in babhàra. Here we see the three
grades of a Sanskrit verbal root: basic (ç), guõa (ar), and vçddhi (àr).

The guõa grade is the real anchor of the verbal system. It shows a root vowel that can be
shortened or lengthened to produce various forms. Here, for quick reference, is Coulson's chart,
with the guõa vowels in the middle:

basic grade a, à i, ã u, å ç, é ë
guõa a e o ar al
vçddhi à ai au àr àl

The chart will help us to see the relationship between the root and present tense forms of the
three classes studied in this chapter.

What distinguishes verbs of Class 1 is that the guõa grade of the root is linked to the personal
ending by a stem vowel, a. (This vowel is equivalent to the epsilon and omicron in Greek verbs,
such as lu/-e-i, lu/-o-men.) For example, the form ÷ocati (he grieves) is derived from the root
form ÷uc as follows:

root in guõa grade stem vowel personal ending (he...)

÷oc a ti

If the vowel in the basic grade of the root is long, or if it is short but followed by two or more
consonants, the root remains unchanged in the present tense. An example is jãvati (he lives), from
the root jãv:

jãv a ti

If the root ends in one of the diphthongs e, ai, or o, a semivowel (y or v) is inserted for a smoother
transition:

jay (< jai) a ti (he conquers)

Just to add to the fun, there are a few irregular formations in this class:

gacch (< gam) a ti (he goes)

tiùñh (< sthà) a ti (he stands)

In class 6, the stem vowel a is added to the basic grade of the root:

likh (< likh) a ti (he writes)

In class 4, ya (rather than a) is regularly added to the basic grade of the root:

nçt (< nçt) ya ti (he dances)

Because there are variations even within a single class, most Sanskrit textbooks give the present
tense form after the root as a kind of principal part. You can use either the root or the present-
tense form to look up words in online Sanskrit dictionaries, such as Huet's Sanskrit Heritage site.
For the purposes of this course, it is not necessary to memorize the class of each verb.
So far, we have been looking at verbs in the third person, singular (he, she, it, [noun]...). An entire
conjugation table looks like this:

1st Person Singular nayàmi I lead

2nd nayasi you lead
3rd nayati he leads
1st Person Dual nayàvaþ we two lead
2nd nayathaþ you two lead
3rd nayataþ those two lead
1st Person Plural nayàmaþ we lead
2nd nayatha y'all lead
3rd nayanti they lead

If you have studied Latin, Greek, or any other Indo-European language, the Sanskrit personal
endings will look eerily familiar. Here is a table of cognate endings:

Sanskrit Greek (-mi verbs) Latin Early Modern

English
mi mi m m (am)
si v s st (seekest)
ti si t th (seeketh)
vaþ
thaþ
taþ
maþ men mus
tha te tis
[a]nti asi nt

Note that in Sanskrit, the present tense covers both simple and continuous action (he leads, he is
leading), as well as immediate intention (I am going now; let us go). Your translation will depend
on the context.

Vocabulary

One of the charges against Coulson's book is that after the first few chapters he incorporates an
exceptionally large vocabulary, thus adding to the burden of memorization. In this course, we
will distinguish between high-frequency 'memorization' vocabulary and less common words.
You should memorize the former, but only look over the latter. You can use Coulson's
vocabulary and answer keys to remind you of less common words. On tests, words outside of the
'memorization' category will be supplied for you.

As an aid to the memory, I have listed Indo-European cognates in the third column. Use these
ONLY if they help you to remember the Sanskrit words.

Memorization Vocabulary

anã (I, anayati) bring

iù (VI, icchati) wish
upavi÷ (I, upavi÷ati) sit down
gam (I, gacchati) go
nã (I, nayati) lead, take
nçt (IV, nçtyati) dance
vas (I, vasati) live, dwell
likh (VI, likhati) write

atra here
api also, too, even
evam thus, so
katham how? what?!
kva where?
na not
tatra there, to there

Reading Vocabulary

gai (I, gayati) sing

brahm (I, bhramati) wander, be confused
÷uc (I, ÷ocati) grieve

adya today
adhunà now
itaþ from here, this way

In addition to the vocabulary lists for this chapter, Coulson mentions a few very common words
that serve as conjunctions and as question or quotation markers.

The first of these is ca (and), which corresponds to Latin -que and Greek te. Like the Latin
conjunction, it occurs at the end of a sequence:

÷ocati madyati ca cf. Lat. moeret gaudetque He grieves and rejoices

In a longer sequence, ca may come after the last word. But it can also be attached to all the words
in a sequence: ÷ocati ca madyati ca.

A common interrogative in Sanskrit is kim. Like the Greek interrogative ti/, it can mean either
'what?' or 'why?'.

kim pçcchati. What does he ask? Why does he ask?

Yes/No questions in Sanskrit may also be marked by kim, but they are more commonly
introduced by api.

api gacchati. Is he going?

Finally, notice that three of the question words in this lesson begin with k: kim (what, why), kva
(where) and katham (how). The letter k in Sanskrit corresponds to qu in Latin, t in Greek, and wh
(originally hw) in English. Demonstrative adverbs often begin with t, as in tatra (there); cf. Latin
tum (then), Greek tou~to (this), and English there.

Exercise 1 (Selected from Coulson 2b and 2c). Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to
English or from English to Sanskrit. The appendices in Coulson's book include answer keys and
transliterations from Devanagari to Roman. When you write in Sanskrit, do not worry about
joining words together. We will discuss that in Day 2.

1. gacchàmi. 4. adhunà kva vasatha? 5. evam icchasi? 8. atra kim ànayataþ [bring]? 9. pa÷yàmi
likhàmi ca. 12. smaranti ca ÷ocanti ca.

1. You are wandering. 2. Now we understand [avagam, avagacchati; mor on this in Day 2). 3. There
too she dances. 4. The two of you live here? 6. Let us two sit down. 5. What, are they winning? 9.
What shall I write here? 12. They come and go.

Day 2

Verbal Prefixes; Negation; Sandhi Rules

Like other Indo-European languages, Sanskrit builds vocabulary by adding prefixes to verbal
roots. Here are some examples:

Prefix Verb Meaning

-- gacchati he goes
à- àgacchati he comes
ava- avagacchati he understands

Sometimes, the prefix merely intensifies the verbal idea. At other times, the simple and
compound forms have the same meaning:

Prefix Verb Meaning

-- vi÷ati he enters
pra pravi÷ati he enters

Negation in Sanskrit is simple: one adds the negative particle na before the positive form of the
verb:

na gacchati he does not go

The rest of Coulson's chapter is devoted to the rather complicated rules of sandhi. This term
denotes the sound changes that result from the combination of significant elements of speech.
Sandhi happens all the time in English, but we seldom notice it. Here is an example:

Prefix Simple Word Compound

in finite infinite
in possible impossible

The normal form of the prefix is in-, but it changes to im- before the letter p, which is a labial
consonant. This is easier to pronounce than *inpossible, which requires an awkward jump from
the hard palate to the lips. Here we have an example of internal sandhi, a change that takes place
inside a word.

In English, moreover, we often make subtle changes between words to effect smoother transitions
in speech. These changes often escape our notice because they are not reflected in spelling. In one
of his novels, J.D. Salinger includes the following conversation:

Jeat?
Huh?
I said, 'Did you eat?'

The humor is based on the fact that in the Northeastern United States, the initial y of you changes
the final d in did to j (a phenomenon called palatalization). The palatalized j then swallows up the
initial d and the short vowel in did. On top of that, the vowels in ja and eat elide, producing jeat.

English spelling does not reflect these changes, for a good reason. In the absence of pragmatic
clues, such as the proximity of a delicatessen, readers would not recognize the original words.
Sanskrit scribes, on the other hand, placed great emphasis on fidelity to the sounds of actual
speech, especially in ritual contexts. Thus, sound changes are faithfully reflected in Sanskrit
writing, and this sometimes conceals the words and forms that are being employed.

Sanskrit textbooks take various approaches to the complicated rules of sandhi between words.
Coulson figures that students will pick up the rules from experience. Thus, he is content to
provide tables that you they can use to decipher combinations encountered in reading or to
anticipate changes required in writing. We will follow his approach, with this difference:
sentences will be given first with sandhi, and then without. For the moment, however, it will help
to make a quick overview of the phenomenon.

A simple type of sandhi occurs when one word ends in a vowel and another begins with a vowel.
This can result in confusion between the vowels or an awkward pause between them (hiatus). To
avoid this, one can blend the two vowels or change one or more of them to make the transition
smoother. For example, the combination tatra iva becomes tatreva; vane eva becomes vana iva.
Many of the combinations will make sense if you recall that e and o correspond to a+i and a+u,
respectively; ai and au result from à+i and à+u. When you use the chart, find the coordinate
between the final vowel of the first word (left column) and the initial vowel of the second word
(top row), and you have the resulting combination.

Most sandhi rules pertain to the combination of two consonants (e.g., tat + ÷arãram = taccharãram).
These rules will usually make sense if you pronounce the two words together without sandhi and
attend to the resulting sound. Sandhi often involves assimilation, by which one of the consonants is
made to resemble the other in its place of articulation (cf. impossible: in- becomes im-, because m
and p are both pronounced on the lips).

Some of the most complicated rules apply to nouns ending in þ. ÿ frequently takes the place of a
final -s (a÷vaþ, from a÷vas, horse; cf. equus) or a final -r (màtaþ from màtar, mother; cf. mhth/r,
mater). Since þ is a weak sound, it sometimes drops out altogether: a÷vaþ asti (the horse is)
becomes a÷vo'sti.

Sanskrit writing often presents long strings of characters that comprise several words. For Indian
scribes, the important divisions were between syllables and between sentences. It was assumed
that a skilled reader could divide the words for himself. Thus, when a word ends in a consonant
and there is no following pause, it is written together with the following word, in order to
produce a complete syllable:

kim + ànayati kimànayati. What is he bringing?

kim + evam + vanam + kimevaü Why then do I come into
àgacchami vanamàgacchàmi. the forest?
tat + tvam + asi tattvamasi. Thou art that.

There is a word break, however, after anusvara and visarga:

kim + pçcchàmi kiü pçcchàmi. What am I asking?

Sandhi often creates additional junctures between words:

vadati + iti vadatãti. He says (thus).

In the Exercises in this Study Guide, sentences will be given first with sandhi and with the
traditional spacing, then without sandhi and a space between individual words.

Vocabulary

Another very useful word is iti (thus). It is used to mark the end of a direct quotation. Sanskrit
does not use quotation marks.

àgacchàma iti vadanti (àgacchàmaþ iti 'We are coming' (thus) they say.
vadanti).

Two other adverbs in the vocabulary are placed after the words they modify. They are api (when
it means 'also, too, even') and punar (when it means 'but').

Memorization Vocabulary

avagam (I, avagacchati) understand

àgam (I, àgacchati) come
ji (I, jayati) win, conquer
jãv (I, jãvati) live
dç÷ (I, pa÷yati) see, look at
prach (VI, pçcchati) ask
vad (I, vadati) speak, say
sthà (I, tiùñhati) stand
smç (I, smarati) remember

punar again, however

punar api yet again, once more

Reading Vocabulary

pravi÷ (I, pravi÷ati) enter (=go before)

mad (IV, madyati) rejoice

Exercise 2a (Coulson 2a): Use the sandhi charts in Coulson's book to complete the following
combinations.

1. svairam tamasi i÷varasya a÷vau durjanàþ ÷astraiþ ciràt mu¤canti ra÷mibhyaþ eva.
3. svairam eva i÷varasya mu¤canti a÷vau ÷astraiþ durjanàþ ciràt tamasi ra÷mibhyaþ.

Exercise 2b (Coulson 2b and 2c): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or
from English to Sanskrit.

2. atra na pravi÷àmaþ. 3. punarapi likhati (punar api likhati). 6. kvapunastiùñhanti (kva punar
tiùñhanti?). 7. kathamita àgacchati (katham itaþ àgacchati?). 11. nçtyatho gayatha÷ca (nçtyathaþ
gayathaþ ca). 13. atra pravi÷àva iti vadataþ (atra pravi÷àvaþ iti vadataþ). 14. adhunàpi kathaü
nàgacchati (adhunà api kathaü na àgacchati?). 15. jayàmãti madyàmi (jayàmã iti madyàmi). 16.
na jãvantãti ÷ocàmaþ (na jãvanti iti ÷ocàmaþ).

7. The two of them do not say so. 8. Are you asking yet again? 10. Do you not see? 13. Now she
both lives and grieves. 14. He sees and seems to speak. 15. 'What do you [pl.] want?' they ask.
16. We go because they are coming. 17. However, we do not rejoice. 18. So also do the two of us
remember. What do you remember? That he is not coming today.

Chapter 3

Day 1

Nominative and Accusative Cases; Nouns and Pronouns

Sanskrit, like Greek and Latin, uses case-endings to indicate the roles that nouns and pronouns
play in sentences. Classical Sanskrit is somewhat less dependent on this system than other
languages, because of its extraordinary flexibility in the creation of compound forms. More on
that later.

In this chapter, Coulson introduces the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases. They are used
in pretty much the same way as in Latin and Greek.

Case Uses English Examples

Nominative Subject Shiva dances.
Complement (Predicate) Arjuna is a warrior.
Vocative Direct Address Hey Rama!
Accusative Direct Object Arjuna asks Krishna.
Goal, Destination Krishna goes to the forest.

In this lesson, you will learn the nominative, vocative, and accusative forms of some common
nouns.

You may recall that in Greek and Latin, the so-called Second Declension contains masculine
nouns in -oj/us and neuter nouns in --on/-um. What they all have in common is the stem-vowel
o. There are corresponding forms in Sanskrit, exemplified by a÷vaþ (horse) and phalam (fruit). For
all such nouns, the stem form ends in a.

Stem Form a÷va (Masculine) phala (Neuter)

Singular Nominative a÷vaþ phalam
Vocative a÷va phalam
Accusative a÷vam phalam
Dual Nominative a÷vau phale
Vocative a÷vau phale
Accusative a÷vau phale
Plural Nominative a÷vàþ phalàni
Vocative a÷vàþ phalàni
Accusative a÷vàn phalàni

Notice that neuter nouns have the same form in all three cases of each number. This happens in
Latin and Greek, as well.

The dual ending -e (as in phale) is not subject to sandhi. This is also true of dual forms ending in -i
and -u, which we shall meet later.

There are also many adjectives built on the -a stem and sharing the endings you see above.
Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case:

÷ãgrava÷vau (÷ãgrau a÷vau) [two] swift horses

Evidently, Coulson thought that learning these paradigms alone would be too easy! And so he
throws in some personal pronouns for good measure. As in Latin, Greek, and English, the forms
of pronouns are somewhat irregular. But they should also seem vaguely familiar:

Type of Pronoun 1st Person (I/We) 2nd Person (You)

Singular Nominative aham (I) tvam (you, thou)
Accusative màm (me) tvàm (you, thee)
Dual Nominative àvàm (we two) yuvàm (you two)
Accusative àvàm (us too) yuvàm (you two)
Plural Nominative vayam (we) yåyam (y'all, ye)
Accusative asmàn (us) yuùmàn (y'all, you)

Note the resemblance of these forms to English pronouns such as me (màm), we (vayam), thee
(tvàm), us (asmàn), and you (yåyam).

There are also third-person pronouns (he, she, it, they, that one, those ones). In this lesson, you
will learn the masculine and neuter forms:

Gender of Pronoun Masculine Neuter

Singular Nominative sa, saþ tat
Accusative tam tat
Dual Nominative tau te
Accusative tau te
Plural Nominative te tàni
Accusative tàn tàni

The masculine forms are related to the definite article in Greek (o9, to/n). In the neuter column, tat
will remind you of English that. The final t is also related to the d in Latin pronouns such as id
and illud.

Saþ is the regular form in the nominative singular, but it becomes sa before all consonants and
before all vowels except (short) a.

While we're at it, why not look at the interrogative pronoun (who? what?)?

Gender of Pronoun Masculine Neuter

Singular Nominative kaþ kim
Accusative kam kim
Dual Nominative kau ke
Accusative kau ke
Plural Nominative ke kàni
Accusative kàn kàni

These forms closely resemble the personal pronouns saþ, etc., except that the initial letter is k. As
we have seen, kw was the sound in Proto-Indo-European that marked questions. It became qu in
Latin, t in Greek, and wh (originally hw) in English.

We have seen that Sanskrit employs the cases in pretty much the same ways as in Greek and
Latin, but there are a few surprises:

vanaü gacchàmi. I go to the forest.

vanaü tvàü nayàmi. I lead you to the forest.
tat tvàü vadàmi. I say this to you.

For comparison, recall the Latin phrases Romam contendo (I am going to Rome) and haec te doceo (I
teach these things to you; I teach you these things).

See Coulson for other notes on usage. One of the most important points is that Indo-European
languages tend to treat substantives (nouns and pronouns) and attributives (adjectives) as pretty
much the same thing. This is why it is so easy to turn an adjective into a noun (e.g., the Romans).
Likewise, demonstratives can function either as pronouns or as adjectives (I am waiting for those;
I am waiting for those things). Thus, in Sanskrit, saþ and kaþ can also be used to modify a noun:

taü ÷iùyam icchanti. They want that pupil.

kaþ ÷iùya evaü vadati. (kaþ ÷iùyaþ evam Which pupil says so?
vadati?)

Occasionally, saþ is even used as a definite article (the); this is normally not required in Sanskrit.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

(Masculine nouns end in þ, neuter nouns in m.)

àcàryaþ teacher
a÷vaþ horse
kùetram field
krodhaþ anger
gajaþ elephant
candraþ moon
jalam water
paõóitah scholar
bàlaþ boy
bhojanam food
vanam wood, forest
÷iùyaþ pupil
sukham happiness
suryaþ sun

Reading Vocabulary
parvataþ mountain
braþmaõaþ brahmin

Exercise 1 (From Coulson, 3a and 3b). Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English
or from English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check
your results.

1. àcàryaü ÷iùyà ànayanti (àcàryaü ÷iùyàþ ànayanti). 2. apia÷vànicchasi (api a÷vàn icchasi?). 4.
sukham ko necchati (sukham kaþ na icchati?). 7. kastvamiti màü pçcchataþ (kaþ tvam iti màm
pçcchataþ).

1. We want water and food. 3. Scholars, what do you want? 5. Which two teachers do you see? 8.
Teacher, what brahmin is coming this way? 15. Why do you [pl.] say that he does not want
happiness? 16. They are taking the elephant to the field.

Day 2

Nominal Sentences; Word Order; Iva

A nominal sentence may also be called a linking sentence, in which two elements are being
equated:

That man is wise. That man is Arjuna.

These sentences consist of a subject (that man) and a complement (also called a predicate: wise,
Arjuna). The latter may be a substantive (Arjuna) or a predicate adjective (wise). In Sanskrit, one
normally omits the linking verb, and the complement may be placed first:

ramanãyo bàlaþ (ramanãyaþ bàlaþ). Pleasant [is] the child.

The child is pleasant.

svalpaü sukhaü krodhaþ. A small pleasure [is] anger.

Anger is a small pleasure.

This construction is also common in Greek:

sofo/j o9 a0/nqrwpoj. Wise [is] the man.

The man is wise.

If the subject is a demonstrative pronoun, it reflects the gender and number of the predicate:

suryaþ saþ. The sun [is] that.

That is the sun.

The predicate of a linking sentence may also be adverbial:

evaü sarvadà sukhàni. Ever thus [are] joys.

Joys are ever thus.

These sentences are a good illustration of the principles of word-order in Sanskrit. Like Latin and
Greek, Sanskrit allows variable word order:
bàlaþ pa÷yati. The child sees.
pa÷yati bàlaþ

Nevertheless, word order tends to reflect emphasis. The most emphatic word comes first. Sanskrit
nominal sentences often strike us as inverted, because English tends to put the emphatic word at
the end:

ramanãyo bàlaþ (ramanãyaþ bàlaþ). The child is pleasant.

For the same reason, modifiers (adjectives and adverbs) tend to come before the words they
modify:

ramanãyo bàlo'dya gacchati (ramanãyaþ The pleasant child goes today.

bàlaþ adya gacchati).

A number of words, however, behave enclitically, which is to say that they attach themselves to
the end of the word(s) that they qualify. You have already met iti (thus). Another such word is
iva (like, as if):

àcàrya iva ÷iùyo màü pçcchati (acàryaþ The pupil is questioning me like a teacher
iva ÷iùyaþ màü pçcchati). (teacher-like).

àcàryamiva màü ÷iùyaþ The pupil is questioning me as if I were a

pçcchati.(àcàryam iva màü ÷iùyaþ teacher (teacher-like).
pçcchati.)

In these examples the case of teacher indicates an implied comparison, either with the pupil (in
the first example) or with me (in the second). In nominal sentences, iva can also be used to make
'equal comparisons':

ahamiva ÷unyamaraõyam (aham iva I-like the forest is desolate.

÷unyam araõyam). The forest is as desolate as I.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary (adjectives are given in their stem form)

janaþ person, people

naraþ man
duþkham pain, sorrow
ramaõãya pleasant
vacanam word, speech
vismita astonished
֋ghra swift
÷obhana bright, beautiful
svalpa small, scant

Exercise 2 (Coulson 3a and 3b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or
from English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your
results.
5. svalpaü bhojanam. 10. ÷ãgraü vacanaü nàvagacchàmaþ (...na avagacchàmaþ). 11. àcàrya
parvata iva sa gajaþ (àcàrya, parvataþ iva saþ gajaþ). 13. kiü ÷iùyà yåyam (kim ÷iùyàþ yåyam).
15. ramaõãyamadhunà tatphalamiti vismità vadanti (ramaõãyam adhunà tat phalam iti vismitàþ
vadanti). 16. kathamatràpi bàlàþ (katham atra api bàlàþ).

2. The two of them see a swift horse. 4. Anger conquers you as if [you were] a child. 6. The moon
is as bright as the sun today. 9. What is the advantage in this [here]? 7. Is he pleasant? 10.
Children, where is that teacher? 13. Are the teachers astonished?

Day 3

Coordinative (Dvandva) Compounds

One of the best features of Coulson's textbook is his straightforward explanation of compound
formations. These are a distinguishing feature of Sanskrit stylistics, especially in the Classical
period.

English also uses compound forms a great deal. Most of these are what we shall call determinative
compounds, where the first element limits the second:

wife-beater a beater of wives

magazine stand a stand for magazines

English often marks compounds by joining them with a hyphen, but it does not always do so
(e.g., magazine stand). Sanskrit, on the other hand, always marks the first element of a compound
by using the stem form, which is uninflected:

sarva + dç÷ = sarvadç÷ all-seeing, seeing all

We shall see more examples of this type of compound, which is extremely common in Sanskrit, in
a later chapter. In Chapter 2, Coulson introduces a type of compound which is unknown in
English. It combines substantives into a group without the use of a conjunction, such as ca. This is
called a coordinative or dvandva ('two-two') compound.

Phrase Using Conjunction Coordinate Compound Meaning

a÷vogaja÷ca a÷vagajau a horse and an elephant
(a÷vaþ gajaþ ca)

Note that the compound, which means 'horse + elephant', takes the dual ending au because the
new word signifies two critters. If the total number amounts to three or more, the plural ending is
used:

àcàrya÷iùyàþ the teacher and the students

Because the first element is given in its invariable stem form, one cannot always tell its original
number:

àcàrya÷iùyàþ the teacher and the students

OR the teachers and the students
The final element always determines the gender of the compound. Its case is determined by its
function in the sentence.

àcàrya÷iùyàn pa÷yàmi. I see the teacher and the students.

One can also link together as many words as one likes, creating a virtual circus parade:

a÷vagajamçgasçgàlàþ horses, elephants, deer, and jackals

Exercise 3a. Translate the following phrases and sentences from Sanskrit to English or from
English to Sanskrit. In this exercise, don't worry about sandhi. This exercise is not in Coulson, so
there is no answer key (!).

1. candrasuryau. 2. àcàryapaõóitàþ. 3. janagajàþ. 4. jalaphalàni. 5. àcàryabrahmaõàn pa÷yàmi. 6.

àcàrya÷iùyau tat vadataþ.

1. the elephant and the teacher. 2. the elephant and the teachers. 3. the elephants and the teachers.
4. pleasures and pains. 5. men and boys. 6. I see the man and the horse. 7. The men and the
horses see me.

Exercise 3b (Coulson, 3a and 3b). Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English, or
from English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your
results.

3. ahaü suryacandrau pa÷yàmi. 6. jalama÷vànnaro nayati (jalam a÷vàn naraþ nayati). 8. kiü
parvataü paõóito gacchati (kiü parvataü paõóitaþ gacchati). 9. atra krodho na vasatãti vanaü
pravi÷ataþ (atra krodhaþ na vasati iti vanaü pravi÷ataþ). 12. kiü punaþ pçcchàmi (kiü punar
pçcchàmi). 14. jalaü narabàlàþ pravi÷anti. 18. bàlà atra kiü sukhaü pa÷yatheti ÷iùyànàcàryo
vadati (bàlàþ atra kim sukham pa÷yatha iti ÷iùyàn àcàryaþ vadati).

11. Do you not remember even pleasant words? 12. We see scant advantage. 14. The two boys see
fields, mountains, and forests. 17. But where the food [is], you do not tell me. (Use iti). 18. That
man is speaking to the astonished people like a Brahmin.

Chapter 4

Day 1

Past Participles

The past participle is one of the most important critters in Sanskrit. It corresponds, both in form
and usage, to the English past participle (e.g, remembered, written, sunken). It might be more
accurately called the 'perfect participle', since it denotes a completed action, rather than one
necessarily performed in the past. For transitive verbs, the past participle is usually understood
as passive.

The forms of the past participle are fairly easy to recognize. The standard suffixes are -ta, -ita, and
-na (corresponding to -ed in remembered and -en in sunken). These are added to the basic grade of
the root, which is sometimes reduced to a weaker vowel (e.g., a becomes i). Since the form of the
participle is not always predictable, it is usually given in dictionaries after the root and present
tense forms (e.g., sthà, tiùñhati, sthita). Here are some examples:
Root Past Participle Meaning
gam gata gone
gai gãta sung
jai jita conquered, beaten
jãv jãvita lived
dç÷ dç÷ta seen
nã nãta led
vad udita said, spoken
sthà sthita stood
smç smçta remembered
nçt nçtta danced
mad matta rejoiced
pravi÷ praviùña entered
likh likhita read
iù iùña desired

A participle is a verbal adjective. As such, it can be used as an attributive (sunken treasure) or as a

predicate (his name is remembered).

iùtaü phalam na pa÷yàmi. I do not see the desired reward.

jito (jitaþ) Ràkùasaþ Ràkùasaþ is beaten.

Either way, the past participle agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun it describes. It
has the same forms as adjectives such as ÷ãgra and ramaõãya.

Sanskrit has a much higher tolerance for passive forms, including the past participle, than does
English. It is not unusual to see sentences like this:

kiü dçùtaü tatudyànam. Has that garden been seen [by you]?
Have you seen that garden?

When the agent (do-er) of the action has to be expressed, the instrumental case is used. We will
learn it in the next section.

Sometimes, the participle appears in nominal sentences without a subject. The subject must be
inferred from the form of the participle:

hanta, na gataþ. Oh, he has not gone!

hanta, na gatàþ. Oh, they have not gone!

The past participle of transitive verbs (i.e., verbs that take a direct object, such as beat) is usually
understood as passive. The participle of intransitive verbs (such as go) is understood as active:

jito (jitaþ) Ràkùasaþ. Ràkùasaþ is beaten.

gato (gataþ) Ràkùasaþ Ràkùasaþ has gone.

This is the case in English, as well. There are some past participles, however, which admit both an
active and a passive sense:

Ràmo (Ràmaþ) praviùñaþ. Rama has entered.

nagaram praviùñam. The city has been entered.

When api follows a participle, it gives it concessive force (although...; cf. Greek kai/toi):

iùñàþ api paõóitàþ na àgacchanti. Though wanted, the pundits do not come.
Even though we want the pundits, they
do not come.

Vocabulary

In addition to the words in the vocabulary lists, Coulson mentions some common idioms. One of
these is eva, which serves mainly to emphasize (underscore) the word before it:

svalpànyevecchàmaþ (svalpàni eva We want the small ones.

icchàmaþ).

Using italics and adding stress to the voice are probably the best 'default' strategies for translating
eva. Coulson mentions some other English equivalents, such as just:

bàla eva saþ (bàlaþ eva saþ). He is a child.

He is just a child.

Another useful word is the pronoun/adjective eùaþ (this). It has the same endings as saþ.
Eùaþ has a strong deictic (pointing) force, meaning 'this here' or even 'see':'

eùa Ràmo bàlànànayati (eùaþ Ràmaþ This here Rama brings the children.
bàlàn ànayati). See, Rama brings the children.

It can even be used in the latter sense with first- and second-person verbs:

eùa udyànaü pravi÷àmi (eùaþ udyànaü This here I go into the garden.
praviֈmi). See, I am going into the garden.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

gçham house (masc. in plural)

devaþ god, his majesty
nagaram city, town
putraþ son

dåra far off

pari÷rànta exhausted, tired
prathama first

eva in fact, actually, quite,

only, the very
eùaþ this (here)
prathamam already
he O!
Reading Vocabulary

adbhuta extraordinary, marvelous

avasaraþ opportunity, occasion
udyànam garden, park

Exercise 1 (Coulson 4a, 4b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from
English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your
results.

2. etadudyànaü pravi÷àmaþ (etat udyànam pravi÷àmaþ). 5. ka eva gçhamàgacchati (kaþ eva

gçham àgacchati?). 7. dçùtamavagataü ca (dçùtam avagatam ca). 9. dårameva nagaraü vayaü
ca pari÷ràntà bhramàmaþ (...pari÷ràntàþ bramàmaþ). 12. putràþ sa evaiùovasaraþ (putràþ, sa eva
eùaþ avasaraþ). 13. ete vayaü nagaramàgatàþ (ete vayam nagaram àgatàþ). 15. he paõóita
tvama÷vaü kva nayasãti pçùtopi vacanaü na vadati (he paõóita, tvam a÷vaü kva nayasi iti pçùtaþ
api vacanaü na vadati).

1. Your majesty is tired; let us sit down here. 3. This is quite beautiful. 4. He remembers [his] son
although he has gone to the forest. 8. What is extraordinary in this? I have already seen this man.
9. See, his majesty Candragupta has actually arrived.

Day 2

Instrumental Case, Saha

As we saw in the last section, Sanskrit has a high tolerance for passive constructions with the past
participle. Where English prefers the straightforward construction subject + active verb + object
(Rama sees the elephant), Sanskrit will often supply subject + passive verb + agent (The elephant is
seen by Rama).

In Sanskrit, both agency (by whom a thing is done) and means (with what a thing is done) are
expressed in the instrumental case. This case existed in Proto-Indo-European, but its functions
were absorbed by the ablative case in Latin and by the dative and genitive cases in Greek. You
will find traces of it in some of the forms used in those languages.

Here is an expanded paradigm of a÷va and phalam, incorporating the instrumental case:

Stem Form a÷va (Masculine) phala (Neuter)

Singular Nominative a÷vaþ phalam

Vocative a÷va phalam
Accusative a÷vam phalam
Instrumental a÷vena phalena

Dual Nominative a÷vau phale

Vocative a÷vau phale
Accusative a÷vau phale
Instrumental a÷vàbhyàm phalàbhyàm

Plural Nominative a÷vàþ phalàni

Vocative a÷vàþ phalàni
Accusative a÷vàn phalàni
Instrumental a÷vaiþ phalaiþ

Note that the plural ending (iþ) corresponds to -is in Latin and -ij in Greek. The ending -ena
becomes -eõa if it is preceded by r or ç.

These endings are also added to adjectives with a stem form ending in -a, such as ֋ghra. As
always, adjectives must agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case:

÷ãghreõà÷vena (÷ãghreõa a÷vena) with a swift horse

The instrumental forms of pronouns should also be learned now.

Type of Pronoun 1st Person (I/We) 2nd Person (You)

Singular Nominative aham tvam

Accusative màm tvàm
Instrumental mayà tvayà

Dual Nominative àvàm yuvàm

Accusative àvàm yuvàm
Instrumental àvàbhyàm yuvàbhyàm

Plural Nominative vayam yåyam

Accusative asmàn yuùmàn
Instrumental asmàbhiþ yuùmàbhiþ

Person/Gender of Pronoun 3rd Masculine (He...) 3rd Neuter (It...)

Singular Nominative sa, saþ tat

Accusative tam tat
Instrumental tena tena

Dual Nominative tau te

Accusative tau te
Instrumental tàbhyàm tàbhyàm

Plural Nominative te tàni

Accusative tàn tàni
Instrumental taiþ taiþ

Gender of Pronoun Masculine (Who...?) Neuter (What...?)

Singular Nominative kaþ kim

Accusative kam kim
Instrumental kena kena

Dual Nominative kau ke

Accusative kau ke
Instrumental kàbhyàm kàbhyàm

Plural Nominative ke kàni

Accusative kàn kàni
Instrumental kaiþ kaiþ

Note that the 3rd-person and interrogative pronouns have the same endings as nouns and
adjectives with a stem-form ending in -a. The ending à in mayà, etc., and the ending -bhiþ in
asmàbhiþ, etc., are also common instrumental forms, which we shall meet again later.

The instrumental case is equivalent to English prepositional phrases using with..., by..... As we
have seen, it denotes both agency (by whom) and means (with what, by means of what):

jalenà÷vànsi¤cati (jalena à÷vàn si¤cati). He sprinkles the horses with water.

jito Ràkùasa÷càõakyena (jitaþ Ràkùasaþ Ràkùasa is beaten by Càõaka.
Càõakyena).

It can also be used to signify accompaniment (with, together with):

bàlairàgacchati (bàlaiþ àgacchati). He is coming with the children.

When it indicates accompaniment, however, the instrumental noun usually appears with the
'preposition' saha (cf. Slavonic съ and Greek su/n), which typically comes after the noun:

bàlaiþ sahàgacchati (bàlaiþ saha He is coming with the children.

àgacchati).

The instrumental case can also be used to indicate manner (how? in what manner?).

viùàdena calati. He moves with dejection (dejectedly).

In this sense, the instrumental can often be translated with an English adverb (dejectedly).

Sanskrit also has real adverbs. Coulson notes that they are not marked by a special suffix,
analogous to Latin -e (pulchre, beautifully) and Greek -wj (kalw~j). Instead, they take the
accusative neuter singular form of the corresponding adjective:

÷ãghraü calati. He moves swiftly.

This older way of creating adverbs survives in some Greek and Latin forms (e.g. multum, polu/,
much).

Coulson concludes this chapter with a rather long essay on internal sandhi, meaning the sound
changes that occur within a word. He is mainly concerned with explaining how s and n suddenly
become ù and õ in certain environments. The short explanation is that when a previous sound,
such as r or a retroflex consonant, bends the tongue backward, the tongue tends to remain in that
position, and this modifies the following sounds. Thus, the -ena ending of the instrumental
singular appears as eõa in Ràmeõa (by Rama), because the initial r has caused the tongue to
'retroflex'.
Vocabulary

The enclitic particle và (or; cf. Latin vel) is the evil twin of ca, since it is disjunctive, while ca is
conjunctive. Like ca, it follows the word it disjoins; it can also be repeated to mean 'either...or...'.

àcàryeõa và ÷i÷yairvà gaja eùa anãtaþ This elephant was brought either by the
(àcàryeõa và ÷i÷yaiþ và gajaþ eùaþ teacher or by the pupils.
anãtaþ)

Kçtam and alam mean 'done with...' and 'enough with...'; they are followed by a noun in the
instrumental case:

alaü ÷okena. Enough with the sadness!

Kim has a similar idiomatic use, corresponding to 'What's with...?'

kimudyàyena (kim udyàyena?). What's with the garden?

What's the point of a garden?

Memorization Vocabulary

jãvita alive
jãvitam life
dar÷anam sight, spectacle
priya dear, beloved
madãya my
vayasyaþ friend

kç (Class 8), karoti do, make

tyaj (Class 1), tyajati abandon, leave, give up
vismç (Class 1), vismarati forget

alam enough
dåram a long way
và or
saha with

Reading Vocabulary

kutåhalam curiosity, interest

prayatnaþ effort, attempt
viùàdaþ despair, dejection
saüdehaþ doubt

Exercise 2 (Coulson 4a, 4b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from
English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your
results.

1. putraiþ saha gçhaü tyajati. 3. àcàryeõa ÷iùyai÷càdbhutaþ prayatnaþ kçtaþ (àcàryeõa ÷iùyaiþ ca
adbhutaþ prayatnaþ kçtaþ). 4. priyo madãyo vayasya iti jãvitametena tyaktaü (priyaþ madãyaþ
vayasyaþ iti jãvitam etena tyaktam) . 6. ramaõãyeõa darùanena kiü na màdyasi?. 8. atraite naràþ
kimicchantãti kutåhalena gçhaü pravi÷ati (atra ete naràþ kim icchanti iti kutåhalena gçham
pravi÷ati). 10. icchathaivaitan na và (icchatha eva etat na và?). 11. krtaü vacanairgatovasra iti
viùàdena vadataþ (krtaü vacanaiþ, gataþ avasaraþ iti viùàdena vadataþ). 14. vismçto
vayasyàbhyàü prathamo viùàdaþ (vismçtaþ vayasyàbhyàm prathamaþ viùàdaþ). 16. kiü
prayatnena? naiva tvàü pa÷yati devaþ (na eva...).

2. The people did not forget these words. 5. We came only today. 6. Your majesty, these two
children have even now not left the garden. 7. He stands with his friends. 10. We have seen the
garden with interest. 11. He has gone either to the forest or to the park. 12. Friends, we have been
brought a long way by this horse. 13. An end of doubt: here come the two pupils alive. 14. Even
today it is with pleasure that we remember that extraordinary sight. 15. Despair has conqurered
them. 16. Although astonished by this sight, they are not giving up the attempt.

Chapter 5

Day 1

Dative, Ablative, Genitive, and Locative Cases

In this chapter, Coulson introduces the remaining cases in Sanskrit: the dative, ablative, genitive,
and locative. Sankrit grammarians were somewhat less creative in naming the cases: they called
them the 'fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh' cases. You have already learned the first case
(nominative), the second case (accusative), and the third case (instrumental). The vocative was
traditionally listed at the end as the eighth case.

Here is a very quick overview of the way the cases are used, as presented by Coulson. See his text
for examples in Sanskrit.

Case Use English Example

Dative (to, for) Indirect Object I give...to the brahmins.
Purpose ...for seeing (to see)
Predicate ...is for a fault (is culpable)
Ablative (from) Separation He goes from the city.
Cause from starvation
Genitive (of) Possessive the king's treasure
Subjective the king's fear
Objective fear of the king
Point of view to the king, this seems...
Locative (in...; into...) Station on the table
Circumstance on seeing his friends...
Destination into the water
Object of feelings, etc. fondness for (toward) him

If you are familiar with the cases in Latin and Greek, Sanskrit usage will present a few surprises.

First, you may already have noticed the confusion in Latin and Greek over which case expresses
possession: is it the dative or the genitive? What actually happened is that the genitive, which
properly expresses source, took over the possessive function as well. Sanskrit takes this 'genitival
imperialism' even further. The genitive is used to express point of view (to the king it seems..., in
the view of the king it seems...). Worse yet, it is often used instead of the dative to indicate the
indirect object. Thus, in Sanskrit, you can say 'I give the gift of the brahmins' when you mean '...to
the brahmins'. Go figure.

The locative case disappeared from the parent dialects of Latin and Greek, but it left behind a few
traces in forms such as Romae (at Rome). In Sanskrit, the locative not only survived, but it
partially usurped the role of the accusative case in expressing destination or goal. Thus you can
say 'I put the book on the table' using the locative case in Sanskrit.

When the ancestors of the Greeks lost the instrumental, ablative, and locative cases, they
'outsourced' the functions of these cases to the genitive and dative. In Latin, the ablative case
survived, and it took on the additional burden of the instrumental and locative cases. But
Sanskrit, like the modern Baltic languages (Latvian and Lithuanian) held on to the entire Indo-
European case system. Thanks, guys.

Now that we know that there are all those other cases out there, we can look at their forms. The
good news is that the charts will NOT get any bigger than this.

Coulson refers you to the paradigm at the back of the book for the adjective kànta. Here I will
present the complete charts for the nouns a÷vaþ and phalam, which you have previously
encountered.

Stem Form a÷va (Masculine) phala (Neuter)

Singular Nominative a÷vaþ phalam

Vocative a÷va phalam
Accusative a÷vam phalam
Instrumental a÷vena phalena
Dative a÷vàya phalàya
Ablative a÷vàt phalàt
Genitive a÷vasya phalasya
Locative a÷ve phale

Dual Nominative a÷vau phale

Vocative a÷vau phale
Accusative a÷vau phale
Instrumental a÷vàbhyàm phalàbhyàm
Dative a÷vàbhyàm phalàbhyàm
Ablative a÷vàbhyàm phalàbhyàm
Genitive a÷vayoþ phalayoþ
Locative a÷vayoþ phalayoþ

Plural Nominative a÷vàþ phalàni

Vocative a÷vàþ phalàni
Accusative a÷vàn phalàni
Instrumental a÷vaiþ phalaiþ
Dative a÷vebyaþ phalebyaþ
Ablative a÷vebyaþ phalebyaþ
Genitive a÷vànàm phalànàm
Locative a÷veùu phaleùu

The plethora of new case endings may seem daunting, but you have seen some of these forms
before. The ablative singular ending -àt corresponds to archaic Latin -od, which eventually
dropped the d. The genitive ending -asya appears in Homeric Greek as -oio, from *-osyo. The
dative and ablative plural ending -bhyaþ is familiar to Latin students as -bus. The -àm in the
genitive plural corresponds to Greek -wn.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

de÷aþ country
pàdaþ foot
mitram friend
sarva all, every (sarve: all men)

prabhå (1), prabhavati arise, prevail, have power

idànãm now

Reading Vocabulary

andha blind
kaõa one-eyed
praticchandakam portrait, picture

abilikh (Class 6), abilikhati draw (pictures)

Note also the proper names, Kalahaüsaka, Màdhava, and Ràma.

Exercise 1 (Coulson 5a, 5b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from
English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your
results.

6. kùetreùu sarve bhramanti. 13. duþkhàyaiva mitràõàmidànãü Ràmasya dar÷anam (duþkhàya

eva mitràõàm idànãü Ràmasya dar÷anam). 16. andhànàü de÷e kàõa eva prabhavati (andhànàü
de÷e kanaþ eva prabhavati). 17. kalahaüsaka kenaitanmàdhavasya
praticchandakamabhilikhitam (Kalahaüsaka, kena etat Màdhavasya praticchandakam
abhilikhitam?).

10. He falls at the blind (man)'s feet.

Day 2

Pronouns in the New Cases; Ayam; Expressions of Time

As we play catch-up with the cases, we may now examine the complete paradigms of the
personal, demonstrative, and interrogative pronouns that we have learned so far.

Type of Pronoun 1st Person (I/We) 2nd Person (You)

Singular Nominative aham tvam

Accusative màm tvàm
Instrumental mayà tvayà
Dative mahyam (me) tubhyam (te)
Ablative mat, mattaþ tvat, tvattaþ
Genitive mama (me) tava (te)
Locative mayi tvayi

Dual Nominative àvàm yuvàm

Accusative àvàm (nau) yuvàm (vàm)
Instrumental àvàbhyàm yuvàbhyàm
Dative àvàbhyàm (nau) yuvàbhyàm (vàm)
Ablative àvàbhyàm yuvàbhyàm
Genitive àvayoþ (nau) yuvayoþ (vàm)
Locative àvayoþ yuvayoþ

Plural Nominative vayam yåyam

Accusative asmàn (naþ) yuùmàn (vaþ)
Instrumental asmàbhiþ yuùmàbhiþ
Dative asmabhyam (naþ) yuùmabhyam (vaþ)
Ablative asmat, asmattaþ) yuùmat, yuùmattaþ
Genitive asmàkam (naþ) yuùmàkam (vaþ)
Locative asmàsu yuùmàsu

Person/Gender of 3rd Masculine (He...) 3rd Neuter (It...)

Pronoun

Singular Nominative sa, saþ tat

Accusative tam tat
Instrumental tena tena
Dative tasmai tasmai
Ablative tasmàt tasmàt
Genitive tasya tasya
Locative tasmin tasmin

Dual Nominative tau te

Accusative tau te
Instrumental tàbhyàm tàbhyàm
Dative tàbhyàm tàbhyàm
Ablative tàbhyàm tàbhyàm
Genitive tayoþ tayoþ
Locative tayoþ tayoþ

Plural Nominative te tàni

Accusative tàn tàni
Instrumental taiþ taiþ
Dative tebhyaþ tebhyaþ
Ablative tebhyaþ tebhyaþ
Genitive teùàm teùàm
Locative teùu teùu
Eùaþ and kaþ follow the forms for saþ, given above.

The first- and second-person pronouns have alternate forms, which appear above in parentheses
(me, te, nau, vàm, naþ, vaþ). These are only used enclitically, which is to say that, like eva, iti, etc.,
they tend to 'lean' on an emphatic word:

ime naþ gçhàþ. Here are our houses.

Compare Latin me, te, nos, and vos, and the unaccented forms in Greek (mou, sou, etc.). The plural
forms also show up in the Slavic languages (e.g., Slavonic nas, vas).

Most of the pronoun-endings resemble those found on nouns, but there are a few clunkers, such
as tasmai and tasmin. These are easily learned with practice.

While we are on the subject of pronouns, Coulson introduces a new one, ayam (this). It is
synonymous with eùaþ, except that the latter has the stronger pointing force (this here). Ayam has
somewhat irregular forms, because it is a composite of two demonstrative elements: a (cf. atra,
here) and i (cf. itaþ, this way).

Singular Nominative ayam idam

Accusative imam idam
Instrumental anena anena
Dative asmai asmai
Ablative asmàt asmàt
Genitive asya asya
Locative asmin asmin

Dual Nominative imau ime

Accusative imau ime
Instrumental àbhyàm àbhyàm
Dative àbhyàm àbhyàm
Ablative àbhyàm àbhyàm
Genitive anayoþ anayoþ
Locative anayoþ anayoþ

Plural Nominative ime imàni

Accusative imàn imàni
Instrumental ebhiþ ebhiþ
Dative ebhyaþ ebhyaþ
Ablative ebhyaþ ebhyaþ
Genitive eùàm eùàm
Locative eùu eùu

Many of these forms will remind you of Latin is, ea, id.

You may remember that Latin has a few adjectives that inexplicably show pronoun endings in
certain cases (e.g., alter shows a genitive singular in alterius). Sanskrit also has a few of these
anamolous adjectives: anya (other), sarva (all), eka (one), and sva (own, cf. Latin suus). Anya can
also mean 'else', as in anyaþ kaþ (who else?).
Like Latin and Greek, Sanskrit uses different cases to talk about time. The following chart
summarizes Coulson's rules:

Semantic Category Sanskrit Case Example

Duration of Time Accusative trãn divasàn
for three days
Time Within Which Instrumental tribhiþ divasaiþ
within three days
Time After Which Ablative (or Genitive) tribhyaþ divasebhyaþ
after three days
Time When Locative trãtye divase
on the third day

Note that Latin collapsed the last three categories into the ablative case.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

ayam this
anya other
upàyaþ method, means, way
eka one
kumàraþ prince
prativacanam answer, reply
muhårta short while, minute

÷ru (5), ÷çõoti hear, listen

api and, too

Exercise 2 (Coulson 5a, 5b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from
English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your
results.

5. asminnudyàne muhårtamupavi÷àvaþ (asmin udyàne muhårtam upavi÷àvaþ ). 8. kamupàyaü

pa÷yasi mama putrànàü dar÷anàya (kam upàyam pa÷yasi mama putrànàm dar÷anàya?). 10.
ayaü kumàrastiùñhati (ayam kumàraþ tiùñhati). 14. anyebhyo'pi devenaitacchrutam (anyebhyaþ
api devena etat ÷rutam).

2. From this house he was led to the woods. 4. The anger of these two is extraordinary. 5. You
have been seen, my sons. 12. This reply of the prince (will make) for anger.

Day 3

To Be, To Have, To Feel; The Absolutive

We are used to thinking of the verb to be in various languages as 'irregular'. This is often due,
however, to the fact that two or three different verbs have been collapsed into one paradigm.
Sanksrit has two verbs meaning 'to be': bhu (cf. English be) and as (cf. English is).
Bhu is conjugated in the present tense as a regular Class 1 verb:

1st Person Singular bhavàmi I am

2nd bhavasi you are
3rd bhavati he is
1st Person Dual bhavàvaþ we two are
2nd bhavathaþ you two are
3rd bhavataþ those two are
1st Person Plural bhavàmaþ we are
2nd bhavatha y'all are
3rd bhavanti they are

Bhu may be used in linking sentences as an alternative to the nominal sentence structure we
studied earlier. It can also mean 'exist' and 'arise'.

dar÷anam eva asya ramiõãyaü bhavati. The mere sight of it is delightful.

khrodàdbhavati saümohaþ (khrodàt From anger arises delusion.
bhavati saümohaþ)

The verb as is cognate with Latin esse and Greek ei~nai. It's forms will look vaguely familiar:

1st Person Singular asmi I am

2nd asi you are
3rd asti he is
1st Person Dual svaþ we two are
2nd sthaþ you two are
3rd staþ those two are
1st Person Plural smaþ we are
2nd stha y'all are
3rd santi they are

As in Latin, the present stem of this verb is really s, to which the personal endings are added
directly. An additional vowel a is added to the singular forms (cf. Latin e-st).

As can be used as a linking verb in the first and second persons, but in the third person it
typically has an existential force:

asti parvateùu nagaram. There is a city in the mountains.

This construction is also common in both Greek and Latin:

Est musca in iure. There is a fly in my soup.

Another thing that our favorite dead languages have in common is the use of the verb to be to
express possession:

Filiis tuis nulla est pecunia. There is no money to your sons.

Your sons have no money.

In both Latin and Greek, the dative case is used for the possessor (e.g., filiis). In Sanskrit,
however, the genitive is used:

tava putràõàü dhanaü na bhavati. There is no money of your sons.

Your sons have no money.

The verb bhu or as may be omitted in such sentences.

Another idiomatic use of the verb to be occurs in conjunction with iva (as if), where it means 'to
feel'

a÷arana ivàsmi (a÷aranaþ iva asmi). I am as if helpless.

I feel helpless.

Now we will move on the absolutive construction. But first: remember the Latin supine? Who
could forget! You probably learned that it comes in two flavors: an accusative form (e.g., cubitum,
to lie down) and an ablative form (dictu, in the telling).

As it happens, the Latin supine is a survival of an Indo-European verbal noun-formation ending

in -tu, which was declined in various cases. A relic of this thing also turns up in Sanskrit. The
accusative -um form became the Sanskrit infinitive (e.g. netum, to lead). We will come back to this
later. The other surviving case is the instrumental, which ends in -tvà.

The instrumental form is used in Sanskrit as an adverbial modifier: 'after...-ing', 'by ...ing.' For this
reason, it is called the absolutive or gerund form. -Tvà is added to the weak grade of the root (also
seen in the past participle), producing forms such as these:

Root and Past Participle Absolutive Meaning

nã, nãta nãtvà after leading
dç÷, dçùta dçùtvà after seeing
vad, ukta uktvà after saying

The absolutive in -tvà may only be used with uncompounded verbs (i.e., verbs without a prefix).
Compound verbs add the ending -ya (or -tya or -mya), which may bring internal sandhi into play:

Root Absolutive Meaning

saüdç÷ saüdç÷ya after seeing
àgam àgamya after coming
prativad pratyucya after replying

The absolutive forms are usually easy to recognize, but in case of doubt you will find them in
Coulson's list of principal parts in Appendix 2.

Finally, some odds and ends. You may recall that Latin forms indefinite pronouns by adding
indeclinable suffixes such as -que (quisque, anyone) and -cumque (quicumque, whoever). In
Sanskrit, the indefinite particles are cit and api.

udyàne ka÷ciccarati (udyàne kaþ cit Somebody is walking in the park.

carati).
kenàpi jalaü pãtam (kena api jalam The water has been drunk by somebody.
pitam). Somebody has drunk the water.
These particles also generalize adverbs:

kçtaþ kathamapi gañhaþ. Somehow the pot was made.

Somehow he made the pot.

Add the negative particle na to get across ideas such as no one, nowhere, etc.:

udyàne na ka÷ciccarati (udyàne na kaþ Nobody is walking in the park.

cit carati).

We also have khalu, which functions in the same way as eva, as a particle of emphasis.
The difference is that eva conveys new information, while khalu stresses what is already known. For
this reason, it is often translated 'indeed':

dàruõa eva asi. You are cruel.

dàruõaþ kahlvasi (dàruõa kahlu asi). You are cruel indeed (just as I thought).

Finally, Coulson calls your attention to a couple of regular, but counter-intuitive examples of
external sandhi. First, when the consonant n follows a short vowel and precedes another vowel, it
is doubled:

tvaü tadàtmannasi (tvam tat àtman asi). You are the Self.

When a final t combines with a following ÷, the combination is spelled cch.

tacchobhanaü nagaram (tat ÷obhanam that beautiful city.

nagaram)

Note also the proper names, Kalahaüsaka, Màdhava, and Ràma.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

ka÷cit, ko'pi someone, etc.

puùpam flower
pustakam book
màrgaþ road
hçdayam heart

as (2), asti be
grah (9), gçhõati seize, take
pat (1), patati fall
bhu (1), bhavati become, be

Reading Vocabulary

àvegaþ alarm
kùaõaþ second, moment
pàpa evil, bad; villain
iha here, in this world
khalu indeed
tu but, however
hà! ah! oh!

Exercise 3 (Coulson 5a, 5b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from
English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your
results.

1. imau svaþ. 2. prativacanaü me ÷rutvà kim anyadicchanti (prativacanaü me ÷rutvà kim anyat
icchanti?). 3. nàstyeva te pustakam (na asti eva te pustakam). 4. vayasya hçdayamivàsi mama
(vayasya, hçdayam iva asi mama). 7. deva anyasmànnagaràdbràhmanaþ ka÷cidàgataþ (deva,
anyasmàt nagaràt brahmanaþ kaþ cit àgataþ). 9. khrodhamasya dçùtvàvega iva no hçdaye
(khrodam asya dçùtvà avegaþ iva naþ hçdaye). 11. kathaü kùaõamevopavi÷ya dçùte mayà
punarapi mitre (kathaü, kùaõam eva upavi÷ya dçùte mayà punar api mitre). 12. anyaþ ko'pi
màrgo na bhavati (anyaþ kaþ api màrgaþ na bhavati). 15. gçhaü pravi÷ya kva kvedànãm sa pàpa
iti sarvàn pçcchati (gçhaü pravi÷ya kva kva idànãm saþ pàpaþ iti sarvàn pçcchati).

1. You are blind indeed. 3. And they went to the park and seized the villains. 6. But we have
friends in Candanadàsa's house. 7. I ask because I'm tired. 8. We have seen this on all the
country's roads. 9. Your majesty, I am that same prince. 11. By some means I saw (them) all. 13.
But hearing this they sit on the road. 14. Kalahaüsaka, we have no interest in books. 15. In just
one garden there are a few flowers. 16. Even after seeing everything your highness says nothing.
17. What, have you doubt about it (atra)? 18. Oh Makaranda, oh Kalahaüsaka, your friend has
gone. 19. But the prince stayed in another place and heard the villain's whole reply. 20. What
advantage does this man see in anger?

Chapter 6

Day 1

Feminine Gender

So far, we have been studying nouns and adjectives in the Sanskrit equivalent of the Second
Declension in Latin and Greek. Thus, we have only seen masculine and neuter forms. Now we will
look at feminine forms, which correspond to the First Declension in our favorite dead languages.

Coulson refers you to the feminine column of the adjective kànta in the back of the book. Here, I
will set out the forms of the noun senà (army).

Singular Nominative senà

Vocative sene
Accusative senàm
Instrumental senayà
Dative senàyai
Ablative senàyàþ
Genitive senàyàþ
Locative senàyàm

Dual Nominative sene

Vocative sene
Accusative sene
Instrumental senàbhyàm
Dative senàbhyàm
Ablative senàbhyàm
Genitive senayoþ
Locative senayoþ

Plural Nominative senàþ

Vocative senàþ
Accusative senàþ
Instrumental senàbhiþ
Dative senàbhyaþ
Ablative senàbhyaþ
Genitive senànàm
Locative senàsu

This paradigm has many endings in common with the masculine and neuter forms you have
already learned. The chief difference is that the femine forms are built on a stem ending in à (or
ayà). This corresponds to the h/a of Attic Greek. Senayàþ, for example, corresponds to the
genitive singular form, strati/aj. Other forms overlap with those of pronouns (e.g, senayà, cf.
mayà).

Pronouns also have feminine forms, but only in the third person. The feminine equivalent of saþ
is sà:

Singular Nominative sà
Accusative tàm
Instrumental tayà
Dative tasyai
Ablative tasyàþ
Genitive tasyàþ
Locative tasyàm

Dual Nominative te
Accusative te
Instrumental tàbhyàm
Dative tàbhyàm
Ablative tàbhyàm
Genitive tayoþ
Locative tayoþ

Plural Nominative tàþ

Accusative tàþ
Instrumental tàbhiþ
Dative tàbhyaþ
Ablative tàbhyaþ
Genitive tàsàm
Locative tàsu

These forms follow the noun paradigm quite closely, but notice the occasional intrusion of s (e.g.,
tasyai, tàsàm). The same endings will seen on the pronouns eùaþ (feminine eùà) and kaþ (feminine
kà).

Here are the feminine forms of the demonstrative ayam (this one, this). For the most part, they
show predictable feminine endings built on a variable stem (im-, an-, as-, à-).

Singular Nominative iyam

Accusative imàm
Instrumental anayà
Dative asyai
Ablative asyàþ
Genitive asyàþ
Locative asyàm

Dual Nominative ime

Accusative ime
Instrumental àbhyàm
Dative àbhyàm
Ablative àbhyàm
Genitive anayoþ
Locative anayoþ

Plural Nominative imàþ

Accusative imàþ
Instrumental àbhiþ
Dative àbhyaþ
Ablative àbhyaþ
Genitive àsàm
Locative àsu

Note especially the nominative singular forms of ayam: ayam (masculine), idam (neuter), and iyam
(feminine). These correspond to the Latin forms, is, ea, id.

There are also a number of feminine nouns and adjectives in Sanskrit that end in -ã (e.g. nadã,
river). These will be learned later.

Keep in mind that adjectives must agree with nouns and pronouns in gender, number, and case:

ramaõãyà vàrttà pleasant news

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

ambà (voc. amba) mother

àrya noble
kaùta grievous, harsh
cintà worry
mudrà seal
vàrttà news
sevà attendance, servitude

prati + sidh (I), restrain, forbid

pratiùedhati
past part. pratiùiddha

kim-artham for what purpose, why?

kutaþ from where?

Reading Vocabulary

avasthà state, condition

à÷aõkà apprehension

Exercise 1 (Coulson 6a and 6b). Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English and
from English to Sanskrit.

4. kutaþ punariyaü vàrttà (kutaþ punar iyam vàrttà?). 7. tvam àryàbhiþ putra iva gçhãtaþ (tvam
àryàbhiþ putraþ iva gçhãtaþ). 9. amba kà asi. kimarthamahaü tvayà pratiùiddhaþ (amba, kà asi?
kim-artham ahaü tvayà pratiùiddhaþ?). 11. saiveyam (sà eva iyam). 13. kaùñà khalu sevà. 15. kiü
tavànayà cintayà (kim tava anayà cintayà?).

5. In that case whose is this seal? 9. Do not be apprehensive (away with apprehension).11. How
(is it that) you do not see Rama's condition?

Day 2

Determinative Compounds

One gets the impression that speakers of Sanskrit, having evolved a complicated set of endings
for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, thereupon decided to use these endings as little as possible.
Classical Sanskrit is rich in compound formations, which frequently stand in for the seven cases.

As it happens, this is a feature of Modern English, as well. Consider the following examples:

English Compound Meaning

girlfriend a friend who is a girl
door-stop something that stops a door
sword-fight a fight with a sword
dining room a room for dining
book-learning learning from a book
status-symbol a symbol of status
side door a door on the side

Notice that each of these examples corresponds to one of the Sanskrit cases. Compound
formations allow one to side-step the formal markers of case-grammar (endings in Sanskrit,
phrases in English) and to leave these relationships implied.

Each of the compounds above is called determinative, because the first element limits the meaning
of the second. For example, a sword-fight is not any kind of fight, but a fight with swords.
Compounds in which the first element could have been expressed in one of the oblique cases (i.e.,
accusative through locative) are called dependent determinatives. Compounds expressing a
relationship in the nominative case (e.g., girlfriend) are called descriptive determinatives. Coulson
uses punctuation marks to distinguish these two types (e.g., sword-fight, girl:friend).

Compounds may be composed of different parts of speech. The same basic structure can be used
to combine a noun with another noun (sword-fight), an adjective with a noun (great:king), a noun
with an adjective or participle (man-slaying), or an adverb with a adjective (far-seeing).

Notice also that when you hear the word garage-owner, it is not immediately clear whether the
guy owns one garage or several. This is because the first element of a compound always appears
in its basic form, which is not marked for number (cf. child welfare, which relates to the welfare of
children).

Sanskrit compounds likewise show the uninflected, basic form of the determining element. This
is usually the stem in short a for masculine and neuter nouns, and à for feminine nouns:

Sanskrit Compound Meaning

priya:bàlaþ (= priyaþ bàlaþ) dear boy
nara-pustakam (= narasya pustakam) man-book (a man's book)
satya-sthaþ (= satye sthaþ) truth-established (established in truth)
vàrttà-÷ravaõam (= vàrttàyàþ ÷ravanam) news-hearing (hearing of the news)

See Coulson's essay for additional wrinkles and examples. His main point is that compounds are
used very freely in Sanskrit, and this can result in considerable ambiguity. For example, 'ice cold'
in English is a descriptive determinative compound, meaning 'cold as ice'. In Sanskrit, however,
hima-÷i÷era can mean either 'cold as ice' (descriptive determinative) or 'cold from the ice'
(dependent determinative). Usually, the context will make the meaning clear.

Vocabulary

At this point in the textbook, Coulson begins to pile on the new vocabulary, as his sentences get
more complex. This is where my distinction between high-frequency 'memorization' vocabulary
and lower-frequency 'reading' vocabulary should pay off. You will only be responsible for the
former on your tests and quizzes. You might want to keep alphabetized list of the latter handy
for working through the exercises. You can also use the vocabularies in the back of Coulson's
book, or the 'Sanskrit Made Easy' lemmatizer in Huet's Sanskrit Heritage site (in French).

Memorization Vocabulary

à÷ramaþ hermitage
katama which
nirvànam bliss
netram eye
prayojanam purpose
mçgaþ deer
lokaþ world
satya true
satyam truly

labh (I), labhate (a middle take, gain, win

form; we will learn it later)
past participle labdham

ittham thus, so

Reading Vocabulary

àgamanam coming, arrival

anarthaþ reverse, disaster
abhij¤a conversant with (gen.)
amàtyaþ minister
àrambhaþ beginning
udde÷aþ region, part, place
kàryam task
kàlaþ time
Kusumaparm name of a city
ku÷ulam welfare
dvayam duo, pair
parihàsaþ joke
paurajanaþ citizenry, townfok
prade÷a place
pravàtam breeze
Màrãcaþ proper name
mådha deluded, idiotic
vistãrõa extensive
vçttàntaþ news, happening
vyavahàraþ usage
Lakùmanaþ proper name
øoõottarà proper name
subhaga delightful

pari + grah (IX), accept

parigçhnàti

kaùñam alas!

Exercise 2 (Coulson 6a and 6b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English and
from English to Sanskrit.

1. ÷oõottare kimàgamanproyojanam (øoõottare, kim àgamana-prayojanam?). 2. kaùtam

anarthadvayamàpatitam (kaùtam, anartha-dvayam àpatitam). 3. mahàràja api ku÷alaü
kumaralakùmaõasya (mahàràja, api ku÷alaü kumàralakùmaõasya kumàra:Lakùmanasya?). 5.
satyamitthaübhåta evàsmi (satyam itthaü-bhåtaþ eva asmi). 6. amàtya vistãrõaþ
Kusumapuravçtàntaþ (amàtya, vistãrõaþ Kusumapura-vçtàntaþ). 8. katamasminprade÷e
Màrãcà÷ramaþ (katamasmin prade÷e Màrãca-à÷ramaþ?).

1. This is a deer-of-the-hermitage. 2. A-beginning-in-the-task has been made. 3. Here stands

Minister:Rakùasa. 4. Idiot, this is no time-for-jokes. 6. You are indeed conversant with the usages-
of-the-world. 7. Then did the townsfolk not accept our:word? 8. Oh, this part-of-the-wood is
delightful-for-its-breeze. 10. (I) have gained a bliss-for-the-eyes.
Day 3

Prepositions; Action Nouns in -a; External Sandhi

With six oblique cases and optional compound formations at its disposal, Sanskrit has little use
for prepositional phrases. Nevertheless, a few prepositions are common:

Preposition Case Meaning Example

à ablative up to à samudràt
up to the ocean
prati accusative towards, against, vanaü prati
with regard to towards the forest
saha instrumental with saha gajaiþ
with elephants
vinà instrumental without gajaiþ vinà
without elephants

Note that in Sanskrit, some 'prepositions' regularly come after the word they modify. This
occasionally happens in Latin and Greek, as well (e.g., vobiscum).

Note that in Sanskrit, à + ablative means 'up to', not 'away from'. Presumably, the ablative is used
because the emphasis is on the boundary-making function of the preposition.

Coulson's discussion points to the fact that many prepositions originated as adverbs (e.g., prati);
this is why they can also be prefixed to verbs. Others originated as nouns (e.g., vinà, which shows
an instrumental ending). These facts explain some common difficulties with Latin and Greek
prepositions, as well (e.g., Latin contra, which is both an adverb and a preposition).

Next, we turn to word-building. Cicero, when he was writing on philosophy, famously

complained about the shortage in Latin of abstract nouns. Greek, he thought, was better suited to
philosophical discourse. He should have learned Sanskrit.

Sanskrit commonly creates nouns from verbs by adding -a to the verbal root. This produces a
masculine noun of the a÷va type:

Verbal Root Noun Formation

krudh (be angry) krodhaþ (anger)
di÷ (point) de÷aþ (point, place, country)

Note that turning a verb into a noun often results in an 'upgrade' of the root vowel from its basic
form to the guõa grade (krudh > krodh), and in some cases to the vçddhi grade (bhç, to bear > bhàraþ,
burden). Another common change is from palatal consonants to velar consonants (÷uc, grieve >
÷okaþ, grief). You will learn these nouns as you go along, but knowing how they were formed will
help you make connections with familiar verbs.

Finally, Coulson notes a few examples of ambiguity in external sandhi. This often happens in
spoken English, too:

'n all my days in all my days

what with the riot 'n' all what with the riot and all
Usually, the context clarifies what is going on. Similarly in Sanskrit:

a÷va eva (a÷vaþ eva) vanaü gacchati. The horse goes to the forest.
a÷va eva (a÷ve eva) bàlastiùñhati. The boy stands on the horse.

Have a look at Coulson's examples and be on the lookout for these combinations.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

à÷à hope
ãdç÷a of this kind, such
ubha both (only dual)
kanyà daughter, girl
kulam family
puram city
pauraþ citizen

à + pat (I), àpatati befall, happen

upa + gam (I), upagacchati go to, reach

aho oh
iha here
prati (+ accusative) to, towards, with regard to

Reading Vocabulary

akùaram syllable, written character

anu÷ayaþ repentance, regret
abhilàùaþ craving, passion for
asphuña unclear, illegible
uparàgaþ eclipse
Kaumudãmahotsavaþ Full Moon Festival
caritam conduct, deeds
tàpasaþ ascetic
Duþùantaþ proper name
niyata unconstrained
niyatam necessarily
niyojyaþ servant
pathaþ (usually at the end of path
a compound)
Pauravaþ descendant of Paru
prajà subject (of a king)
pratiùedhaþ prohibition, cancellation
prathita widely known
prave÷aþ entry
priyà beloved (woman)
bhadra good; f. madam
maõóapa (m. or n.) pavilion, bower
mahàràjaþ great king
mahotsavaþ great festival
Màdhavyaþ proper name
latà creeper
Vàsavaþ (epithet of) Indra
Vçùalaþ proper name
vyasanam vice, vicious failing
vratam vow
øakuntalà proper name
÷ravanam hearing
÷rotriyhaþ learned (brahmin), scholar
saüvegaþ agitation
sthànam place, occasion
sthàne in place, appropriate

pari + bhuj (VII), enjoy

paribhunakti; past
participle paribhukta
pra + nam (I), praõamati make obeisance to (+
dative, genitive, locative, or
accusative)
vi + pra + labh, mislead, deceive
vipralabhate

tat (as connecting particle) so, then

tarhi in that case
nanu surely (as in the movie
Airplane)

Exercise 3(Coulson 6a and 6b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English and
from English to Sanskrit.

10. nanvanu÷ayasthànametat (nanu anu÷aya-sthànam etat). 12. ubhàbhyàmapi vàü

vàsavaniyojyo duþùantaþ praõamati (ubhàbhyàm api vàm Vàsava-niyojyaþ Duþùantaþ
praõamati). 14. na khalu vçùalasya ÷ravanapathamupagatoyaü mayà kçtaþ
kaumudãmahotsavapratiùedaþ (na khalu Vçùalasya ÷ravana-patham upagataþ ayam mayà kçtaþ
Kaumudãmahotsava-pratiùedaþ?). 16. màdhava apyasti te ÷akuntalàdar÷anaü prati kutåhalam
(Màdhava, api asti te øakuntalà-dar÷anam prati kutåhalam?). 17. ÷rotriyalikhitànyakùaràõi
prayatnalikhitànyapi niyatamasphuñàni bhavanti (÷rotriya-likhitàni akùaràõi prayatna-likhitàni
api niyatam asphuñàni bhavanti).

12. Sàrïgarava, such agitation on your part (of you) from-entering-the-city is indeed appropriate.
13. Descendants of Puru have this family:vow. 14. Madam, Duþùanta's-conduct is widely known
among his subjects. 15. Then have done now with the vice-of-hope. 16. I do not of course truly
have a passion for the ascetic's-daughter. 17. But with regard to the eclipse-of-the-moon someone
has misled you. 18. I'll stay for a while just here in the bower-of-creepers enjoyed-by-my-beloved.

Chapter 7

Day 1
Feminine Nouns in -ã; Consonant Stem Nouns

In the last chapter, we saw feminine nouns and adjectives in -à (e.g., senà). Some other feminine
nouns follow the paradigm of nadã (river):

Singular Nominative nadã

Vocative nadi
Accusative nadãm
Instrumental nadyà
Dative nadyai
Ablative nadyàþ
Genitive nadyàþ
Locative nadyàm

Dual Nominative nadyau

Vocative nadyau
Accusative nadyau
Instrumental nadãbhyàm
Dative nadãbhyàm
Ablative nadãbhyàm
Genitive nadyoþ
Locative nadyoþ

Plural Nominative nadyaþ

Vocative nadyaþ
Accusative nadãþ
Instrumental nadãbhiþ
Dative nadãbhyaþ
Ablative nadãbhyaþ
Genitive nadãnàm
Locative nadãùu

For the most part, these forms follow the paradigm for senà, except that the endings are built on
the vowel -ã, which changes to y before vowels. Note also the forms nadyau and nadyaþ, which are
'borrowed' from other declensions.

Some adjectives follow this paradigm in the feminine gender. Others show both the à-stem and the
ã-stem forms (e.g., papà and papã, wicked). Adjectives of this type are indicated in vocabularies
and dictionaries.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

udvigna distressed
cira long (of time)
ciram for a long time
devã goddess, queen, majesty
sakhã female friend
Sãtà proper name

pratibudh wake (someone)

caus. pratibodhayati
viyuj (7), viyuïkte disjoin, deprive of (+
instrumental)

Reading Vocabulary

atyàhitam calamity
adar÷anam lack of sight, not seeing
aye ah!
tãram bank
dåre far away
pratikàraþ remedy
bhayam fear, danger
sarasã lake
svàgatam welcome to (+ dative)

anugraþ (9), anugçhõati favor

Exericse 1 (Coulson 7a and 7b).

1. aye, iyaü devã. 2. pratibhodita evàsmi kenàpi (pratibhoditaþ eva asmi kena api). 9.
ciramadar÷anenàryasya vayamudvignàþ (ciram adar÷anena àryasya vayam udvignàþ). 14. àrye
kimatyàhitaü sãtadevyàþ (àrye, kim atyàhitam Sãta:devyàþ?). 10. svàgataü devyai.

1. I am Atreyi. 3. This is the bank-of-the-lake. 9. Dear [sakhã] Madyantikà, welcome. You [bhavatã]
have favored our-house. 12. Why did you two ladies check me?

Day 2

Consonant Stem Nouns

Most nouns in Sanskrit belong to the -a, -à and -ã types. But a number of common nouns, as well
as suffixed forms, add the endings directly to a stem which ends in a consonant. This type, which
reflects an older stage of Indo-European noun-formation, corresponds to the Third Declension of
Latin and Greek:

Singular Nominative cor fu/lac

Genitive cord-is fulak-o/j

Nouns of this type often seem 'irregular', principally for two reasons. First, the consonant on the
end of the stem may change to suit the ending (e.g. rex, regis). Second, a shift in stress may alter
the stem (e.g., a0nh/r, a0ne/ra, a0ndro/j [< a0nero/j]). We will iron out these wrinkles over the next few
lessons. The endings, however, remain more or less constant.

For now, let's have a look at the nouns suhçd (friend; cf. cor, cordis), goduh (cowherd), and manas
(mind; cf. mens).
Sing. Nominative suhçt (m.) godhuk (m. or f.) manaþ (n.)
Vocative suhçt godhuk manaþ
Accusative suhçdam goduham manaþ
Instrumental suhçdà goduhà manasà
Dative suhçde goduhe manase
Ablative suhçdaþ goduhaþ manasaþ
Genitive suhçdaþ goduhaþ manasaþ
Locative suhçdi goduhi manasi

Dual Nominative suhçdau goduhau manasã

Vocative suhçdau goduhau manasã
Accusative suhçdau goduhau manasã
Instrumental suhçdbhyàm godhugbhyàm manobhyàm
Dative suhçdbhyàm godhugbhyàm manobhyàm
Ablative suhçdbhyàm godhugbhyàm manobhyàm
Genitive suhçdoþ goduhoþ manasoþ
Locative suhçdoþ goduhoþ manasoþ

Dual Nominative suhçdaþ goduhaþ manàüsi

Vocative suhçdaþ goduhaþ manàüsi
Accusative suhçdaþ goduhaþ manàüsi
Instrumental suhçdbhiþ godhugbhiþ manobhiþ
Dative suhçdbhyaþ godhugbhyaþ manobhyaþ
Ablative suhçdbhyaþ godhugbhyaþ manobhyaþ
Genitive suhçdàm goduhàm manasàm
Locative suhçtsu godhuksu manaþsu

First, let's just look at the endings. Some of these have turned up before, especially on pronouns
and feminine nouns (-à [instrumental singular], -au, -bhyàm, -oþ, -bhiþ, -bhyaþ, -su). Others will
look more familiar if you remember their Latin and Greek cognates:

Accusative suhçd-am reg-em fu/lak-a

Singular (originally a
vocalized m)
Genitive Singular suhçd-aþ (<-as) reg-is fu/lak-oj
Nominative and suhçd-aþ reg-es fu/lak-ej
Accusative Plural fu/lak-aj
Genitive Plural suhçdàm reg-um fula/k-wn

What makes these paradigms a little more difficult is the frequency of changes in the stem.

First, a noun may show one stem before endings that begin with a vowel (e.g, goduh-aþ) and
another before endings that begin with a consonant (e.g., godhug-bhyam). These changes can be
learned on a case-by-case basis.

Second, the rules of internal sandhi sometimes require a change in the final consonant of the stem
(e.g., godhug-bhyàm vs. godhuk-su). These rules are somewhat complex, but it will help to
remember the phonetic classes to which the consonants belong (see Chapter 1). For example,
godhug- and ghoduk- both end in velar (guttural) consonants; the difference is that g is voiced, and
k is unvoiced. Thus, the stem changes to harmonize with the following consonant (bh is voiced; s
is unvoiced).

Likewise, the 'permitted finals' to which Coulson alludes are usually the unvoiced stops in each
phonetic class (e.g, k, ñ, t, and p; velars and palatals are treated as one class). These are the sounds
that you will find on the end of the nominative singular (e.g. suhçt, from the stem suhçd).

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

kathà story, talk

yatnaþ effort
÷arãram body
÷iras (n.) head
suhçd (m.) friend
sva one's own

avaté (1), avatarati descend

caus. avatàrayati remove
upahç (1), upaharati offer
pà (1), pibati drink
vçdh (1), vardhate grow
caus. vardhayati increase

Reading Vocabulary

atyanta excessive, extreme

àbharanam ornament
asthàne not in place, inappropriate
auùadam medicine
ghàtakaþ executioner
chàyà shade
bhavatã you (polite form of adress
to a woman)
vatsala affectionate, loving
vadhya condemned to death
vedanà ache, pain
vaidyaþ doctor
sahya bearable
saujanyam kindness
snehaþ affection

apahç (1), apaharati carry off

à÷ri (1), a÷rayati, a÷rayate resort to (+ accusative)
past part. à÷rita
dç÷ caus. dar÷ayati show
past part. dar÷ita
niyuj (7) niyuïkte engage (someone) upon (+
locative)
pratipàl (10), pratipalayati wait for
preù (pra + iù) despatch, send
preùayati
vidru (1), vidravati run away
caus. vidràvayati disperse, chase away
lajj (6), lajjate embarrass
caus. lajjayati

tàvat, yàvat just (I'll just buy a

newspaper)

Exercise 2

4. aho vatsalena suhçdàviyuktàþ smaþ (aho vatsalena suhçdà viyuktàþ smaþ). 6. aryàpi sahyà
÷irovedanà (arya, api sahyà ÷iraþ-vedanà?). 7. lajjayati màmatyantasaujanyameùàm (lajjayati
màm atyanta:saujanyam eùàm). 17. kaùñamubhayorapyasthàne yatnaþ (kaùñam, ubhayoþ api
asthàne yatnaþ). 19. vayamapi tàvad bhavatyau sakhãgataü kiücitpçcchàmaþ (vayam api tàvat
bhavatyau sakhã-gatam kiücit pçcchàmaþ). 20. amàtya idamàbharaõaü kumàreõa
sva÷arãràdavatàrya preùitam (amàtya, idam àbharaõam kumàreõa sva:÷arãràt avatàrya [having
removed] preùitam).

2. You increase my curiosity. 4. I will just wait for these girls having resorted to the shade. 7. Oh,
you have shown love-for-[your]-friend. 15. I have in fact engaged her-dear-friend Buddharakùità
on the matter [tatra]. 17. This dear-friend Siddhàrthaka chased the executioners away and carried
me off from the place-of-the-condemned. 20. That doctor indeed was made to drink the same
medicine, and [at once] died [use ca...ca...].

Day 3

Causative Verbs; Compounds Again

In your previous language studies, you gamely tackled the complexities of tense, mood, and voice.
Each of these categories generated a new set of paradigms, in which the stem and/or endings
underwent some signal modification. But you may also have been vaguely aware of other verbal
derivations, which were not presented as something new to be learned.

For example, you may have noticed that in Latin there are apparently two ways of saying I sing:
cano (inf. canere) and canto (inf. cantare). Later, you discovered that other Latin verbs have an evil
twin of the -tare type (e.g., dico > dicto; lego > lectito, capio > capto). The second verb often has the
semantic feature of repeated action (e.g., lectito, I keep reading). This is called the frequentative
derivation: it is marked by the letter t and a switch to the first conjugation. Since only a handful
of Latin verbs have frequentative forms, most textbooks keep silent on the subject. You would
have to go to Wikileaks to get the whole story.

Sanskrit, on the other hand, has a number of such systems, including the desiderative (ninãùati, he
wants to lead), the intensive (nenãyate, he leads forcibly), and the causative (nàyayati, he causes to
lead). In this lesson, Coulson introduces the most common of these systems: the causative.

Causative forms are marked in Sanskrit by the infix -aya- and strengthening of the root to the
guõa grade, and sometimes to the vçddhi:

Root Present Indicative Causative

dç÷ pa÷yati dar÷ayati
see he sees he causes to see
he shows
kç karoti kàrayati
do he does he causes to do
bhu bhavati bhàvayati
be he is he causes to be

Some verbs (especially those whose root ends in à) add a p to the infix:

Root Present Indicative Causative

sthà tiùñhati sthàpayati
stand he stands he causes to stand
he establishes

In the past participle of causative verbs, aya is replaced by ita:

Root Past Participle Causative

labh labhda labhita
take taken caused to take, given

One of the awkward things about using a causative verb is that it may take two direct objects:

harayati bhàram dàsam. He causes-to-carry the luggage a

servant.
He has a servant carry the luggage.

Sanskrit writers often avoid this situation by putting the intended agent in the instrumental case:

harayati bhàram dàsena. He causes to carry the luggage by a

servant.
He has a servant carry the luggage.

Coulson notes that many causative forms do not have an obvious causative meaning (e.g.,
dar÷ayati, he shows), and that causatives often behave in sentences in the same way as indicative
verbs. Moreover, the -aya- infix is also characteristic of present indicative verbs in Class 10 (e.g.,
chàd, chàdayati, he covers), so that even Sanskrit grammarians are not always certain whether a
verb is causative or indicative. We need not be concerned about these subtleties, however. The
main thing is to be aware of the causative formation and its basic meaning.

As a side note, Coulson mentions that causative derivations can be found in English, as well:

Basic Form (Intransitive) Causative

The tree falls. He fells a tree.
He lies down. He lays the knife on the table.

As in Sanskrit, the English causative is marked by a change of the root vowel. Confusion of the
verbs lie and lay is one of the most common errors in Standard English. Now you know the
'cause' of the problem!

And now, a word about compounds. So far, we have been looking at coordinating (dvandva)
compounds, such as a÷vagajau (horse and elephant), and determinative compounds, such as
ràmadasaþ (Rama's-servant) and mahàràjaþ (great:king). The elements of these compounds are
words that could exist in isolation. Sometimes, however, the first element in a descriptive-
determinative compound never appears by itself. It is, for all practical purposes, a prefix:

First Element (Prefix) Meaning Example

su well, very (cf. eu0 ) su:kçta
well done
dus ill, badly (cf. dus) duù:kçta
badly done
sa (saha) together (cf. sun, con) sa:brahmacàrin
fellow-student
a (an) not (cf. a, in) a:kçta
unmade

The negative prefix a- is the usual way of negating absolutive forms:

a:dçùtvà not having seen, without having seen

Many verbal prefixes can also be tacked onto nouns, to create descriptive-determinative
compounds:

prati:÷abdaþ responding sound, echo

adhi:pati overlord

Once a language has caught the compounding bug, things can get a little complicated. Consider
the following example:

waste paper basket a basket for paper that is waste

You can see that we really have two compounds here. First, we discover that we are not talking
about any old basket, but a waste paper basket. But waste paper itself is a descriptive determinative
compound (paper that is waste). Thus, using Coulson's system of punctuating compounds, we
have (waste:paper)-basket.

Knowing (or guessing) how to analyze these super-compounds can be crucial for understanding
Classical Sanskrit. Coulson gives several hair-raising examples, along with rules that will
probably make your eyes glaze over. But here is a simple rule of thumb.

Compounds are logically read backwards. The key term is at the end, and the terms that go most
closely with it are placed closest to it. Consider this frightful example from Coulson:

pratyagrasayaütanasnànasavi÷eùa÷ãtala completely cool from the recent evening

bath

You can read this monster backwards, grouping the modifiers into logical units as you go:

֋tala cool
savi÷eùa:÷ãtala completely cool
snàna-savi÷eùa:÷ãtala from bath completely cool
sayaütana:snàna-savi÷eùa:÷ãtala from evening bath completely cool
pratyagra:sayaütana:snàna- from recent evening bath completely
savi÷eùa:÷ãtala cool

In other words, reading Sanskrit compounds can be like reading Latin sentences. When in doubt,
jump to the end.

Finally, let's look at some tricky compound formations. The word purva (previous) is unusual in
that it can be placed either before or after another word in a compound:

purvakçta previously done

kçtapurva

Likewise, keep an eye out for gataþ (gone to). In compounds, it can mean 'being in', 'about', or
'towards'

citragatà nàrã the picture-gone woman

the woman in the picture
putragataþ snehaþ son-gone affection
affection towards a son

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

kùudra mean, common, low

tàtaþ (one's own) father
puruùaþ man
purva previous
mi÷ra mixed
vyakta evident, clear
spar÷aþ touch

kath (10), kathayati say, tell, relate

k×p (1), kalpate be suitable
caus. kalpayati arrange, prepare
prayuj (7), prayuïkte employ

Reading Vocabulary

Alokità proper name

avinayàþ lack of breeding, courtesy
astram missle, weapon
Urva÷i proper name
çtvij (nom. çtvik) priest
kùãra-vçkùaþ fig-tree
gàtram limb
Candraguptaþ proper name
darbhaþ a type of grass
nirvçta content, happy
prakàraþ manner, way
prabhàvaþ power
bhagavatã her reverence
madanaþ sexual love
madanodyànam Park of (the temple of)
Love
yogacårõam magic powder
Ràkùasaþ proper name
Ràmàyanam name of an epic poem
vaõij (nom. vaõik) businessman, trader
vibhàgaþ part, portion
vivàdaþ disagreement, dispute
vçkùaþ tree
vedã sacrificial altar
saüstaraõaü (act of) strewing
samidh (f.) fire wood

kùud (1), kùodati trample, tread

past part. kùunna
dhç caus. dhàrayati hold, carry, wear
pratã (prati + i) make confident
caus. pratyàyati
prasthà (1), pratiùñhate set out
vikrã (9), vikrãõãte sell to (+ locative)
vicint (10), vicintayati consider, think of
vidhà (3), vidadhàti arrange, manage

tena hi therefore

Exercise 3

3. idam amàtyaràkùasagçhaü (idam amàtya:Ràkùasa-gçham). 5. suvicintitaü bhagavatyà. 8. tena

hãmàü kùãravçkùacchàyàmà÷rayàmaþ (tena hi imàm kùãra-vçkùa-cchàyàm à÷rayàmaþ). 11.
alamasmadavinayà÷aïkayà (alam asmat-avinaya-à÷aïkayà) [à÷aïka = apprehension]. 12. amàtya
kalpitamanena yogacårõami÷ramauùadhaü Candraguptàya (amàtya, kalpitam anena yogacårõa-
mi÷ram auùadham Candraguptàya). 13. aye Urva÷igàtraspar÷àdiva nirvçtaü me ÷arãram (aye,
Urva÷i-gàtra-spar÷àt iva nirvçtam me ÷arãram). 15. yàvadimànvedãsaüstaraõàrthaü
darbhànçtvigbhya upaharàmi (yàvat imàn vedã-saüstaraõa-artham darbhàn çtvigbhyaþ
upaharàmi) [-artham = for the sake of, in order to]. 16. kathitamavalokitayà madanodyànaü gato
madhava iti (kathitam Avalokitayà 'Madanodyànam gataþ Madhavaþ' iti). 18. nàyaü
kathàvibhàgo'smàbhiranyena và ÷rutapurvaþ (na ayam kathà-vibhàgaþ asmàbhiþ anyena và
÷ruta:purvaþ).

5. This is a road trodden-by-the-common-people. 6. Clearly, these [n.] too were sold to us by a

trader employed-by-Càõakya. 10. It is this dispute which makes me confident. 11. The two of us
set out for-the-fetching-of-firewood. 13. That is well-managed on the occasion-of-the-entry-of-
Kalahaüsaka-and-Makaranda. 14. What, [was] this ornament once-worn by my father? 16. Are
these the-two-men-in-the-Ràmàyaõa-story? 18. Quite different [anya] is this un-trodden: way-of-
speaking by Her Reverence. 19. This must be [khalu] the power-of-the-Vàruõa-weapons
employed-by-Prince-Lava.

Chapter 8
Day 1

Changeable-Stem Nouns

There is a class of nouns in Sanskrit in which not only the endings, but also the stems change
significantly as you go through the cases:

Singular Accusative ràjànam (king)

Singular Instrumental ràj¤à
Singular Locative ràjani

In these examples, you see the familiar endings of the consonant-stem declension, but the stem
appears in various grades. The strongest grade shows the element àn (ràjàn-am). In the middle
grade, the vowel is shortened (ràjani). In the weakest grade, a disappears altogether (ràj¤-à).

The causes of this variation can be traced to the Indo-European nominal system. In the old, old
days, accented syllables showed the stronger grades of a vowel, while unaccented syllables had
the weakest grade. In the 'oblique' cases (instrumental through locative), the accent shifted
forward, and the original long vowel would become short or simply disappear.

In the form-eat-form world of linguistic evolution, these changes were gradually eliminated. But
they still show up in a few words, such as ràjan (king) and nàman (name):

Singular Nominative ràjà (masculine) nàma (neuter)

Vocative ràjan nàma(n)
Accusative ràjànam nàma
Instrumental ràj¤à nàmnà
Dative ràj¤e nàmne
Ablative ràj¤aþ nàmnaþ
Genitive ràj¤aþ nàmnaþ
Locative ràjani, ràj¤i nàmani, nàmni

Dual Nominative ràjànau nàmanã, nàmnã

Vocative ràjànau nàmanã, nàmnã
Accusative ràjànau nàmanã, nàmnã
Instrumental ràjabhyàm nàmabhyàm
Dative ràjabhyàm nàmabhyàm
Ablative ràjabhyàm nàmabhyàm
Genitive ràj¤oþ nàmnoþ
Locative ràj¤oþ nàmnoþ

Plural Nominative ràjànaþ nàmàni

Vocative ràjànaþ nàmàni
Accusative ràj¤aþ nàmàni
Instrumental ràjabhiþ nàmabhiþ
Dative ràjabhyaþ nàmabhyaþ
Ablative ràjabhyaþ nàmabhyaþ
Genitive ràj¤àm nàmnàm
Locative ràjasu nàmasu
In the paradigm for ràjan, the strong stem (ràjàn-) appears in the nominative, vocative, and
accusative cases (except the vocative singular and the accusative plural). The middle stem (ràjan-)
appears as an optional form in a few places (e.g., in the locative singular). Elsewhere, the weak
stem (ràj¤-) is used, although it occurs in two forms. Before endings that begin with a vowel, the
n sound in retained and assimilated to the previous palatal consonant (e.g., ràj¤à, ràj¤e, etc.).
Before endings which begin with a consonant, n is vocalized and becomes a (e.g., ràjabhyàm,
ràjasu, etc., from *ràjnbhyam, ràjnsu).

Likewise, the stem for nàman occurs in a strong grade (nàman-) and in two versions of the weak
grade (nàmn-, nàma-).

The nominative singular is a special case (no pun intended). Ràjà and nàma actually show the
strong grade of the stem with no case-ending, but the final n has dropped off. This also happens
in Latin (e.g., Plato, Platonis; contrast Greek Pla/twn, Pla/twnoj). Like Sanskrit, Latin has an
entire class of -n- nouns (e.g., sermo, sermonis; nomen, nominis), but the Romans simplified things
by using either the strong grade (sermºn-) or the weak grade (nomin-) in both the direct and
oblique cases. That was a smart move.

Finally, let's jump ahead in Chapter 8 and look at words that signify the 'self'. English frequently
uses self in one of two ways: as a suffix for the intensive pronoun (he is coming himself), or as a
suffix for the reflexive pronoun (he is killing himself). Latin and Greek distinguish the two uses
with different pronouns (ipse vs. se; au0to/j vs. e9auto/n), but even these languages tend to blend the
two concepts. This is true in Sanskrit, as well.

First, Sanskrit has a reflexive adjective, sva, which corresponds to Latin suus. It often has the
meaning own, as in 'one's own servant' (svabçtyaþ). But unlike the Latin adjective, it need not refer
only to the logical subject of the clause:

ràmo'sya svabçtyaü pa÷yati (Ràmaþ Ràma sees that man's own servant (not
asya svabçtyaü pa÷yati). his own servant).

As an intensifier, Sanskrit employs the indeclinable form svayam. It is derived from sva, and thus
it sometimes has a reflexive meaning, too:

svayamàgacchati (svayam àgacchati). He is coming himself.

svayamadhigata (svayam adhigata) self-acquired, acquired by oneself

Another word for 'self' is àtman. This is a noun of the ràjan type, which is used in philosophical
contexts to denote the Self or real being, the subject of consciousness. The word is also used as a
kind of reflexive pronoun:

àtmànam pra÷aüsatha You are praising the self (yourselves).

Note that only the masculine singular forms of àtman are used, because àtman is technically a noun,
not a pronoun/adjective.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

àtman m. self
avasànam termination, end,
conclusion
karman m. and n. deed, work
divasaþ day
doùaþ fault, inconvenience
dharmaþ relgious law, duty, piety
nàman n. name
ràjan m. king
sundara (f. -ã) beautiful

vid (II), vetti know, learn, discover

past participle vidita

Reading Vocabulary

aparàdhaþ offence
abhiyukta diligent
atravbhavatã this lady
arthaþ meaning, matter; purpose,
object
anvayaþ succession, lineage; family
Dakùiõàpathaþ southern region (of India),
the Deccan
dur:bodha difficult to understand
Padmapuram name of a city
pariõirvànam complete extinction
pratigrahaþ present (to a brahmin from
a king)
vatsaþ dear child
vçttàntaþ news, event, scene (of
activity)
ve÷man n. residence
sadç÷a (f. -ã) similar, suitable, worthy
÷aïkà suspicion

Exercise 1

2. kçtaü ràmasadç÷aü karma. 3. asti dakùiõàpathe padmapuraü nàma [named] nagaraü. 5.

ràmaõãyaþ khalu divasàvasànavçttanto ràjave÷mani (ràmaõãyaþ khalu divasa-avasàna-vçttantaþ
ràja-ve÷mani). 7. vatsa alamàtmàparàdha÷ankayà (vatsa, alam àtma-aparàdha-÷aõkayà). 9. kàü
punaratrabhavatãmavagacchàmi (kàm punar atrabhavatãm avagacchàmi?). 10. kumàra
nàyamatyantadurbodho'rthaþ (kumàra, na ayam atyanta:durbodhaþ arthaþ). 18. sundari
aparinirvàõo divasaþ (sundari, a:parinirvàõaþ divasaþ).

1. This is a present from the king. 5. Why, you [pl.] too are exhausted by this work-of-piety. 7.
Vçùala, these inconveniences happen to [bhu + genitive] kings [who are] themselves not-diligent.
10. Did [my] friend [m.] learn her-family-and-name?

Day 2

Exocentric (Bahuvrãhi) Compounds

So far, we have studied the following compound formations:

Compound Type Sankrit Example Meaning

Coordinative (Dvandva) a÷vagajau horse and elephant
Dependent Determinative ràmadàsaþ servant-of-Rama
Descriptive Determinative mahàràjà great:king

Both coordinative and determinative compounds are self-enclosed. Coordinative compounds

designate a closed group, while determinative compounds designate a particular instance of the
second element (Rama-servant, great:king). This is technically called a hyponym.

There are many compounds in both English and Sanskrit, however, which have a different
function altogether:

two-footed one who has two feet

grim-faced one whose face is grim

These expressions do not indicate a particular pair of feet or a particular type of face; rather, their
meaning must be completed by a third element (e.g., a grim-faced warrior). English often uses the
suffix -ed to mark this type of compound, but this is not always the case:

two-car (garage) (a garage) that has two cars

This type of compound is called exocentric, because it does not 'center upon' or enclose itself.
Rather, both elements point to an 'external' (exo-) element, without which the compound makes
no sense or changes its meaning. Sanskrit grammarians also use the name bahuvrãhi, which means
'much-riced'. This is an epithet of rich men, and it serves as an illustration of the exocentric
function.

Exocentric compounds in Sanskrit are formed in the same way as determinative compounds. The
first element is posited in its basic form, and the second is inflected to agree with the noun it
modifies, even if this is only implied:

ugramukhàþ (naràþ) grim-faced (men)

Exocentric compounds can be difficult to identify, because they are essentially coordinative and
determinative compounds that have been kidnapped for a new semantic function. For example,
ugramukham could stand on its own as a descriptive compound (a grim face), but here it is being
pressed into service as a modifier of men. Coulson has devised a clever way of marking both the
original and the new functions of the compounded elements, using a subscript hyphen to signify
an exocentric application:

ugra:mukhàþ (naràþ) grim:faced (men)

Another wrinkle is that determinative compounds sometimes function as modifiers, without

thereby becoming exocentric. You can see the difference when you compare these compounds:

well-educated (determinative) well-heeled (exocentric)

Well-educated does not require a shift of meaning when the two words are compounded: it just
means 'educated well'. Well-heeled, on the other hand, does not mean 'heeled well', but rather
'having a good [rich] heel'. The fact that an additional word ('having') is required to unpack the
compound is a good indicator of 'exocentricity'.

Sanskrit writers were fond of exocentric compounds, and they used them in all sorts of creative
ways. This can make analyzing and translating them rather tricky. At this stage of the game, it is
good to have one or two metaphrases (plug-in translations) handy for immediate use. The creation
of fake participles in -ed is one useful technique (e.g., grim-faced). Another is to affix 'having' to the
compound:

ugra:mukhaþ (naraþ) (a man) having a grim face

Traditional Sanskrit grammarians also recommended turning the compound into a relative
clause:

ugra:mukhaþ (naraþ) (a man) whose face is grim

But Coulson notes that these strategies can sometimes be misleading. For example, when
participles are involved in the compound, more than one translation is possible:

dçùñakaùñàþ (naràþ) (men) whose calamity is seen

(men) by whom calamity has been seen

For the time being, then, it is best to roll with the punches and get used to Sanskrit usage as we
find it in the exercises.

Let's conclude this unit with a few odds and ends from Coulson's chapter. We have already
looked at the 'selfish' words (sva, svayam, àtman). He also mentions a class of adjectives and nouns
derived from verbs, which are marked by the suffix -ana:

Verbal root Derived Form Meaning

÷ubh (shine) ÷obhana shining, beautiful
nand (rejoice) nandana gladdening
dç÷ (see) dar÷anam (act of) seeing

Although nouns in this category may have the force of a gerund (act of...), they more often signify
the product or result of the verb:

Verbal root Derived Form Meaning

vac (speak, say) vacanam speaking; word
bhuj (enjoy, eat) bhojanam eating; food

A similar ambiguity exists in some English verbal derivations, such as 'action', which can mean
'acting' or 'act'.

Another interesting construction is the so-called predicative accusative, which also parallels English
usuage:

mårkhaü tvàmavagacchàmi (mårkhaü I think you a fool.

tvàm avagacchàmi).
Note that both tvàm and mårkhaü are in the accusative case. This construction is a handy device,
because can be used as a form of indirect statement (I deem you to be a fool; I think that you are a
fool). Sanskrit does not possess the tools developed in Latin and Greek for the latter construction
(accusative + infinitive, o9/ti, etc.), and so this is your main alternative to direct quotations with iti,
discussed earlier:

mårkhaü tvàmavagacchàmi (mårkhaü I think you a fool.

tvàm avagacchàmi).
mårkhastvamityavagacchàmi (mårkaþ 'Your are a fool', I think.
tvam iti avagacchàmi).

Finally (and I mean it this time), Coulson notes two Sanskrit idioms for 'became' or 'has become':

eùo'smi nçpaþ saüvçttaþ (eùaþ asmi Behold, I am king happened.

nçpaþ saüvçttaþ) Behold, I have become king.
niþsahàsi jatà (niþsahà asi jatà) You (f.) are born exhausted.
You have become exhausted.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

gamanaü going
guõaþ merit, quality, worth
tàdç÷a of such a kind
daivam fate, chance, fortune
manas n. mind

adhigam (I), adhigacchati find; realize, perceive

jan beget, produce, arouse
causative janayati
saüvçt (I), saüvartate happen, become

kim tu but
tadà then, at that time
svayam -self, personally, etc.
hanta alas!
hi (enclitic) for (conjunction)

Reading Vocabulary

aïgurãyaka m., n. ring (for finger)

ati:bãbhatsa extremely repulsive, foul
anukåla favorite
apavàrita hidden
araõyaü forest
avasita terminated, over
àmodaþ scent
àyatanam abode
àsakta fastened, fixed, occupied
autsukyam eagerness
kañaka m.,n. (royal) camp
kaùàya astringent, sharp (of scent)
Kàma:devaþ the god of Love
kusumam flower
kesaram hair, filament
kautukam curiosity
krauryam cruelty
caryà movement, riding (in
vehicle)
cittam thought, mind
jàpyam (muttered) prayer
Dàruvarman m. proper name
dur:vipàkaþ cruel turn (of fortune)
nàmadheyam appellation, name
nç÷aüsa injurious; m. monster
pariõàmaþ evolution, outcome
parivçta surrounded, having a
retinue
pariùad f. assembly, audience
parãta overcome
pàdapaþ tree
puõóarãkam lotus
prabandhaþ (literary) work
bahumànaþ respect for (loc.)
manda sluggish, slack
mahànt great
mukham face
mudrà authorizing seal or stamp;
pass
rathaþ chariot
vaikhànasaþ hermit, anchorite
vaitàlikaþ royal bard
vaimanasyam despondency
vairam hostility
vya¤janam sign, insignia, disguise
÷àpaþ curse
֋tala cool
-sad dweller (in)
saüdhyà twilight, evening
siddha achieved
stambhaþ pillar

aïk (X), aïkayati brand, stamp

anukamp (I), anukampate sympathize with, take pity
on
abhyas (abhi + as, I), familiar to one (through
abhyasyati practice)
past participle abhyasta
avanam (I), avanamati bow down, bend down
past participle avanata
utsva÷ (II), ucchvasiti bloom, blossom
upa÷ru (V), upa÷çnoti hear, learn of
nirdi÷ (nis + di÷, VI), designate, specify
nirdi÷ati
niùkram(I) niùkràmati go out of (+ ablative)
parãkù (pari + ikù, I), examine, scrutinize
parãkùate
paryañ (pari + añ, I), wander about
paryañati
prativas (I), prativasati dwell, live (in)
pratyabhij¤à (prati + abhi recognise
+ j¤a, IX), pratyabhijànàti
bandh (9), badhnàti bind, fix, enter into
past participle baddha (friendship or hate)
vàs (X), vàsayati perfume

adhastàt (+ genitive) beneath

itaþ from here
nanu why! well!
bho bhoþ ho there!

Exercise 2

1. hanta siddhàrthau svaþ (hanta, siddha:arthau svaþ). 4.vayasya itaþ stambhàpvàrita÷arirau

tiùñhàvaþ (vayasya, itaþ stambha-apavàrita:÷arirau tiùñhàvaþ). 6. kimarthamagçhãtamudraþ
kañakànniùkramasi (kim-artham a:gçhãta:mudraþ kañakàt niùkramasi?). 8. bhobhoþ
kiüprayojano'yama÷vaþ parivçtaþ paryañati? (bho bhoþ, kim:prayojanaþ ayam a÷vaþ parivçtaþ
paryañati?). 11. kiü tvamàtyaràkùasa÷cànakye baddhavairo na Candragupte (kim tu
amàtya:Ràkùasaþ Cànakye baddha:vairaþ, na Candragupte). 12. tadeùa svayaü
parãkùitaguõànbràhmanànpreùayàmi (tat eùaþ svayam parãkùita:guõàn bràhmanàn preùayàmi).
13. hà kaùñamatibãbhatsakarmà nç÷aüso'smi saüvçttaþ (hà kaùñam, atibãbhatsa:karmà nç÷aüsaþ
asmi saüvçttaþ). 14. kathaü kçtamahàparàdho'pi bhagavatãbhyàmanukampito'ràmaþ (katham,
kçta:mahà:aparàdhaþ api bhagavatãbhyàm anukampitaþ Ràmaþ?). 16. sa tadaiva devyàþ
Sãtàyàstàdç÷aü daivadurvipàkamupa÷rutya vaikhànasaþ saüvçttaþ (sa tadà eva devyàþ Sãtàyàþ
tàdç÷am daiva-durvipàkam upa÷rutya vaikhànasaþ saüvçttaþ). 17. aphalamaniùñaphalaü và
dàruvarmanaþ prayatnamadhigacchàmi (a:phalam ani:ùña:phalaü và Dàruvarmanaþ prayatnam
adhigacchàmi). 19. ÷akuntalàdar÷anàdeva mandautsukyo'smi nagaragamanaü prati (øakuntalà-
dar÷anàt eva mand:autsukyaþ asmi nagara-gamanam prati).

2. I went, my curiosity-aroused-by-Avalokità, to the the temple of Kàmadeva. 3. This signet ring

is stamped-with-the-minister's-name. 4. We do not find a work with-the- qualities-specified-by-
the-audience. 6. 'See, I have become Kàmandakã.' 'And I, Avalokità.' 8. Then why are you
standing [sthita] with-the-lotus-of-your-face-bent-down. 9. For there lives a dear friend of mine
[of me:] having-the-disguise-of-a-royal-bard, called Stanakala÷a. 11. Dearest, even the cruelty
practised [prayukta] by me upon you has come [saüvçt] to-have-a-favorable-outcome. 12.
Though my-mind-is-concerned-with [gata]-Urva÷i, I have the same respect for Her Majesty. 13.
But we are forest-dwellers, to-whom-riding-in-a-chariot-is-unfamiliar. 14. So let us (both) just sit
beneath this very kà¤canàra tree, which-perfumes-the-garden-with-a-sharkp-cool-scent-from-the-
filaments-of-blossomed-flowers. Right.
Chapter 9

Day 1

Stems in Short I and U; -Vant, -Mant

Beginning students of Greek experience some frustration when they learn the so-called Third
Declension. No sooner have they mastered the consonant-stem forms of nouns such as fu/lac
than they encounter a trainwreck in po/lij, ge/noj, h9du/j, etc. Most of the confusion stems from the
fact that, in these nouns, the stem ends in a vowel, rather than a consonant (e.g., gene-oj >
ge/nouj).

Sanskrit also has a number of 'consonant-stem' nouns and adjectives whose stem actually ends in
a vowel (i or u). The situation is complicated by the infiltration of endings from other declensions.
Have a look at the adjective ÷uci (clean):

Sing. Nominative ÷uciþ (m.) ÷uci (n.) ÷uciþ (f.)

Vocative ÷uce ÷uci ÷uce
Accusative ÷ucim ÷uci ÷ucim
Instrumental ÷ucinà ÷ucinà ÷ucyà
Dative ÷ucaye ÷ucine ÷ucyai
Ablative ÷uceþ ÷ucinaþ ÷ucyàþ
Genitive ÷uceþ ÷ucinaþ ÷ucyàþ
Locative ÷ucau ÷ucini ÷ucyàm

Dual Nominative ÷ucã ÷ucinã ÷ucã

Vocative ÷ucã ÷ucinã ÷ucã
Accusative ÷ucã ÷ucinã ÷ucã
Instrumental ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm
Dative ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm
Ablative ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm
Genitive ÷ucyoþ ÷ucinoþ ÷ucyoþ
Locative ÷ucyoþ ÷ucinoþ ÷ucyoþ

Plural Nominative ÷ucayaþ ÷ucãni ÷ucayaþ

Vocative ÷ucayaþ ÷ucãni ÷ucayaþ
Accusative ÷ucãn ÷ucãni ÷ucãþ
Instrumental ÷ucibhiþ ÷ucibhiþ ÷ucibhiþ
Dative ÷ucibhyaþ ÷ucibhyaþ ÷ucibhyaþ
Ablative ÷ucibhyaþ ÷ucibhyaþ ÷ucibhyaþ
Genitive ÷ucãnàm ÷ucãnàm ÷ucãnàm
Locative ÷uciùu ÷uciùu ÷uciùu

To sort this mess, let's look at the neuter forms first. The basic stem is ÷uci. The infix -n- appears
before vowel endings (e.g., ÷ucine, ÷ucinaþ), but not before consonants (÷ucibhyàm, etc.). The infix
is sometimes omitted on neuter adjectives, which then resemble the masculine forms.

On the feminine side, we find the singular endings -yai, -yàþ, and -yàm. These have been
borrowed from the feminine -ã declension (cf. nadã), and they are optional. Originally, masculine
and feminine forms were identical (cf. Latin facilis).

The remaining forms, which are masculine or masculine/feminine, seem less predictable. Most
are built on the stem ÷uci. When the ending begins with a consonant, it can be added directly to
this stem (e.g., ÷ucibhiþ). When the ending begins with a vowel, the -i may become a semi-vowel
(÷ucyoþ) or combined according to the sandhi rules with the ending (÷uci + aþ = ÷uceþ). A 'stronger'
form of the stem appears in the nominative/vocative plural (÷ucayaþ), as well as the dative
singular (÷ucaye; cf. po/lij, dative po/le-i). Finally, a number of forms may remind you of the -a
declension (÷uciþ, ÷ucim, ÷ucinà, ÷ucãn, ÷ucãnàm). Thus, nouns of this type are a mixed bag.

Luckily, the -u forms follow the same pattern, except that u replaces i and v replaces y:

Sing. Nominative mçduþ (m.) mçdu (n.) mçduþ (f.)

Vocative mçdo mçdu mçdo
Accusative mçdum mçdu mçdum
Instrumental mçdunà mçdunà mçdvà
Dative mçdave mçdune mçdvai
Ablative mçdoþ mçdunaþ mçdvàþ
Genitive mçdoþ mçdunaþ mçdvàþ
Locative mçdau mçduni mçdvàm

Dual Nominative mçdå mçdunã mçdå

Vocative mçdå mçdunã mçdå
Accusative mçdå mçdunã mçdå
Instrumental mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm
Dative mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm
Ablative mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm
Genitive mçdvoþ mçdunoþ mçdvoþ
Locative mçdvoþ mçdunoþ mçdvoþ

Plural Nominative mçdavaþ mçdåni mçdavaþ

Vocative mçdavaþ mçdåni mçdavaþ
Accusative mçdån mçdåni mçdåþ
Instrumental mçdubhiþ mçdubhiþ mçdubhiþ
Dative mçdubhyaþ mçdubhyaþ mçdubhyaþ
Ablative mçdubhyaþ mçdubhyaþ mçdubhyaþ
Genitive mçdånàm mçdånàm mçdånàm
Locative mçduùu mçduùu mçduùu

Of the two types, the short -i declension is the more common, since many substantives at the end
of bahuvrãhi compounds adopt these forms.

Another type of consonant-stem form is marked with the suffix -vant/-mant. This is one handy
way of turning a noun into an adjective (e.g., pakùa, wing > pakùavant, winged). -Mant replaces -
vant after certain sounds (i, u, short ç, o, iù, uù), but it may show up on other stems as well.

Here is the complete paradigm of dhanavant (rich):

Sing. Nominative dhanavàn (m.) dhanavat (n.) dhanavatã (f.)

Vocative dhanavan dhanavat dhanavati
Accusative dhanavantam dhanavat dhanavatãm
Instrumental dhanavatà dhanavatà dhanavatyà
Dative dhanavate dhanavate dhanavatyai
Ablative dhanavataþ dhanavataþ dhanavatyàþ
Genitive dhanavataþ dhanavataþ dhanavatyàþ
Locative dhanavati dhanavati dhanavatyàm

Dual Nominative dhanavantau dhanavatã dhanavatyau

Vocative dhanavantau dhanavatã dhanavatyau
Accusative dhanavantau dhanavatã dhanavatyau
Instrumental dhanavadbhyàm dhanavadbhyàm dhanavatãbhyàm
Dative dhanavadbhyàm dhanavadbhyàm dhanavatãbhyàm
Ablative dhanavadbhyàm dhanavadbhyàm dhanavatãbhyàm
Genitive dhanavatoþ dhanavatoþ dhanavatyoþ
Locative dhanavatoþ dhanavatoþ dhanavatyoþ

Plural Nominative dhanavantaþ dhanavanti dhanavatyaþ

Vocative dhanavantaþ dhanavanti dhanavatyaþ
Accusative dhanavataþ dhanavanti dhanavatãþ
Instrumental dhanavadbhiþ dhanavadbhiþ dhanavatãbhiþ
Dative dhanavadbhyaþ dhanavadbhyaþ dhanavatãbhyaþ
Ablative dhanavadbhyaþ dhanavadbhyaþ dhanavatãbhyaþ
Genitive dhanavatàm dhanavatàm dhanavatãnàm
Locative dhanavatsu dhanavatsu dhanavatãùu

These forms are quite predictable, thank Heaven. The feminine forms are all taken from the -ã
paradigm (cf. nadã). In the masculine and neuter columns, you see the strong and weak grades of
the stem (dhanavant- and dhanavat-, respectively) in the usual places. Before an ending beginning
with a voiced consonant, dhanavat- becomes dhanavad- (e.g., dhanavadbhyàm).

You have probably noticed that forms in -vant bear an uncanny resemblance to active participles
in both Greek and Latin (e.g. amantes, pau/santej, etc.). In Sanskrit, the -vant suffix can be added
to the past participle, which is usually passive, to create a past active participle (e.g., likhitavant-,
having written). This makes it possible to avoid constant recourse to the passive construction:

tena likhito lekhaþ. The letter [is] written by him.

The letter has been written by him.
sa lekhaü likhitivàn. He [is] in-a-state-of-having-written the
letter.
He has written the letter.

This formation is unnecessary if the past participle already has an active sense:

sa vanaü gataþ. He has gone to the forest.

Finally, a note on etiquette. Many languages, including modern ones such as Spanish, substitute
the third person for the second as a mark of respect. In Sanskrit, direct address in the second
person is permissible, but there are various titles and circumlocutions that can be used instead,
often with verbs in the third person. Here are a few examples:
bhavant (fem. bhavatã) [your] Reverence (cf. Spanish Usted, from
Vuestra Merced, 'Your Mercy', and
Romanian Dumneavoastra, 'Your
Lordship').
àryaþ (fem. àryà) noble one, excellency
àyuùmant long-lived one (often used when addressing
a king)

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

agni m. fire
çùi m. seer
guru heavy; m. teacher, elder,
senior, guardian
dhãmant wise
patnã wife
dharma-patnã lawful wife
prakçti f. nature, disposition;
subjects of a king
bhavant you
hetu m. motive, ground for
(+locative)

upalabh (I), upalabhate acquire, ascertain,

discover
nikùip (VI) nikùipati throw, cast into (locative),
place, deposit
vac (II), vakti say
past part. ukta

hi assuredly

Reading Vocabulary

aïguli, aïgulã (f.) finger

a¤jali the hands joined together
(in salutation or for alms)
atyudàra proud, noble
anu_råpa conformable, suitable,
proper
aparàgaþ disaffection
a:pårva unprecedented, strange
a:viùayaþ [non-sphere:] matter
beyond the scope of
àkhyà appellation, name
tatrabhavatã that lady
paravant [having another:] under
 another's control; beside
oneself, overwhelmed
Puõóarãkaþ proper name
bakulam bakula-tree blossom
bahumànaþ respect
bhagavant reverend (sir)
Bhårivasu masculine proper name
ramaõãya attractive
viùam poison
viùa-kanyà poison-girl
velà time (of day)
vyasanam weak spot, weakness
sakhe (voc. of sakhi) friend
sàdhu good; bravo!
homaþ oblation, sacrifice

abhidhà (III), abhidadhàti say, speak

past part. abhihita
upasthà (I), upatiùñhate stand near, be at hand
past participle upastitha
tarj, caus. tarjayati threaten, scold
nivid, caus. nivedayati report, inform somone
(dat., gen.) of something
(accusative)
pratibudh (VI), wake up (intransitive)
pratibhudyate
han, caus. ghàtayati cause to be killed, have
killed

kaccid perhaps...?
nàma indeed
pràk previously, before

Exercise 1

1. kimuktavànasi (kim uktavàn asi?). 3. kçtà¤jaliþ praõamati (kçta:a¤jaliþ praõamati). 5. sakhe

Puõóarãka naitadanuråpaü bhavataþ (sakhe Puõóarãka, na etat anuråpam bhavataþ). 6.
yàvadupasthitàü homavelàü gurave nivedayàmi (yàvat upasthitàm homa-velàm gurave
nivedayàmi). 7. kaccidahamiva vismçtavàüstvamapi (kaccid aham iva vismçtavàüs tvam api?).
8. paravanto vayaü vismayena (paravantaþ vayam vismayena). 9. àryàpi
satrorvyasanamupalabdham (àrya, api satroþ vyasanam upalabdham?) 12. bhagavan na khalu
ka÷cidaviùayo nàma dhãmatàü (bhagavan, na khalu kaþ cit a:viùayaþ nàma dhãmatàm). 13.
øakuntalà sakhãmaïgulyà tarjayati (øakuntalà sakhãm aïgulyà tarjayati). 14. sàdhu sakhe
Bhårivaso sàdhå. 15. kimayaü pratibuddho'bhihitavàn (kim ayam pratibuddhaþ abhihitavàn?).
16. atha sà tatrabhavatã kimàkhyasya ràjaçùeþ patnã (atha sà tatrabhavatã kim:àkhyasya ràja:çùeþ
patnã?).

3. But where did Màlatã see Màdhava before? 5. What do you [bhavant, pl.] say? 6. Màlatã has-a-
noble-nature. 7. The riches of Minister-Bhårivasu are indeed attractive. 9. I told you [bhavant] the
story [vçttàntaþ]-of-my-first-sight of øakuntalà. 13. A rather [ko'pi] strange ground-for-respect
towards [locative] [one's] elders, Saudhàtaki. 14. This [man], employed-by-Rakùasa, had
Parvate÷vara killed by a poison-girl. 15. [She] casts the garland-of-bakulas into Màdhava's joined
hands. 19. To Candragupta's-subjects assuredly it is Cànakya's-faults which are grounds-for-
disaffection. 21. Bravo, Vçsala, bravo!

Day 2

Middle Voice (âtmanepada); More on Compounds; Word-Building

Most of the finite verbs you have learned so far have active forms, or what Sanskrit grammarians
call parasmaipada ('word for another'). There is another set of verb-forms, which in Greek are
called middle. The Sanskrit term is àtmanepada ('word for oneself'). Originally, middle forms
conveyed the idea that the action affects the subject:

Active Voice yajati he (the priest) sacrifices

(on behalf of someone
else)
Middle Voice yajate he (the devotee) sacrifices
(for his own benefit)

This is comparable to the difference in Greek between lu/ei (he sets free) and lu/etai (he ransoms).
The middle voice implies that the subject has a 'vested interest' in the action.

Note, by the way, that we are not speaking here of passive forms. The passive voice did not exist
as a separate formal category in Proto-Indo-European, and IE languages had to come up with
various ways of creating it. In Sanskrit, most of the weight is carried by the passive participle, but
there are also other passive forms, which we will learn later.

As Coulson points out, the original force of the middle voice became blunted, with the result that
some verbs have both active and middle forms with exactly the same meaning:

Active Voice cintayati he thinks

Middle Voice cintayate he thinks

Other verbs possess only middle forms. Many of these are intransitive verbs, such as vartate (he is,
exists, etc.; cf. Latin versatur). But others are middle for no obvious reason:

Middle Voice Only upalabh (I), upalabhate acquire, ascertain, discover

Thus, it is probably better to think of the middle voice as an accidental distinction, like
grammatical gender. Dictionaries will alert you to the existence of active and middle forms for a
given verb, and whether there is any semantic distinction between them.

Here are the middle forms for the present tense of the verb nã (nayati; middle nayate):

1st Singular naye (I lead)

2nd nayase
3rd nayate
1st Dual nayàvahe
2nd nayethe
3rd nayete
1st Plural nayàmahe
2nd nayadhve
3rd nayante

Note that the middle endings somewhat resemble the active forms you have already learned. In
many cases, the difference is that the vowel i has been replaced by e (cf. the diphthong ai in
lu/etai, etc.). The stem vowel e in naye, nayethe, and nayete results from internal sandhi combining
the stem vowel a with the endings i, ithe, and ite.

So much for the middle voice; now let's return to compounds. We have already learned the main
compound-fomations in Sanskrit: coordinative, determinative, and exocentric. In this chapter,
Coulson ties together some loose ends. First, he notes that some prepositional compounds do not
fit the usual pattern, in that the relationship between the elements is neither coordinative nor
determinative. Consider these examples in English:

over:load (determinative) an excessive load

over:sexed (exocentric, based on a one whose sexual behavior is excessive
determinative)
over_head (exocentric, not based on a one that stands over the head
determinative)

In the first two examples, over modifies load and sexed as if it were an adjective or adverb. But in
the last example, it functions simply as a preposition with head. Thus, we can think of such
compounds as prepositional phrases that have been turned into adjectives. Their function is
necessarily exocentric.

Into this class fall a number of compounds with the elements sa- (with, and, having) and nis-
(without, lacking):

sa_viùam auùadham with_poison medicine

medicine containing poison
nir_à÷aü kulam without_hope family
hopeless family

Coulson also mentions compounds with the prefix yathà-, meaning as:

yathà_nirdiùña as_specified

Prepositional compounds of this type often become adverbs:

à_målam to the root, radically

prati-dinam by day, daily

Coulson rounds out his lesson with some observations about world-building. These are not rules
to be memorized, but they can be a great help to the memory as the vocabulary piles up.

First, a great many verbs in Sanskrit are derived from nouns and adjectives (cf. blacken, from the
adjective black). Often, this is accomplished by adding -ya to the nominal stem:

tapas (religious austerity) tapasyati (he practices austerities)

namas (homage) namasyati (he pays homage)
deva (god) devayati (he cultivates the gods)

Another common device for building vocabulary is to raise the grade of the root vowel to vrãddhi,
the highest grade:

øiva (the god Shiva) ÷aiva (devoted to Shiva)

÷aivaþ (devotee of Shiva)
puram (city) paura (urban)
pauraþ (citizen)
vidyà (learning) vaidya (learned)
vaidyaþ (doctor, physician)

In particular, two types of nouns are created in this way. One class includes patronymic or
'descent' names, such as Pauravaþ (descendant of Puru). The Pauravas and Kauravas are the
'Hatfields and McCoys' of the Sanskrit epic, the Mahabharata. Another type includes abstract
substantives, such as saujanyam (benevolence) from sujanaþ (good person).

Finally, a curious example of compounding involves janaþ (person, people; cf. gens). As the
second element in a compound, it means 'person' or 'folk':

kàmi:janaþ love:person, a lover

love:folk, lovers (in general)
guru:janaþ teacher-person, tutor
teacher-folk, elders

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

cetas n. mind, heart

j¤a knowing, aware of,
recognising
tapas n. religious austerity
màlà garland
lajjà shame, embarrassment

man (IV), manyate think, suppose

vçt (I), vartate exist
vçdh (I), vardhate increase, prosper

tataþ thereupon, then

nis- without, lacking
yathà- as-
sa- with-, etc.

Reading Vocabulary

atikrànta gone:beyond, past

atidàruõa dreadful
anvita accompanied by, full of
arthaþ meaning
avagrahaþ obstacle, restraint
àtapaþ heat (esp. of sun)
àtma-jà [born of oneself:] daughter
àyuùmant long-lived
à÷rama-padam site of hermitage,
hermitage
àsanna near; beside
ugra fierce
utsuka eager
utsukam eagerness
upakàraþ help, aiding (of)
upajàpaþ instigation to rebellion,
'overtures'
upapanna suitable, possible
Kaõvaþ proper name
gàthà verse
tatrabhavant his honor
dàruõa cruel
nir_utsuka without eagerness
paryàpta sufficient
pàrthivaþ king, ruler
praõidhi m. (secret) agent
pratij¤à promise
prahçùña delighted
brahman n. religious chastity
bhadra good; good fellow
bhavanam house, residence
mandàraþ coral-tree
mandàra:vçkùakaþ
mahiman m. greatness
Mahendraþ the great Indra
mçgayà hunting, the chase
yathokta as stated, as described
rathyà carriage-road, street
ramaõãya attractive
lekhaþ letter, epistle
valaya m., n. bracelet, circle, enclosure
vikramaþ valour
vighnaþ obstacle, hindrance
vibhåti splendour, wealth; riches
vivasvant m. [the Shining One:] the sun
Viùõu÷arman m. proper name
vismayaþ astonishment
Vaidheha belong to the country of
Videha
vyàpàraþ occupation
÷atru m. enemy
÷à÷vata (f. -ã) perpetual
sacivaþ counsellor, minister
saüdar÷anam sight, beholding
saünihita present (as opp. absent)
samàgamaþ meeting with, union
saübhàvya credible
saümardaþ crush, encounter, throng
sutà daughter
Saudhàtaki m. proper name

anusthà (I), anutiùñhati make an oblation, sacrifice

past participle anuùñhita
anusmç (I), anusmarati remember
abhivad greet
caus. abhivàdayate
àdi÷ (VI), àdi÷ati order, proclaim
à÷aïk (I), à÷aïkate fear, doubt, be afraid
utkaõñhate denom. long for, be in love with
(+ genitive)
kùam (I), kùamate be patient, endure
gam, caus. gamayati spend (time)
tarj, caus. tarjayati threaten, scold
dah (I), dahati burn
nivçt (I) nivartate go back, return
parivçdh, caus. cause to grow, tend
parivardhayati (plants)
prasthà, caus. despatch
prasthàpayati
samcar (I), samcarate walk, stroll
samdi÷ (VI), saüdi÷ati command
samç, caus. samarpayati hand over to (gen., dat.)
sammantr (X), take counsel, consult
saümantrayati
smç, caus. smàrayati cause to remember,
remind

atha now...
kim iti with what in mind? why?
pràyeõa generally
bahu÷aþ often

Exercise 2

2. saüprati nivartàmahe vayam. 4. sarvànabhivàdaye vaþ (sarvàn abhivàdaye vaþ). 10.

tatkimityàùaïkase (tat kim iti à÷aïkase?) 11. ahamadhunà yathàdiùñamanutiùñhàmi (aham
adhunà yathà àdiùñam anutiùñhàmi). 17. bhadràthàgniprave÷e suhçdaste ko hetuþ (bhadra, atha
agni-prave÷e [locative noun] suhçdaþ te kaþ hetuþ?) 18. paravatã khalu tatrabhavatã na ca
saünihitagurujanà (paravatã khalu tatrabhavatã, na ca saünihita:guru:janà). 19. diùñyà
dharmapatnãsamàgamena putramukhasaüdar÷anena ca àyuùmànvardhate (diùñyà dharma-patnã-
samàgamena putra-mukhasaüdar÷anena ca àyuùmàn vardhate). 20. tatkimayamàryeõa salekhaþ
puruùaþ Kusumapuraü prasthàpitaþ? (tat kim ayam àryeõa sa_lekhaþ puruùaþ Kusumapuram
prasthàpitaþ?) 21. tatrabhavàïkaõvaþ ÷à÷vate brahmaõi vartate, iyaü ca vaþ sakhã tasyàtmajeti
kathametat (tatrabhavàn Kaõvaþ ÷à÷vate brahmaõi vartate, iyam ca vaþ sakhã tasya àtmajà iti
katham etat?) 22. mamàpi kaõvasutàmanusmçtya mçgayàü prati nirutsukaü cetaþ (mama api
Kaõva-sutàm anusmçtya mçgayàm prati nir_utsukam cetaþ). 23. api
Candraguptadoùàtikràntapàrthivaguõànsmàrayanti prakçtãþ (api Candragupta-doùàþ
atikrànta:pàrthiva-guõàn smàrayanti prakçtãþ?) 24. etàmasaübhàvyàü bràhmanasya pratij¤àü
÷rutvà sasacivaþ ràjà prahçùtamanà vismayànvitaþ sabahumànaü tasmai Viùõu÷armaõe
kumàrànsamarpitivàn (etàm a:saübhàvyàm bràhmanasya pratij¤àm ÷rutvà sa_sacivaþ ràjà
prahçùta:manà vismaya-anvitaþ sa_bahumànam tasmai Viùõu÷armaõe kumàràn samarpitivàn).

1. Is [your] austerity without-hindrance? 2. Friend Makaranda, are you [bhavant] in love with
Madayantikà? 4. Lady, a shame-less Lakùmaõa herewith [eùaþ] salutes [you]. 8. There is a
dreadful throng-of-people. 10. Reverend Arundhatã, I, Sãradhvaja (King) of Videha greet [you].
11. Are Candragupta's-subjects responding to [kùam] our-overtures? 12. He thinks me actually
not-present. 16. [I] congratulate you [bhavant] on your-greatness-in-valor, sufficient-for-the-
aiding-of-Mahendra. 17. Thereupon there enters, her-occupation-as-described, together with two
[female] friends, øakuntalà. 18. Truly [nanu], friend, we [two] often walk along [instrumental] the
very street-beside-the-minister's-residence--so this is possible. 20. Friend, the sun burns without-
restraint, as cruel as fate. 22. Ah! the meaning-of-the-verse is 'I am one-who-has-[j¤à]-news-of-
Kusumapara, and your-agent. 23. See, we two have entered Prajàpati's hermitage, its-coral-trees-
tended-by-Aditi. 24. The time when-the-heat-is-fierce that lady generally spends with-her-friends
on the banks-of-the-Màlinã with [vant]-[their]-enclosures-of-creepers.

Chapter 10

Day 1

Noun-Stems in -ä, -æ, -In, -Ti

We have already seen nouns such as nadã (river), of which the stem consists of more than one
syllable and ends in -ã. There is a corresponding type that ends in -å, exemplified by vadhå (f.,
woman):

Singular Nominative nadã vadhåþ

Vocative nadi vadhu
Accusative nadãm vadhåm
Instrumental nadyà vadhvà
Dative nadyai vadhvai
Ablative nadyàþ vadhvàþ
Genitive nadyàþ vadhvàþ
Locative nadyàm vadhvàm

Dual Nominative nadyau vadhvau

Vocative nadyau vadhvau
Accusative nadyau vadhvau
Instrumental nadãbhyàm vadhåbhyàm
Dative nadãbhyàm vadhåbhyàm
Ablative nadãbhyàm vadhåbhyàm
Genitive nadyoþ vadhvoþ
Locative nadyoþ vadhvoþ
Plural Nominative nadyaþ vadhvaþ
Vocative nadyaþ vadhvaþ
Accusative nadãþ vadhåþ
Instrumental nadãbhiþ vadhåbhiþ
Dative nadãbhyaþ vadhåbhyaþ
Ablative nadãbhyaþ vadhåbhyaþ
Genitive nadãnàm vadhånàm
Locative nadãùu vadhåùu

With the exception of the nominative singular, the forms of vadhå are parallel to those of nadã,
except that i is replaced by u, and y by v.

There are also stems in -ã and -å that consist of only one syllable; these are declined somewhat
like consonant-stems. Our examples are dhã (f., thought) and bhå (earth):

Singular Nominative dhãþ bhåþ

Vocative dhãþ bhåþ
Accusative dhiyam bhuvam
Instrumental dhiyà bhuvà
Dative dhiye bhuve
Ablative dhiyaþ bhuvaþ
Genitive dhiyaþ bhuvaþ
Locative dhiyi bhuvi

Dual Nominative dhiyau bhuvau

Vocative dhiyau bhuvau
Accusative dhiyau bhuvau
Instrumental dhãbhyàm bhåbhyàm
Dative dhãbhyàm bhåbhyàm
Ablative dhãbhyàm bhåbhyàm
Genitive dhiyoþ bhuvoþ
Locative dhiyoþ bhuvoþ

Plural Nominative dhiyaþ bhuvaþ

Vocative dhiyaþ bhuvaþ
Accusative dhiyaþ bhuvaþ
Instrumental dhãbhiþ bhåbhiþ
Dative dhãbhyaþ bhåbhyaþ
Ablative dhãbhyaþ bhåbhyaþ
Genitive dhiyàm bhuvàm
Locative dhãùu bhåùu

Note that the stem before endings begining with a consonant is dhã- or bhå- (e.g., dhãbhiþ, bhåbhiþ).
If the ending begins with a vowel, the stem changes to dhiy- and bhuv-, respectively.

A somewhat irregular noun of this type is strã, yet another word for 'woman'. Although it has a
monosyllabic stem, it has the same endings as nadã. In a few cases, however, it shows optional
endings of the monosyllabic type (e.g., accusative singular striyam). The whole paradigm can be
seen in Coulson, page 237.
We have also seen how the suffix -vant (-mant) can be used to form 'characteristic' terms (e.g.,
pakùavant, winged, dhãmant, wise), as well as active participles (likhitavant, having written).
Another productive suffix is -in. An example of this derivation is dhanin (rich):

Singular Nominative dhanã (masculine) dhani (neuter)

Vocative dhanin dhani, dhanin
Accusative dhaninam dhani
Instrumental dhaninà dhaninà
Dative dhanine dhanine
Ablative dhaninaþ dhaninaþ
Genitive dhaninaþ dhaninaþ
Locative dhanini dhanini

Dual Nominative dhaninau dhaninã

Vocative dhaninau dhaninã
Accusative dhaninau dhaninã
Instrumental dhanibhyàm dhanibhyàm
Dative dhanibhyàm dhanibhyàm
Ablative dhanibhyàm dhanibhyàm
Genitive dhaninoþ dhaninoþ
Locative dhaninoþ dhaninoþ

Plural Nominative dhaninaþ dhanãni

Vocative dhaninaþ dhanãni
Accusative dhaninaþ dhanãni
Instrumental dhanibhiþ dhanibhiþ
Dative dhanibhyaþ dhanibhyaþ
Ablative dhanibhyaþ dhanibhyaþ
Genitive dhaninàm dhaninàm
Locative dhaniùu dhaniùu

The feminine forms, dhaninã, etc., are declined like nadã. Formations with -in function in much the
same way as those with -vant. In fact, they are often interchangeable:

dhanavant rich
dhanin rich

balavant strong
balavin strong

This suffix can also be added to verbal roots to create something like a present participle:

Verbal Root Suffixed Form Meaning

pat (fall, fly) pàtin falling, flying
bhuj (enjoy) bhojin enjoying
sthà (stand) sthàyin remaining, stable

This is not quite a true participle, however, because it cannot govern a direct object in the
accusative case. Its function is rather to characterize something:
vimar÷acchedi vacanaü (vimar÷a-cchedi The speech is doubt-removing.
vacanam).

Additionally, the suffix -ti can be added to verbal roots to create verbal nouns in -ing (or their
equivalent). These words are equivalent to the English gerund, as in 'Seeing is believing':

gati going, procedure, course

dçùti seeing, sight
bhakti devotion
siddhi achievement

They are formed by changing the ending of the past participle from -a to -i. They are declined like
÷uci.

Finally, Coulson notes that the adjective mahant (great) is somewhat irregular, having a strong
stem in -ànt and middle and weak stems in -at (mahat). The feminine is mahatã. The stem form in
compounds is mahà- (for descriptive compounds) or mahat-.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

asuraþ demon
gçham quarters, chamber
balam force, strength; sg. or pl.
military forces
balàt forcibly
muni m. sage
vayas n. youth, age
sakhã [female] friend; wife of
one's friend
suraþ god
svàmin m. master

àkçù (I), àkarùati drag, draw

àpad (IV), àpadyate attain, come to
past participle àpanna
nisgam (I), nirgacchati go away, retire from

Reading Vocabulary

an:adhyayanam non-studying
holiday from lessons
apathya-kàrin doing-what-is-
unwholesome [to king],
traitor
àyudham weapon
utsarpin high-soaring
kalakalaþ conciliation, winning over
kidç÷a (f. -ã) of what kind? of what
 kind! What (a)...!
gçha-janaþ family, wife
Candanadàsaþ proper name
tãkùõa sharp, severe; poison
taikùõyam sharpness
trikàlam the-three-times; past,
present, and future
daõóaþ stick; punishment
dar÷in seeing, that see
nyàyya regular, right
pakùa-pàtin on the side of, partial to
Pa¤cavañã name of a place
pratyàsanna near, at hand, about
pràrthanà longing
bañu m. young brahmin (student);
fellow (used
contemptuously)
bhàvin future, imminent
Manmathaþ (name of the god of) Love
vimardaþ conflict
vihàrin roaming
÷iùña learned
÷iùñ-ànadhyayanam holiday in honor of
learned guests
÷reùñhin m. merchant, eminent
businessman
suhçttamaþ close friend

parihç (I), pariharati avoid, shun, resist

aho bata oh alas!

kila apparently, it seems that
bhoþ oh! ho!

Exercise 1

2. mahati viùàde vartate te sakhãjanaþ (mahati viùàde vartate te sakhã:janaþ). 6. bloþ ÷reùñhin
Candanadàsa evamapathyakàriùu tãkùõadaõóo ràjà (bloþ ÷reùñhin Candanadàsa, evam apathya-
kàriùu tãkùõa:daõóaþ ràjà). 8. pratyàsannaþ kila mçgayà-vihàrã pàrthivo duþùantaþ
(pratyàsannaþ kila mçgayà-vihàrã pàrthivaþ Duþùantaþ). 13. bhagavanmanmatha kutaste
kusumàyudhasya taikùõyametat (bhagavan Manmatha, kutaþ te kusum:àyudhasya taikùõyam
etat?). 16. aho bata kãdç÷ãü vayovasthàmàpanno'smi (aho bata, kãdç÷ãm vayaþ-avasthàm àpannaþ
asmi). 17. adya ÷iùñànadhyayanamiti khelatàü bañånàmayaü kalakakaþ (adya ÷iùñànadhyayanam
iti khelatàü bañånàm ayaü kalakalaþ). 25. mayà tàvat suhçttamasya Candanadàsasya gçhe gçha-
janam nikùipya nagaràn nirgacchatà nyàyyam anuùñhitam (mayà tàvat suhçttamasya
Candanadàsasya gçhe gçha-janam nikùipya nagaràn nirgacchatà nyàyyam anuùñhitam).

5. Sages-that-see-past-present-and-future have proclaimed [àdi÷] a-conflict-[between]-gods-and-

demons [to be] imminent. 13. Though I am resisting [parihç], love-of-Pa¤cavatã seems to draw me
forcibly. 17. The longing of great [men] is of course [high-soaring] for higher things. 19. (Being)
partial-to-your-merits, I have forgotten the merits-of-my-master.

Day 2

The Present Participle; the Imperative

In the last unit we saw that the suffixes -vant and -in create words that can be translated as
participles (...ing). These are not technically participles, however, because they cannot take their
own direct object.

So what does a real present participle look like? Inquire no further! Active forms contain the
element -ant-(cf. ag-ent-em and lu/-ont-a), while middle forms contain -amàn- (cf. lu-o/men-oj):

nayant leading
vartamàna going on

Since a participle is a verbal adjective and must agree with a noun or pronoun, these forms are
declined. The good news is that active participles decline like adjectives in -vant, except for the
nominative singular:

Singular Nominative nayan (masculine, neuter) nayantã (feminine)

The neuter NVA dual form is also nayantã. Middle participles decline like kànta (i.e., like a÷va,
phalam, and senà). See Coulson, page 236.

The participle of the verb as (to be) is sant, fem. satã. ('Being' can also mean 'real, authentic,
virtuous', and thus a 'virtuous' [satã] wife was one who immolated herself on her husband's
funeral pyre. The practice of suttee was outlawed under British rule.)

As in Latin and Greek, the present participle indicates action that is contemporaneous with the
main verb:

màlatãmupaharannagoraghaõñaþ Agoraghaõñaþ was slain [while]

vyàpàditaþ (Màlatãm upaharan sacrificing Malati.
Agoraghaõñaþ vyàpàditaþ).

Note that the participle agrees with Agoraghaõñaþ and it governs its own accusative object
(Màlatãm).

A present participle will sometimes have a causal or concessive sense (the latter with api):

atmanà kçto'yaü doùaþ This mischief was done by [my]self [in]

Saüjãvakamànayatà (atmanà kçtaþ ayam bringing Saüjãvikaü.
doùaþ Saüjãvakam ànayatà). It's all my fault, because I brought
Saüjãvikaü.

Note that in English we sometimes use the present participle in a perfective sense (e.g., after
seeing, meaning after having seen). In Sanskrit, however, this is usually rendered with the
absolutive construction:

nçpaü dç÷tvà vanaü gacchàmaþ. After seeing the king, let us go to the
 forest.

So much for participles; now, let's change the mood! The imperative is used to express what the
speaker wants to happen. In the second person, it is the commanding mood (go!). In the third
person, it expresses what the speaker wants a third party to do (let him go!). Sanskrit also has
imperative forms for the first person (let us go!), but these are rare and are probably derived from
another mood (the Vedic subjunctive). Here is an overview of the Sanskrit imperative active for
the verb ni (lead):

Singular 1st Person nayàni let me lead

2nd naya lead!
3rd nayatu let him (her, it) lead
Dual 1st Person nayàva let us two lead
2nd nayatam you two lead!
3rd nayatàm let those two lead
Plural 1st Person nayàma let us lead
2nd nayata y'all lead!
3rd nayantu let them lead

These forms bear some resemblance to imperatives in Latin and Greek. The second-person
imperative singular is the uninflected present stem (naya; cf. ama, lu=e); the plural adds -ta (cf.
amate, lu/ete). The third-person endings -tu and -ntu are also found in Greek (lue/tw, luo/ntwn),
and occasionally in Latin (esto, sunto).

Here are the imperative middle forms of nã:

Singular 1st Person nayai let me lead

2nd nayasva lead!
3rd nayatàm let him (her, it) lead
Dual 1st Person nayàvahai let us two lead
2nd nayethàm you two lead!
3rd nayetàm let those two lead
Plural 1st Person nayàmahai let us lead
2nd nayadhvam y'all lead!
3rd nayantàm let them lead

Note the ambiguous form nayatàm, which can be 3rd dual active or 3rd singular middle. The e in
the 2nd- and 3rd-person dual forms results from internal sandhi between the stem vowel a and
the endings -itham and -itàm.

The easiest way to issue a negative command is to use the imperative with mà (cf. ne, mh/ ):

mà gaccha. Don't go!

There are other ways to give a negative command, which will be covered later. You have already
seen one of them: alam with a verbal noun in the instrumental case (enough with...):

alaü ÷okena. Enough with grief! Don't grieve!

Vocabulary
Memorization Vocabulary

àde÷aþ command
eka pronoun, adjective: one,
alone
÷okaþ grief
salilam water
siddhi f. accomplishment, success

anugam (I), anugacchati follow, attend

anubhå (I), anubhavati experience, undergo
dç÷ caus. dar÷ayati cause to see, show
vand (I) vandate venerate, worship
vij¤à caus. vij¤àpayati say politely, request,
entreat, beg

Reading Vocabulary

a¤calaþ border [of dress]

àve÷aþ attack (of emotion)
kàryam affair, business
tapasvin m. ascetic
tãrtham ford, sacred bathing place
dçóha firm
pataþ cloth, robe
pratij¤à promise, assertion
Màdhavyaþ proper name
sarpaþ snake
s_àvadhàna careful
svãkaraõam marrying

anurudh (IV), adhere to, comply with

anurudhyate (acc.)
utveùñ, caus. udveùñayati unwrap, open [a letter]
tvar (I), tvarate hurry
caus. tvarayati
nigraþ (IX), nigçhõàti repress, restrain
paritrai (I), paritràyate rescue, save
paripàl (X), paripàlayati guard, preserve, keep in
tact
paribhraü÷ (IV), fall, drop, slip
paribhra÷yate
past participle paribhraùña
vãj (X), vãjayate fan
samstambh (IX), make firm, sustain,
saüstabhnàti, absol. compose
saüstabhya

svairam gently
Exercise 2

1. pa÷ya Màdhavasyàvasthàü (pa÷ya Màdhavasya avasthàm). 5. muhårtamupavi÷ata

(muhårtam upavi÷ata). 9. gacchatàü bhavantau. 10. bhostapasvin cintayannapi na khalu
svãkaraõamatrabhavatyàþ smaràmi. (bhoþ tapasvin, cintayan api na khalu svãkaraõam
atrabhavatyàþ smaràmi). 11. sakhe Màdhavya dçdhapratij¤o bhava (sakhe Màdhavya,
dçdha:pratij¤aþ bhava). 14. nanu bhavatyaþ pañàncalairvatsau vãjayadhvaü (nanu bhavatyaþ
paña-ancalair vatsau vãjayadhvam). 18. svairaü svairaü gacchantu bhavatyaþ. 19. paritràyatàü
suhçdaü mahàràjaþ. 26. devi saüstabhyàtmànamanurudhyasva bhagavato Vasiùñhasyàde÷amiti
vij¤apayàmi (devi, saüstabhya àtmànam anurudhyasva bhagavataþ Vasiùñhasya àde÷am iti
vij¤àpayàmi).

1. Look, your Excellencies. 3. She stands gazing. 4. This lady must hurry. 8. May you have success
in your affairs. 9. Keeping the seal intact, open [it] and show [me]. 11. Restrain [dual] your attack-
of-grief and follow me. 15. Citralekhà, get Urva÷ã to hurry. 21. [It] slipped from your friend's wife
at the ford-of-øacã as she was worshipping the water. 22. Be careful, dear child. 24. Noble Jàjali,
you too go back with-the-servants: Bhàguràyana alone shall attend me.

Day 3

Stem-Forms in Composition; Abstract Nouns; Exclamations

In compounds, words often show forms that differ from their dictionary entries. Coulson's
discussion of these forms can be reduced to the following chart:

Dictionary or Learned Compounded Form Examples

Form
Consonant stems (e.g.): middle stem (of 3) nàma-
nàmàn-, nàma-, namn- or weaker stem (of 2) bhagavat-
bhagavant-, bhagavat- dhani-
dhanin-, dhani-
Pronouns: dictionary/neuter form mat-, asmat-, tvat-,
aham, vayam, tvam, yuùmat-, yat-, tat-, kim-,
yuyam, yaþ, saþ, kaþ, idam-, adas-
ayam, enam, asau
mahànt retains long a mahà-

The final element of a compound usually retains its original stem and inflection. But there are a
few exceptions:

ahan, ràjan, ratrã, sakhã > short a -aha, -ràja, -ràtra, -sàkha

Coulson also notes that Sanskrit-speakers were uncomfortable with forms of the nadã type on the
end of exocentric compounds, and so the suffix -ka is sometimes added:

sa_patnã~ka with one's wife [adjective]

In Coulson's shorthand, the tilde (~) signifies that the suffix pertains to the entire compound.

While we are on the subject of world-building, recall that abstract nouns can be created by raising
the grade of the root vowel to vçddhi and adding a neuter termination:
Original Noun Abstract Formation Meaning
paõóitaþ (teacher) pàõóityam learning

Many other abstract nouns are formed simply by adding a suffix, such as tvam (cf. German -tum,
English -dom) and tà (cf. Latin -tas):

Original Noun Abstract Formation Meaning

paõóitaþ (teacher) pàõóitatvam learning, being a pundit
pàõóitatà

These suffixes may be added to entire compounds (e.g. niù_paõóita~tvam, the state of being
without a pundit).

Sanskrit resembles modern English in its tolerance for abstract nouns as 'actors' in a sentence. In
Classical Latin, it would be odd to say 'the desire to learn makes me persistent'. Rather, one
would say, 'I persist because I want to learn,' or 'I persist from my zeal for learning' (studio
discendi persevero). In other words, people act on things--not the other way around. But Sanskrit
has no problem with a sentence such as this:

prayojana-÷u÷råùà màü mukharayati. Learning-desire causes me to be

persistent.

Coulson puts the matter succinctly when he says that the style of Sanskrit is nominal, rather than
verbal. This means that in many cases, translating Sanskrit is a matter of 'denominalizing' it. The
following chart offers a few examples:

tatidànãü ràjàrthatàmàpadyate (tat That now achieves king-property-hood.

idànãm ràja-artha~tàm àpadyate). That now becomes the property of the king.
tasyànekavidhatvaü dar÷ayati He shows by the plural the several-
bahuvacanena (tasya aneka:vidha~tvam sortedness of it.
dar÷ayati bahuvacanena). He shows by the plural that it is of several
sorts.
ramaõãyo bàlànàü kusumàvacayaþ. Pleasant is the children's flower-picking.
(ramaõãyaþ bàlànàm kusuma-avacayaþ). It is pleasant for children to pick flowers.

Since a single noun may stand for an entire phrase or clause, the various cases acquire adverbial
meanings, such as 'because...,' 'in order to....' , etc.

suhçt-saüpàdita~tvàt (ablative) from being brought about by [my] friend

because you, my friend, brought it about
Màlatã-mukha-avalokana-vihasta~tayà by clumsiness through gazing on
(instrumental) Malati's face
because I was clumsy through gazing on
Malati's face
nçpa-dar÷anàya (dative) for seeing the king
in order to see the king
kula-kùaye (locative) upon the destruction of the family
when the family is destroyed
kula-kùaye api despite the destruction of the family
Speaking of functional shifts of the parts of speech, English gives us several examples of
pronouns and adverbs that switch from their usual function to pure exclamation:

Oh! What duplicity! How clever she is!

In Sanskrit, the cognate of oh! is aho. The focus then shifts to the central idea, expressed as a noun
in the nominative case:

aho saüvaranam. (Oh!) What duplicity!

aho vaidagdhyam. Oh! The cleverness!
How clever she is!
aho di÷àm vyabhratà Oh! The cloudlessness of the skies!
How cloudless the skies are!

Finally, a couple of odds and ends. Coulson makes a brief mention of the pronoun enam, which
occurs only in these forms:

Case Masculine Neuter Feminine

Singlular enam enat enàm
Accusative
Singular enena enena enayà
Instrumental
Dual Accusative enau ene ene
Dual enayoþ enayoþ enayoþ
Genitive/Locative
Plural Accusative enàn enàni enàþ

This pronoun is enclitic and generally means 'him, her, it', etc.

Finally, we have one of the more unusual Sanskrit idioms. The word gharba (womb) can be used
in exocentric compounds to mean 'containing':

dhana:gharbaü bhàõóaü . Money-wombed is the box.

The box contains money.

Keep in mind that this is an exocentric compound, and there will be no womb for error!

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

enam him, her, it, etc.

nçpaþ king
pauraþ citizen
bhakti f. devotion, loyalty
bahu many
mati f. thought, wit
samàdhi m. concentration, [religious]
meditation
strã woman
cint (X), cintayati reflect, think things over

sàüpratam now, at once

Reading Vocabulary

ati÷aya surpassing
apavàdin decrying
a:pramàdin not negligent, vigilant
abhiyogaþ intentness, preoccupation
avayavaþ portion, article
utsàhaþ enthusiasm
upagrahaþ conciliation
uparodhanam besieging [of]
upàdhyàyaþ teacher
kàrin doing
kùitipati m. king
kùipra:kàrin swift-acting, precipitate
:garbha -wombed, containing
cakravartin m. emperor
chidram hole, chink
tãkùõa:rasaþ sharp liquid, poison
tãkùõa:rasa-dàyin poison-giving, poisoner
dar÷anãya attractive
di÷ [dik] f. cardinal point, region [of
sky]; pl. sky, skies
duþ:÷ãla irritable
dur:àtman vile
Nandanaþ proper name
nir_daya pitiless
païkti f. row, line
pati m. lord [of]
parijanaþ attendant, servant
pipãlikà ant
pratividhànam precaution,
countermeasure against
(gen.)
pratyavàyaþ reverse, annoyance
pratyutpanna prompt, ready
pratyutpanna:mati ready-witted
prabhåta numerous
bhaktam food
bhitti f. wall
bhãru fearful
Madayantikà proper name
madhura sweet
mahàrghya valuable
mlecchaþ barbarian
rakùas n. devil
Vasiùñþaþ proper name
viddhà kind, sort
-viddha such as
vivekaþ discrimination
vyagra engrossed, intent
÷ayanam repose, sleeping
÷ayana-gçham bed-chamber
÷arad f. autumn
֌nya empty, devoid of
÷obhà brilliance, beauty
samayaþ occasion, season
saübandhaþ union
saübhçta assembled, prepared;
augmented
sahabhå inherent, natural
sàünidhyam presence

avalok (X), avalokayati see

àkulayati denominative confuse, disturb
utpad caus. utpàdayati cause to arise, cause
khel (I), khelati play
dah caus. dàhayati make burn, cause to be
fired
parituù, caus. paritoùayati make satisfied, tip, reward
pratyas (prati + as, IV), cast aside
pratyasyati
prasthà (I), pratiùñhate set forth
bha¤j (VII), bhanakti break, shatter
past participle bhagna
mudrayati denominative stamp, seal
visçj caus. visarjayati release, dismiss

ataþ from this

-tà, -tvam abstract noun suffixes

Exercise 3

3. idaü tatpratyutpanna:mati~tvaü strãnàü (idam tat pratyutpanna:mati~tvam strãnàm). 4. aho

dar÷anãyànyakùaràni (aho dar÷anãyàni akùaràni). 7. anubhavatu ràjàpathyakàritvasya phalam
(anubhavatu ràja-apathya-kàri~tvasya phalam). 12. aho nirdayatà duràtmanàü paurànàü aho
Ràmasya ràj¤aþ kùiprakàrità (aho nir_daya~tà dur:àtmanàm paurànàm--aho Ràmasya ràj¤aþ
kùipra:kàri~tà). 15. bhagnotsàhaþ kçto'smi mçgayàpavàdinà màdhavyena (bhagna:utsàhaþ kçtaþ
asmi mçgayà-pavàdinà Màdhavyena). 20. tatrabhavataþ kulapaterasàmnidhyàdrakùàüsã
nastapovighnamutpàdayanti (tatrabhavataþ kulapateþ asàmnidhyàt rakùàüsã naþ tapaþ-
vighnam utpàdayanti). 21. bhadra anayà mudrayà mudrayainam (bhadra, anayà mudrayà
mudraya enam). 22. ÷atruprayuktànàü ca tãkùõarasadàyinàü pratividhànaü pratyapramàdinaþ
parãkùitabhaktayaþ kùitipatipratyàsannà niyuktàþ puruùàþ (÷atru prayuktànàü ca
tãkùõa:rasadàyinàm pratividhànaü prati apramàdinaþ parãkùita:bhaktayaþ kùitipati-pratyàsannà
niyuktàþ puruùàþ). 23. saüprati madayantikàsaübandhena nandanopagrahàtpratyasta÷aïkàþ
khalu vayam (saüprati Madayantikà-saübandhena Nandana-upagrahàt pratiyasta:÷aïkàþ khalu
vayam). 24. bhàvinamenaü cakravartinamavagacchatu bhavàn (bhàvinam enam cakra-vartinam
avagacchatu bhavàn).

2. What valuable jewels! 6. Being-king has many annoyances. 7. It is from this [that] men-such-as-
you are great. 10. How devoid-of-discrimination is the barbarian! 12. It is preoccupation-with-
affairs, dear child, that is disturbing us, and not [na punar] the irritability towards pupils natural-
in-a-teacher. 14. How sweet is the sight of these [girls]! 16. The gods [do] have this fearfulness-of-
the-meditations-of-others. 18. At once let our-forces set forth to-beseige-Kusumapara. 20.
Priyaüvadikà, we have no interest in snakes. So tip him and dismiss him. 23. Because [my] mind
is engrossed-in-affairs and my agents numerous, [I had] forgotten. 25. How surpassingly-lovely
the skies are, their-wealth-of-beauty-augmented-by-the-autumn-season. 26. Then, seeing a line of
ants emerging from a [eka] hole-in-the-wall carrying [use gçhita] particles-of-food, [he] grasping-
the-fact [gçhit:artha] that [iti] the chamber had-men-in-it, caused that same bed-chamber to be
fired.

Chapter 11

Day 1

Nouns in -è, -Tra; Passive Voice

You may have noticed that English has a number of nouns with the suffix -er, and they usually
fall into one of two types. The larger group consists of agent nouns, designating the performer of
an action (tinker, singer, baker, etc.). But -er is also the characteristic suffix for the names of
relatives (father, mother, brother, sister). Both types come to English from the Indo-European parent
language, and we find analogous forms in Latin (actor, pater), Greek (path/r), and Sanskrit.

An example of the agent-noun type in Sanskrit is kartç (maker). The 'kindred' formation is
represented by pitç (father; cf. pater).

Singular Nominative kartà (m.) pità (m.)

Vocative kartar pitar
Accusative kartàram pitaram
Instrumental kartrà pitrà
Dative kartre pitre
Ablative kartuþ pituþ
Genitive kartuþ pituþ
Locative kartari pitari

Dual Nominative kartàrau pitarau

Vocative kartàrau pitarau
Accusative kartàrau pitarau
Instrumental kartçbhyàm pitçbhyàm
Dative kartçbhyàm pitçbhyàm
Ablative kartçbhyàm pitçbhyàm
Genitive kartroþ pitroþ
Locative kartroþ pitroþ

Plural Nominative kartàraþ pitaraþ

Vocative kartàraþ pitaraþ
Accusative kartén pitén
Instrumental kartçbhiþ pitçbhiþ
Dative kartçbhyaþ pitçbhyaþ
Ablative kartçbhyaþ pitçbhyaþ
Genitive karténàm piténàm
Locative kartçùu pitçùu

The two types of -ç nouns decline analogously, but in the 'strong' form of agent nouns the stem
vowel is bumped up to the vçddhi grade (kartç > kartàram; cf. Latin factor > factºrem), while in
'kindred' nouns the guõa grade is usually sufficient (pitç > pitaram; cf. patr-> pate/ra). But three
of these nouns do show the vçddhi grade; they are naptç (grandson, cf. nepos), bhartç (husband),
and svasç (sister, cf. soror). Thus we have svasàram (cf. sorºrem).

In general, these paradigms follow the -an type (cf. ràjan), but here and there the influence of
other declensional types can be seen. Note the genitive singular kartuþ/pituþ (kartur/pitur in
certain positions, according to the sandhi rules). The accusative plural kartén/pitén and the
genitive plural karténàm/piténàm were not inherited from Indo-European, but were created by
analogy with a÷vàn and a÷vànàm.

Feminine nouns of the agent-type end in -rã (e.g., netrã, leader), and follow the pattern of nadã.
Feminine nouns for relationships agee with the masculine forms, except for an accusative plural
in -éþ (matéþ , analogous with senàþ).

The suffix -[t]ç indicates agency (who performs an action); the related suffix -tra points to
instrumentality (with what an action is performed). Thus the verb pà (drink) gives rise both to pàtç
(drinker) and pàtram (vessel, cup). Note the analogous Latin forms: arare [to plough], arator
[ploughman], and aratrum [plough].

It may seem strange to say that Sanskrit-speakers had to invent a passive voice, but the same may
be said about English. English passives are all cobbled together from combinations of the verbs to
be and to have with the past participle:

Tense Example
Present Simple He is loved.
Present Progressive He is being loved.
Past Simple He was loved.
Present Perfect He has been loved.

We have seen that Sanskrit also relies heavily on this construction (e.g., tad mayà kçtam, It was
done by me, I did it). But in the present indicative and the imperative we also see another
formation, which was derived from the middle voice of Class IV verbs. In brief, passive forms can
be created by adding the suffix ya to the verbal root and using middle endings:

Person/Number Passive Indicative Passive Imperative

1st Singular nãye (I am led) nãyai (let me be led)
2nd nãyase nãyasva
3rd nãyate nãyatàm
1st Dual nãyàvahe nãyàvahai
2nd nãyethe nãyethàm
3rd nãyete nãyetàm
1st Plural nãyàmahe nãyàmahai
2nd nãyadhve nãyadhvam
3rd nãyante nãyantàm

These forms can be confused with ordinary middle forms (naye, etc.). The difference is that the
suffix is built directly on the verbal root, not on the present stem. Coulson notes a few exceptions,
wherein the verbal root undergoes a change before the suffix:

Root Form Passive

kç (do) kriyate (it is done)
smç (remember) smaryate (it is remembered)
vac (speak) ucyate (it is utttered)

It is not necessarily to memorize these rules, as dictionaries usually list the passive form. (You
can also access them for each form on Huet's Sanskrit Heritage site.) When the passive is built on a
derived stem, the old derivational suffix is dropped. Thus, causative forms change -ayati to -yate.

corayati (he causes to remove, he steals) coryate (it is stolen)

nàyayati (he causes x to lead) nàyyate (he is caused to lead)

The passive indicative is common, especially when the agent is unknown or deliberately not
stated. Even more common is the passive imperative:

÷råyatàm let it be heard

sukhaü sthãyatàm let it be stood pleasantly
stand at your ease

English usage often requires us to translate Sanskrit passive imperatives with 'should' 'must', etc.,
and to convert them to the active voice:

tatkimanyadanuùñhãyatàm (tat kim anyat Then what else should be done?

anuùñhãyatàm?). What else do you want done?

There is also a passive participle built on this stem with the middle suffix -màna (e.g., nãyamànaþ,
being led).

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

duhitç f. daughter
prànàþ m. pl. breaths; life
prabhu m. master
bhràtç m. brother

avekù (ava+ãkù), avekùate watch, watch over

dà (III), dadàti give

Reading Vocabulary

adhikàraþ authority, office

abhipràyaþ intention, inclination
abhã÷u rein, bridle
ardhaþ half (portion)
Jànakã proper name
Parate÷varaþ proper name
màtç f. mother
Vasumdharà proper name
Vairodhakaþ proper name
yamaja twin[-born]
÷làghya laudable, virtuous

àhve (I), àhvayati summon, call

pass. àhåyate
às (II), àste sit, stay, remain; joùam às,
remain silent
nivç, caus. nivàrayati ward off, drive off
parirakù (I) parirakùati protect, save, spare
vimuc (VI), vimu¤cati release, loose
vi÷ram (IV), vi÷ràmyati rest, cease, take a rest
vãkù (vi+ãkù, I), vãkùate discern, spy
stu (II), stauti praise

Exercise 1

1. katham iyaü sà kaõvaduhità ÷akuntalà (katham, iyaü sà Kaõva-duhità øakuntalà?) 4. priye

màlati iyaü vãkùyase (priye Màlati, iyam vãkùyase). 5. vi÷ramyatàü parijanena. 8.
parirakùyantàmasya prànàþ (parirakùyantàm asya prànàþ). 9. bho ràjan kimidaü joùamàsyate
(bho ràjan, kim idaü joùam àsyate?) 10. tadanuùñhãyatàmàtmano'bhipràyaþ (tat anuùñhãyatàm
àtmanaþ abhipràyaþ). 11. kiü càtisçùñaþ parvate÷varabhràtre vairodhakàya pårvaprasti÷ruto
ràjyàrdhaþ (kim ca àtisçùñaþ Parvate÷varabhràtre Vairodhakàya pårva:prasti÷rutaþ ràjya-ardhaþ).
18. bhagavati Vasuüdhare, ÷làghyàm duhitaram avekùasva Jànakãm (bhagavati Vasuüdhare,
÷làghyàm duhitaram avekùasva Jànakãm). 19. kathaü, nivàryamàno'pi sthita eva (kathaü,
nivàryamànaþ api sthitaþ eva?)

1. Give him an answer. 2. We are twin brothers. 3. Masters do not summon [those] holding-
[vant]-office without-a-purpose. 4. Stop right there. 6. Loose the reins. 8. Hurry, my good fellows,
hurry. 12. Ha, dear child [f.]! You are thus praising yourself.

Day 2

Locative Absolute; Numerals

We have already encountered the Sanskrit 'absolutive' form (e.g., dç÷tvà, having seen). Sanskrit
also has a construction called the locative absolute, which corresponds to the ablative absolute in
Latin and the nominative absolute in English:

His dictis, ad rem procedamus. That said, let's get to business.

Deo volente, sanscriticum discemus. God willing, we will learn Sanskrit.

In Sanskrit, this construction contains a participle and a substantive [noun or pronoun] or two
substantives. Both elements are in the locative case, which expresses attendant circumstance:

kàle ÷ubhe pràpte an auspicious time having arrived

evaü samatikràmatsu divaseùu the days passing thus
Candragupte ràjani Candragupta [being] king

Impersonal passives also come into this construction:

tathànuùñhite (tathà anuùñhite) [it] having been performed thus

this done

Like the Latin construction, the locative absolute is often used as a substitute for clauses
expressing time, cause, or concession:

tasmin dahyamàne as it was burning

evam ukte because it was said thus
because this was said
evam ukte'pi (evam ukte api) although this was said

The locative absolute is generally NOT used if one its elements can be related grammatically to
the rest of the sentence (hence the term 'absolute', which means 'detached'). Thus, 'having seen
his friend, the king goes to the forest' would normally be rendered with the absolutive (vayasyam
dç÷tvà, nçpo vanaü gacchati), because the one who sees is also the subject of the sentence. But the
locative absolute would naturally occur in a sentence such as this:

Candraguptge Candragupta [being] king, there is no

ràjanyaparigraha÷chalànàm welcome for errors.
(Candraguptge ràjani aparigrahaþ
chalànàm

The locative absolute occurs less frequently than its Latin counterpart, because one can often say
the same thing using an exocentric compound or an abstract noun:

÷oka-saüvigna:mànasaþ whose-mind-is-overwhelmed-with-grief
his mind overwhelmed with grief
ràkùasasyàgrãtatve (Ràkùasasya in the not-taking of Ràkùasa
agçãtatve) Ràkùasa not having been taken

Sanskrit also has a genitive absolute construction, but it is far less common. It occurs mostly with
the present participle, and it has the added connotation of inneffectuality:

pa÷yatastasya (pa÷yataþ tasya) him looking on

as he looked on (helplessly)

Coulson chooses this moment to introduce numerals. Fortunately, complicated numbers rarely
appear in literary texts, and so we may be content with the list given on page 245 (of the PDF on
the course website; p. 286 of the 1976 hard copy). Here are cardinal numbers, 1-10:

eka one
dvi two
tri three
catur four
pa¤ca five
ùaù six
sapta seven
aùña eight
nava nine
da÷a ten

Many of these forms have obvious cognates in Latin, Greek, and English. In fact, the Proto-Indo-
European numbers persisted in all branches of the family, but various sound changes obscure
this fact. For example, the PIE name for the number five was probably penkwe. The consonant kw
was retained in Latin, but changed in Greek to t (pe/nte) and in Sanskrit to c (pa¤ca). Moreover, kw
and its variants became interchangeable with p (probably because both p and w are labials), with
the result that Latin doubled the kw sound (quinque), while Proto-Germanic doubled the p
(pompa). The Germanic p, in turn, became aspirated (ph) and then 'fricated' (f), producing f›nf in
German and five in English.

The numbers 11-19 are formed in Sanskrit in pretty much the same way as in Latin:

ekàda÷a 'one-ten', eleven (cf. undecim)

dvàda÷a twelve
trayoda÷a thirteen
caturda÷a fourteen
pa¤cada÷a fifteen
ùoóa÷a sixteen
saptada÷a seventeen
aùñàda÷a eighteen
navada÷a nineteen
ånaviü÷ati 'one from twenty'

Multiples of ten have the suffixes -÷at, iü÷at, and -ti (cf. Latin -inta, English -ty):

viü÷ati twenty
triü÷at thirty
catvàriü÷at forty
pa¤cà÷at fifty
ùaùñi sixty
saptati seventy
a֋ti eighty
navati ninety

In numbers such as forty-two, the multiple of ten goes at the end:

dvà catvàriü÷at two and forty, forty-two

The higher numbers are as follows:

÷atam one hundred

sahasram one thousand
lakùam one hundred thousand
koñi ten million

Multiples of one hundred can be expressed in as in English (dve ÷ate, two hundreds) or with a
compound (dvi:÷atam).

øatam, the Sanskrit word for one hundred, resembles the Persian word satem. Linguists use the
terms 'Satem-languages' and 'Centum-languages' to distinguish the two major branches of the
Indo-European family. English, with 'hund-red', belongs to the centum group.

Cardinal numbers are adjectival modifiers, and so they agree with nouns in gender, number, and
case. But the numbers 5-19 are not distinguished for gender, and the numbers 20 and above agree
with nouns only in case:

tisçbhir nadãbhiþ (tisçbhiþ nadãbhiþ) with three rivers

ùoóa÷abhir nadãbhiþ with sixteen rivers
÷atena nadãbhiþ with a hundred rivers

See Coulson, page 247 (287), for more information on the inflection of numbers.

The numbers 20 and above are, in fact, singular collective nouns, and so they may also be
construed with a 'partitive' genitive:

÷atena nadãnàm with a hundred of rivers

with a hundred rivers

One may also resort to a nominal compound:

nadã÷atena with a river-century

with a hundred rivers

Finally, it is useful to know the most common ordinal numbers in Sanskrit. These also will remind
you of forms in Latin, Greek, and English:

prathama first
dvitãya second
tçtãya third
caturtha, turãya, turya fourth
pa¤cama fifth
ùaùñha sixth
saptama seventh
aùñama eighth
navama ninth
da÷ama tenth
navada÷a nineteenth
viü÷a, viü÷atitama twentieth
triü÷a, triü÷attama thirtieth
÷atatama hundredth

The ordinals are all inflected like the adjective kànta. They agree with nouns in gender, number,
and case.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary
garbhaþ womb
dãpikà lamp
prasàdhaþ favor
làbhaþ profit
sahasram a thousand

àrabh (I), àrabhate undertake, begin

upanã (I), upanayati bring

Reading Vocabulary

abhivyakta manifest, visible

arthotsargaþ (artha- expenditure (of money)
utsargaþ)
kalatraü (n.!) wife
kalikà bud
Ku÷aþ proper name
candrikà moonlight
cåtaþ mango-tree
tarkaþ conjecture
para pron. adj. other, another
praci (V), pracinoti accumulate (the passive
corresponds to the English
intransitive)
pravçtti f. news
Priyaüvadakaþ proper name
bhaïgaþ breaking, plucking;
dispersal
Vàlmãki m. proper name
vikretç m. vendor
vicitra variegated, various
làbhaþ profit
Lavaþ proper name
-saübhava arising from, offspring of
saüvyvahàraþ transaction
suvarnaþ gold, gold piece

anuiù (I), anveùate look for, search

nisidh (I), niùedhati prohibit, cancel
samç, caus. samarpayati hand over

mçùà vainly

Exercise 2

7. devenaivaü niùiddhe'pi madhåtsave cåtakalikàbhaïgamàrabhase (devena evam niùiddhe api

madhu-utsave, cåta-kalikà-bhaïgam àrabhase?) 14. priyaüvadaka j¤àyatàü kà velà vartata iti
(Priyaüvadaka, j¤àyatàü 'kà velà vartate' iti). 15. àrya vaihãnare dãyatàmàbhyàü vaitàlikàbhyàü
suvarõa÷atasahasram(àrya Vaihãnare, dãyatàm àbhyàm vaitàlikàbhyàm suvarõa÷ata-sahasram).
16. vçùala kimayamasthàna eva mahàn arth-otsargaþ kriyate?(Vçùala kim ayam asthàne eva
mahàn artha-utsargaþ kriyate?) 17. bhoþ ÷reùñhin api pracãyante saüvyavahàrànàü làbhàþ?
(bhoþ ÷reùñhin, api pracãyante saüvyavahàrànàm làbhàþ?) 20. bhagavan vàlmãke
upanãyetàmimau sãtàgarbhasaübhavau ràmabhadrasya ku÷alavau(bhagavan Vàlmãke,
upanãyetàm imau Sãtà-garbha-saübhavau Ràma:bhadrasya Ku÷a:Lavau). 24. atha
tasmàdaraõyàtparityajya nivçtte lakùmaõe sãtàyàþ kiü vçttamiti kàcidasti pravçttiþ (atha tasmàt
araõyàt parityajya nivçtte Lakùmaõe Sãtàyàþ kim vçttam? iti kà cit asti pravçttiþ?).

9. The moonlight [being] visible, what point in a redundancy-of-lamps? 10. Làtavya, call Urva÷i.
13. Reward the vendor and accept it. 15. Have him come in. 16. Why vainly search with
conjecture [speculate]? 19. Hand over Ràkùasa's family--enjoy for a long time [to come] the-
king's-favor with-its-various-advantages. 20. Protect, at the cost of [instrumental] another's-wife,
your own wife and your life.

Day 3

Relative Pronoun, Adverb Formations; Màtra; Iti

In English, relative clauses are frequently employed. They are introduced by pronouns such as
who, which, and that, and their basic function is to modify a noun or pronoun in the main clause.
The latter is called the antecedent of the relative pronoun:

You can trust your car to the man who The clause modifies man (the antecedent of
wears the star. who).

There is a further wrinkle, however: relative clauses can be restrictive, non-restrictive, or

afterthoughts:

Sanskrit is the language that haunts my The relative clause restricts the sense of the
dreams. language: it's not the only language, but
the one that haunts my dreams.
Sanskrit, which is the language of the This clause does not restrict the sense of the
Upanishads, haunts my dreams. antecedent, Sanskrit; it merely supplies
additional information.
Sanskrit haunts my dreams--which were The clause is non-restrictive and is added as
strange enough already. an afterthought.

In Sanskrit, relative clauses are less common, because the function of describing nouns and
pronouns can be done by compounds (e.g., dream-haunting). But they do show up in
afterthoughts and in sentences where the restrictive function is emphasized:

kumara ya àryastaü pçccha. (Kumara, Prince, ask the one who is noble.
yaþ àryaþ tam pçccha).

The Sanskrit relative pronoun/adjective is yaþ (neuter yat). It is declined in the same way as saþ
(tat).

There are a few things about Sanskrit relative clauses that seem odd to speakers of English. First,
Sanskrit relatives are usually coordinated with demonstrative pronouns. This is also a feature of
archaic and archaizing Latin:
ya àryastaü pçccha (yaþ àryaþ tam Who is noble, him ask.
pçccha). Ask the one who is noble.
cf. Latin: Qui nobilis est, eum interroga.

The main clause can also be placed first (in which case, eùaþ or ayam is often used instead of saþ):

imaü pçccha ya àryaþ. Him ask, who is noble.

Ask the one who is noble.

Occasionally, the demonstrative is left out. This is particularly likely to happen if the antecedent
is negative or indefinite, or if the relative clause is a kind of afterthought or explanation:

apyasti tavàpatyam, yasmintàü Do you have any offspring, to whom I

dar÷ayàmi (api asti tava apatyam, [may] show her?
yasmin tàm dar÷ayàmi?).
astyatra Karàla nàma Càmuõóà yà kila There is a Goddess there named Karàla--
jãvopahàrapriyà (asti atra Karàla nàma one who is fond of the sacrifice of living
Càmuõóà, yà kila jãva-upahàra:priyà). creatures.

The second suprise is that when the antecedent is expressed, it is often found in the relative
clause. The relative pronoun then functions as an adjective:

yo nara àryastaü pçccha (yaþ naraþ àryaþ Which man is noble, ask him.
tam pçccha). Ask the man who is noble.

Third, the relative clause is never embedded in the main clause, as it frequently is in English (e.g.,
'I asked the upholsterer who came yesterday for his estimate'). Rather, it occurs before or after the
main clause:

English Order Sanskrit Order

I have asked the upholsterer who came Which upholsterer came yesterday, him I
yesterday for his estimate. have asked for his estimate.

This may seem confusing, but notice that Sanskrit has a distinct advantage. In the English
sentence, 'for his estimate' is a dangling prepositional phrase. We cannot be sure whether it
explains why the upholsterer came yesterday or what I asked him to supply. English often
tolerates this kind of ambiguity in order to keep the antecedent and the relative pronoun close
together. Sanskrit, on the other hand, can afford to separate them, because agreement in the
gender and number of the pronouns (yaþ...tam) is sufficient to show that they relate to each other.
Of course, the case may change:

ya àryastaü pçccha (yaþ àryaþ tam Who is noble [subject], him ask [object].
pçccha). Ask [the man] who is noble.
yà vanaü gacchati, tàm pçccha. Who goes to the forest, ask her.
Ask [the woman] who goes to the forest.

The fourth and final wrinkle is that unlike English, Sanskrit does not insist that relative pronoun
occur at the beginning of a relative clause:

English Order Sanskrit Order

I have asked the upholsterer who came to To look at the sofa which upholsterer came
look at the sofa yesterday for his estimate. yesterday, him I have asked for his
estimate.

The freedom of Sanskrit in this respect can lead to ambiguity, but it allows for greater flexibility
in emphasis.

Coulson points out that Sanskrit grammarians used relative clauses to analyze exocentric
compounds:

vidità:varttebhyaþ paurebhyaþ from-learned-newsed citizens

=vidità varttà yaistebhyaþ paurebyaþ =by whom the news was learnt, from
(yaiþ vidità varttà tebhyaþ paurebyaþ) those citizens

The addition of ka÷cit (kaþ cit) to the relative has a generalizing force (whoever, whichever):

yaþ ka÷cidàryastaü pçccha (yaþ kaþ cit Whoever is noble, him ask.
àryaþ tam pçccha). Ask anyone who is noble.

Adverbial clauses (where, when, if, etc.) are also typically set up in the style of relative adjective
clauses:

yatra nçpastiùñhati, tatra tiùñhàmaþ (yatra Where the king stands, there we stand.
nçpaþ tiùñhati, tatra tiùñhàmaþ) We stand with the king.

On page 149 (176), Coulson places a table showing the correlative relationship between
interrogative, relative, and demonstrative forms. Some of these are pronouns/adjectives, others
are adverbs. Here is a simplified version of his table:

Interrogative Relative Demonstrative

kaþ who? yaþ who saþ he
kva where? yatra where tatra there
kutaþ from where? yataþ from where tataþ from there
kadà when? yadà when tadà then
kãdç÷a of what kind? yàdç÷a of which kind tàdç÷a of that kind
kiyant how much? yàvant as much as tàvant so much
kiyacciram yàvat as long as tàvat so long
kiyantaü kàlaü
for how long?
yadi tat
cet then
if
yadyapi tathàpi
kàmaü punar
even if, granted that even so, nevertheless

This should be sufficient to demonstrate the pattern in Sanskrit correlatives. Demonstratives, of

course, vary according to the proximity of the referent to the speaker. Thus, one can say atra
(here) rather than tatra (there). See Coulson's chart for other variants.

Modern and Classical Indo-European languages show analogous patterns and many of the same
forms: e.g. Latin quantum (how much, as much) and tantum (so much), Slavonic kogda (when) and
togda (then), and Early Modern English whence (from where) and thence (from there).

The semantic affinity of adverbs to pronouns was sensible to speakers of Sanskrit, and they
sometimes used adverbs where English-speakers would use adjectives or pronouns:

Tatra vane ràmaü pa÷yàmi. There in the forest we see Rama.

In that forest we see Rama.

The overlapping of pronouns and adverbs is evident in kutaþ (from where), swhich shows an
ablative ending. Conversely, the suffix -taþ can be added to nouns and pronouns to create
adverbs with various meanings, not all of which indicate separation:

mattaþ from me
vistarataþ in detail
prasaïgataþ in passing

Okay, now it's Garbage Time. First, Coulson points out that as a general rule, the verb must agree
in number with the subject. But if the subject is a series of coordinated items, the verb may agree
with the last item. This is especially true if the verb comes first:

prabhavati kumàrãnàm janayità daivaü [what] governs girls is their father

ca ['begetter'] and their fate

Next, iti can be used to isolate a word as a metalinguistic entity:

a÷va iti tatra pañhyate [the word] 'horse' is mentioned there

Finally, màtra (measure) can be used at the end of a compound to mean '-sized', 'mere...', and 'as
soon as...':

aïguùñha-màtra thumb-sized
jala-màtram mere water, only water
dçùta-màtra as soon as seen

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

catur four
divya celestial
duùkara difficult
dvitãya second
-màtra measure; mere, only
mànuùaþ human being, mortal
yàdç÷a of which kind, such as,
just as
ràjyam kingdom
÷atam a hundred
ֈstram treatise, law-book

krã (IX), krãõàti buy

j¤à (IX), jànàti know, learn, find out

tathà in that way, thus, so

Reading Vocabulary

aïgam limb
antevàsin [resident] disciple
apanodanam driving away
abhidhànam statement, appellation,
name
alaükaraõam ornament
àtmajaþ son
ànuyàtrikaþ escort (to, + gen.)
iùña:janaþ loved one
ucita suitable, appropriate
utsavaþ festival
Candraketu m. proper name
càpa m./n. bow
citta-vçtti f. activity of the mind,
thought
trayam triad
dàràþ (m. pl.!) wife
dhårtaþ rogue
dhairyam firmness
nibandhanam bond
paõàyitç m. hawker
pàõi m. hand
paunaruktam redundancy
pracalita in motion
pramàdaþ mishap
pràrthayitç suitor
bhàgaþ division, portion, tithe
madhu m. spring
Mandàrikà proper name
mahànt great, vast, numerous
mahàmàüsam human flesh
màmakãna my
Màlatã proper name
mårkha foolish; m. fool
medhya fit for sacrifice, sacrificial
yàtrà procession
rakùitç m. guard
ratnam jewel
rà÷i m. heap
lajjà-kara (f. -ã) embarrassing
vane-caraþ forest-dweller
vallabhaþ sweetheart
vastu n. thing, matter, subject-
 mater
Vàmadevaþ proper name
vi÷eùaõa:padam distinguishing word,
epithet
saükulam throng
saüpradàyaþ tradition
sàdhanam army
snigdha affectionate
hastaþ hand

atisçj (VI), atisçjati bestow

anuprahi (V), send, dispatch
anuprahiõoti
anumantr (X), consecrate with mantras,
anumantrayate bless
anvi (II), anveti follow, attend
abhinand (I), abhinandati rejoice in, prize, greet with
enthusiasm
avàp (ava+àp, V), obtain, acquire
avàpnoti
ãh (I), ãhate long for, desire
upakëp, caus. upakalpayati equip, assign
nirvap (I), nirvapati sprinkle, offer, donate
parityaj (I), parityajati leave, abandon
prati÷ru (V), prati÷çnoti promise
rakù (I), rakùati protect
vighañ (I), vighañate become separated
past participle vighañita
visçj (VI), visçjati discharge, release
vyavahç (vi+ava+hç, I), act, behave towards (loc.)
vyavaharati
saübhå, caus. conceive, imagine
sambhàvayati

an:antaram immediately
ayi ha!
ekadà at one time, once
kiü ca moreover
cirasya after a long time
prasaïgataþ in passing
madhyàt from the middle of, from
among
vihàya having left behind, beyond
(+ acc.)
sarvathà in every way, altogether,
totally

Exercise 3

2. vatse, yadahamãhe tadastu te (vatse, yat aham ãhe tat astu te). 3. he dhårta lekho nãyate na ca
j¤àyate kasyeti (he dhårta, lekhaþ nãyate, na ca j¤àyate 'kasya' iti?). 6. mandàrike yadatra
vastunyeùa te vallabhaþ kathayati api tathà tat (Mandàrike, yat atra vastuni eùaþ te vallabhaþ
kathayati, api tathà tat?). 12. kathaü ÷akuntaletyasya màturàkhyà? (katham, 'øakuntalà' iti asya
màtuþ àkhyà?). 13. kaþ sa mahà:puruùo yen aitanmànuùamàtra-duùkaraü mahat karm
ànuùñhitam? (kaþ saþ mahà:puruùaþ yena etat mànuùamàtra-duùkaram mahat karma
anuùñhitam?) 21. yàdç÷o'yam tàdç÷au tàvapi (yàdç÷aþ ayam, tàdç÷au tau api).

5. Give [me] one from among those those three-ornaments which [I] bought. 7. Why speak of
'firmness'? 11. Oh, this is the decoration which I removed from my-own-person and sent to
Ràkùasa. 14. Your Excellency, have [you] anyone who is going to Kusumapura or coming from
there? 17. 'Minister' is now an embarrassing epithet. 18. Alas, I am quite deluded to behave
toward this forest-dweller [in a way, n. sg.] appropriate-to-my-friend-Makaranda.21. This is the
son-of-Kàmandakã's-friend, Màdhava, [here] to hawk human flesh. 22. [As] escort to the disciples
by whose hand [he] has sent that book to Bharata's-hermitage, [he] has sent our-brother bow-in-
hand [càpa:pàõi] to-drive-away-mishap. 23. And she having immediately become separated
[from me] by the throng of numerous [mahant] townsfolk in-motion-upon-the-dispersal-of-the-
procession, I came [here]. 24. Fool, these ascetics donate a quite different tithe, one which is
prized beyond even heaps-of-jewels. 25. Thus, imagining-[use pp.]-by-his-own inclinations-the-
thoughts-of-the-loved-one, the suitor is deceived.

Chapter 12

Day 1

Athematic Verb Conjugations

The Greek verbal system is complicated by the fact that there are two kinds of verbs: 'regular'
verbs, such as lu/w, and 'mi-verbs', such as ti/qhmi. These two classes of verbs are also called
thematic and athematic.

Thematic verbs use a 'theme' vowel to link the stem with the personal endings. In Greek, this
vowel is e or o (e.g., lu/-e-i, lu/-o-men). Athematic verbs, on the other hand, add the personal
endings directly to the stem (ti/qe-sai, e0/-qe-to). These verbs possess some other unusual
features, such as a variation in vowel grade (ti/qh-mi, tiqe/-meqa) and reduplication of the root in
the present stem (qe- becomes tiqe-). These are all survivals of athematic forms in the Proto-
Indo-European language, where they were far more common than in Greek. Sanskrit also retains
a number of athematic conjugations.

The simplest class of athematic verbs in Sanskrit is Class II, in which the stem consists simply of
the root. We have already seen an example of this class in the verb as (to be). Another example is
dviù (hate):

Person/Number Present Active Imperative Active

1st Singular dveùmi dveùàõi
2nd dvekùi dvióóhi
3rd dveùñi dveùñu
1st Dual dviùvaþ dveùàva
2nd dviùñhaþ dviùñam
3rd dviùñaþ dviùñàm
1st Plural dviùmaþ dveùàma
2nd dviùñha dviùña
3rd dviùanti dviùantu

Person/Number Present Middle Imperative Middle

1st Singular dviùe dveùai
2nd dvikùe dvikùva
3rd dviùte dviùñàm
1st Dual dviùvahe dveùàvahai
2nd dviùàthe dviùàthàm
3rd dviùàte dviùàtàm
1st Plural dviùmahe dveùàmahai
2nd dvióóhve dvióóhvam
3rd dviùate dviùatàm

For the most part, these forms are easy to recognize as the root (dviù) followed immediately by
the usual personal endings (note, however, the unusual dual middle forms). Occasionally, the
'collision' of the root with the endings causes a change in the root (e.g., dvekùi, dvióóhve,
dvióóhvam). We also see a change in the vowel grade from the basic grade dviù to the guõa grade,
dveù. This occurs, as in Greek, in the singular forms of the present indicative active (dveùmi, etc.;
cf. ti/qhmi), as well as some forms of the imperative.

The other two classes mentioned in Coulson's chapter are formed with suffixes. Class V adds the
suffix nu to the root. This becomes no in the strong grade. Here, for example, is the Present Active
of su (press):

1st Singular sunomi

2nd sunoùi
3rd sunoti
1st Dual sunuvaþ, sunvaþ
2nd sunuthaþ
3rd sunutaþ
1st Plural sunumaþ, sunmaþ
2nd sunutha
3rd sunvanti

Notice that nu changes to nv before the third-person plural ending, -anti.

Class VIII verbs insert the suffix u before the personal endings; this becomes o in the guõa grade.
Here is the present active of the common verb, kç (do):

1st Singular karomi

2nd karoùi
3rd karoti
1st Dual kurvaþ
2nd kuruthaþ
3rd kurutaþ
1st Plural kurmaþ
2nd kurutha
3rd kurvanti

Notice that in a couple of forms, the u drops out, leaving only the root and the ending (e.g.,
kurmaþ).

One further perculiarity of athematic verbs is that the middle participle ends in -àna, not -amàna.

It is not necessary to memorize all the irregular formations mentioned by Coulson. The bottom
line is that some verbs behave 'strangely' in the absence of a thematic vowel, and that certain
patterns in this behavior (such as variation of vowel grade) can be discerned. We will see more
craziness in the lessons to come!

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

dhanam wealth
bhåmi f. ground; fit object
vegaþ haste, speed

brå (II bravãti) say, tell

Reading Vocabulary

Agastyaþ proper name

udghàtin having elevations, bumpy
kiyant how much
tapo-vanam ascetics' grove
parityàgaþ giving up, sacrificing,
liberality
prasàdã~kç bestow (as a free gift)
bharataþ actor, player
ra÷mi m. rein, bridle
vi÷eùaþ distinction
vi÷eùa~taþ in particular
saüyamanam restraint, tightening

àp (V àpnoti) obtain, get

mandi~bhå slacken

Exercise 1

8. kimanyadbravãtu (kim anyat bravãtu?) 12. tatkimityudàsate bharatàþ (tat kim iti udàsate
bharatàþ?) 16. saüpratyagastyà÷ramasya panthànaü bråhi (saüprati Agastya-à÷ramasya
panthànam bråhi). 19. udghàtinã bhåmiriti ra÷misaüyamanàdrathasya mandãbhuto vegaþ
(udghàtinã bhåmiþ iti ra÷mi-saüyamanàt rathasya mandãbhutaþ vegaþ). 20. cakravartinaü
putramàpnuhi (cakravartinaü putram àpnuhi). 24. amàtya ãdç÷asyàbharaõavi÷eùasya vi÷eùataþ
kumareõa svagàtràdavatàrya prasàdãkçtasya kimayaü parityàgabhåmiþ (amàtya, ãdç÷asya
àbharaõa-vi÷eùasya vi÷eùataþ kumàreõa sva:gàtràt avatàrya prasàdãkçtasya kim ayam parityàga-
bhåmiþ?).

1. What do you say? 4. Let the two of us just [tàvat] listen. 13. Listen to this wonderful thing.

Day 2
The Gerundive

Latin students will recognize this term as referring to verbal adjectives with the infix -nd-
(amandus, monendus, etc.). In Latin, these adjectives perform two, unrelated functions: they can be
a substitute for the gerund (ad milites monendos, for warning the soldiers), or they may indicate
obligation (libri legendi, books to be read, books that must be read). The Sanskrit gerundive
performs the latter function. It is marked by the suffixes ya, anãya, and tavya:

Root Gerundive Meaning

dà deya to be given
nã neya to be led
÷ru ÷ravya/÷ràvya to be heard
kç karaõãya to be done
vid veditavya to be known

Notice that the vowel of the verbal root frequently undergoes an 'upgrade' before these suffixes,
but this is not always the case (e.g., gam, gamya).

As in Latin, the gerundive may be used as the complement in a linking sentence:

ahaü bhavadbhirdraùñavyaþ (aham I am to be seen by you.

bhavadbhiþ draùñavyaþ). You must see me.

Note that the instrumental case (rather than the dative, as in Latin) is used to express the agent.
Sentences such as these can serve as substitutes for the imperative, especially if the command is
negated:

na draùñavyà. She is not to be looked at.

Don't look at her.

The gerundive may also be used as an attributive adjective:

÷laghyo nçpaþ (÷laghyaþ nçpaþ) a king to be praised

a praiseworthy king

In the latter use, with the suffixes -ya and -anãya, the gerundive may acquire other shades of
meaning:

dç÷ya such as to be seen

visible

Gerundives with the suffix -tavya, however, are seldom used as attributives and usually retain the
sense of obligation.

The gerundive sometimes occurs in impersonal constructions, which are difficult to translate into
literal English. This is apt to happen with intransitive verbs, which do not normally occur in the
passive:

Kàmandakyàpi na khalvataþ It is certainly not to be lived by

param...jãvitavyam (Kàmandakyà api na Kàmandakã any longer.
khalu ataþ param...jãvitavyam). K. should certainly not live longer.

Impersonal constructions also occur in Latin (cf. Horace's famous dictum, nunc est bibendum, 'now
it is to be drunk'). But in Sanskrit, one even finds a gerundive of the verb bhu (to be):

tvayà sàvadhànayà bhavitavyam. It is *to be been by you watchful.

You must be watchful.

Notice that in this construction, adjectives that modify the agent must also be put into the
instrumental case.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

kùudh f. hunger
lobhaþ greed
veùaþ dress, attire
su:caritam good deed

Reading Vocabulary

àrta oppressed
piõóapàtin m. mendicant
pràrabdham thing undertaken,
enterprise
maru m. desert
vinãta disciplined, modest
vçùñi f. rain
sthalã [dry] land

utàs (II udàste) sit idle

samupadi÷ (VI point out, show
samupadi÷ati)
sthirã~kç make firm, sustain

nanu rather

Exercise 2

1. bhadra bhadra na praveùñavyam. 4. amàtya tathàpi pràrabdhamaparityàjyameva (amàtya,

tathà api pràrabdham a:parityàjyam eva). 6. samupadi÷a tamudde÷aü yatràste sa piõóapàt ã
(samupadi÷a tam udde÷am yatra àste saþ piõóapàtã). 11. asti naþ
sucarita÷ravanalobhàdanyadapi praùñavyam (asti naþ sucarita-÷ravaõa-lobhàt anyat api
praùñavyam). 14. nanu bhavatãbhyàmeva øakuntalà sthirãkartavyà (nanu bhavatãbhyàm eva
øakuntalà sthirãkartavyà. 17. vinãtveùaprave÷yàni tapovanàni (vinãta:veùa-prave÷yàni tapaþ-
vanàni). 18. marusthalyàü yathà vçùñiþ kùudhàrte bhojanaü tathà (maru-sthalyàü yathà vçùñiþ,
kùudha-àrte bhojanaü tathà). 21. tat kiyantaü kàlamasmàbhirevaü saübhçtabalairapi
÷atruvyasanamavekùamànairudàsitavyam (tat kiyantaü kàlam asmàbhiþ evaü saübhçta:balaiþ
api ÷atru-vyasanam avekùamànaiþ udàsitavyam?). 23. mahàdhanatvàdbahupatnãkenànena
bhavittavyam (mahà:dhana~tvàt bahu:patnã~kena anena bhavit-tavyam).
2. With this letter I must defeat Ràkùasa. 7. His Excellency's instructions are that I should safe-
guard Ràkùasa's life. 8. So let it be as it must be. 9. So one should not blame Ràkùasa in this
matter.

Day 3

Factitive Constructions; Correlative Adverbs

Next, we will turn next to situations in which a compound can be created by joining a noun or
adjective with a verb. This may sound strange, but it occurs frequently in Latin in words created
with the suffix -ficare (from facio, to make):

laetus happy
laetificare to make happy, 'happify'

English verbs in -fy (mystify, magnify, etc.) are derived from this combination. Essentially, these
verbs are derived from a construction in which the noun or adjective is the secondary object of
the verb 'make' (aliquem laetum facere: to make someone happy). This construction is sometimes
called a factitive kernel; laetum (happy) is styled a predicate accusative.

Sanskrit likewise shows both forms of the factitive construction. The verb kç may govern an object
and predicate accusative:

tvàmakàmaü karomi (tvàm akàmaü I will make you desire-less.

karomi).

The factitive construction can also be turned into a compound verb:

tvàmakàmãkaromi (tvàm akàmãkaromi). I will make you desire-less.

The compound is formed by changing a final a, à, i, or in to ã, and final u to å (e.g., laghåkç, make
light).

There is also a corresponding passive formation with bhu:

akàmãbhavasi. You will become desire-less.

Like English, Sanskrit combines the verb kç with an 'action noun' as a substitute for simple verbs:

vandanàü karoti. He make salutation.

He salutes.

Kç and bhu also combine with adverbs:

àviùkaroti. He makes openly.

He reveals.
àvirbhavati. It is made openly.
It is revealed.

In the previous chapter, we saw that adverbs as well as pronouns can be used to correlate
clauses. Sometimes, in fact, an adverb takes the place of a pronoun:

tadetadaraõyaü yasmin vasàmi (tat etat This is the forest in which I live.
araõyaü yasmin vasàmi). This is the forest where I live.
tadetadaraõyaü yatra vasàmi (tat etat
araõyaü yatra vasàmi).

Since adverbs are invariable in form, they are less flexible in meaning than pronouns.
On the other hand, more than one demonstrative adverb can answer to the same relative:

yathà vayamasmastatheyamasti (yathà As we are, so she is.

vayam asmaþ tathà iyam asti).
yathà vayamasm'evamiyamasti(yathà
vayam asmaþ evam iyam asti).

Sometimes the choice of the demonstrative indicates a slight change of meaning:

yadà...tadà when...then (same point of time)

yadà...tataþ when...thereupon (sequence)

These distinctions are not always strictly observed, however. Relatives, too, can be somewhat
flexible in meaning. Yàvat, for example, can mean 'while' or 'until', depending on the context.

yàvat pràõimi tavatpratikriyamicchàmi While I am [still] breathing, I want a

(yàvat pràõimi tàvat pratikriyam remedy.
icchàmi).
asmàt sthànàdanyatsthànamà÷rayàmi I will go from this place to another place,
yàvadasya vij¤ataü cikãrùitam (asmàt until his intention is discovered.
sthànàt anyat sthànam à÷rayàmi yàvat
asya vij¤atam cikãrùitam).

With the negative particle, na, it also means 'before':

na yàvadàyàti tàvattvaritamapasarpata Before he comes, escape quickly !

(na yàvat àyàti tàvat tvaritam
apasarpata).

Yàvat also appears in compounds with the sense 'throughout', and as a preposition meaning
'until':

yàvad_ràjyam throughout the reign

såryodayaü yàvat until sunrise

Finally, a couple of loose ends. First the suffix vat functions much like iva to mean 'like':

bràhmaõavat like a brahmin

Since this is a compound formation, the word preceding vat is not declined. Thus, its role in the
sentence must be inferred from the context:

nçpànpitçvadapa÷yat (nçpàn pitçvat He looked on the kings as his fathers.

apa÷yat).
(cf. nçpàn pitçn iva apa÷yat.)

Another wrinkle is the word vi÷eùaþ, which means 'distinction, difference, particularity'. As the
second part of a dependent or exocentric compound, it can mean 'a particular...':

strã-vi÷eùaþ a woman-distinction
a particular woman
ratna-vi÷eùaþ a special jewel

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

àyus n. life
tapasvin ascetic; poor, wretched
para other, enemy, hostile
stranger
prasàdaþ graciousness, favor, free
gift
maïgalam welfare, auspicious omen,
good luck

atikram (I atikràmati) transgress, go against

vah (I vahati, p.p. åóha) carry, take, marry

àvir~bhå become manifest, reveal

oneself
àviù~kç make manifest, reveal
-vat like

Reading Vocabulary

apade÷aþ pretense, pretext

a:parikle÷aþ lack of vexation
apsaras f. nymph (of heaven)
a:vighna unhindered
a÷okaþ a÷oka-tree
àkula confused
àkulã~bhå grow confused
àsanam sitting, seat
kathitaü thing spoken, talk,
conversation
kaùña~tara more grievous
kàla-haraõam delay
kàla-haraõam kç (to) delay
tantram administration
devatà divinity, god
dhyànam meditation, meditating
nayanam eye
patatrin bird
panthan m. road, path, way
parikle÷aþ vexation
parigrahaþ occupation, occupying
pa÷càt:tàpaþ after-pain, remorse
pracchàyam shade
pratyàkhyànam rejection
prayogaþ performance (of play)
pràvãõyam proficiency
manda slow, slacken
manyu m. passion, anger
maraõam death
Mànasam name of a lake
mohaþ delusion
rahas n. solitude
ripu m. enemy
lavaþ fragment
lava÷o lava÷aþ piece by piece
viklava bewildered, distressed
vi÷rambhaþ- confidential, intimate
kathà/kathitam conversation
vetasaþ cane, reed
vyasanam vice, weakness;
misfortune, misery
÷àlaþ sal-tree
ørãparvataþ name of a mountain
saüj¤à signal
saübandhin m. relative by marriage
sahadharmacàrin m. lawful husband
sahadharmacàriõã f. lawful wife
sàmàjikaþ spectator
sàra m./n. substance, property
su:nayana fair-eyed
sthira firm
sthirã~kç make firm, sustain
sthirã~bhå be[come] firm
svã~kç make one's own,
appropriate

apanã (I apanayati) remove, take away

avagam caus. avagamayati procure
àkarõayati denom. give ear, listen to
gerundive àkarõanãya
àdà (III àdatte) take, take hold of, bring
utpat (I utpatati) fly up
upàlabh (I upàlabhate) reproach, blame
upàs (II upàste) sit by, wait upon, honor
ceùñ (I ceùñati) move, act, behave
(towards), treat (loc.)
taó (X tàóayati, pass. stike, beat
tàóyate) strike, beat
nikçt (VI nikçntati) cut up, shred
paràpat (I paràpatati) approach, arrive
pratyàdi÷ (VI pratyàdi÷ati) reject; put to shame (by
example)
pradru (I pradravati) run (p.p. intrans.)
pràp caus. pràpayati cause to reach, convey
samyam (I saüyacchati) restrain, arrest
samàsad caus. approach, attain, meet
(samàsàdayati)

a:samyak wrongly
itas tataþ hither and thither
tiro~bhå become hidden, vanish
tåùõãm às stay silent
tåùõãm bhå be[come] silent
bahiþ outside
bhavatu right!

Exercise 3

2. bhavatu ÷çõomi tàvadàsàü vi÷rambhakathitàni (bhavatu, ÷çõomi tàvat àsàü vi÷rambha-

kathitàni). 3. tåùõãü bhava yàvadàkarõayàmi (tåùõãü bhava, yàvat àkarõayàmi). 5. tadatra
÷àlapracchàye muhårtam àsanaparigrahaü karotu tàtaþ (tat atra ÷àla-pracchàye muhårtam
àsana-parigrahaü karotu tàtaþ). 7. hçdaya sthirãbhava. 9. iyaü corva÷ã yàvadàyustava
sahadharmacàriõã bhavatu (iyam ca Urva÷ã yàvat_àyuþ tava sahadharmacàriõã bhavatu.) 10.
tadyàvacchrãparvatamupanãya lava÷o lava÷a enàü nikçtya dukþamaraõàü karomi (tat yàvat
Chrãparvatam upanãya lava÷o lava÷aþ enàü nikçtya dukþa:maraõàü karomi). 13. tatra
caivamanuùñheyaü yathà vadàmi (tatra ca evam anuùñheyaü yathà vadàmi). 15.
gçhãtagçhasàramenaü sàputrakalatraü saüyamya rakùa tàvadyàvanmayà Vçùalàya kathyate
(gçhãta:gçha-sàram enaü sà_putra:kalatraü saüyamya rakùa tàvat yàvat mayà Vçùalàya
kathyate). 22. yadaivàïgurãyakadar÷anàdanuùmçtaü devena satyamådhapårvà rahasi mayà
tatrabhavatã øakuntalà mohàtpratyàdiùñ' eti tadaiva pa÷càttàpamupagato devaþ (yadà eva
àïgurãyaka-dar÷anàt anuùmçtaü devena 'satyam ådha:pårvà rahasi mayà tatrabhavatã øakuntalà
mohàt pratyàdiùñaþ iti, tadà eva pa÷càttàpam upagataþ devaþ). 25. yàvacca saübandhino na
paràpatanti tàvadvatsayà Màlatyà nagara-devatàgçhamavighnamaïgalàya gantavyam (yàvat ca
saübandhinaþ na paràpatanti, tàvat vatsayà Màlatyà nagara-devatà-gçham avighna:maïgalàya
gantavyam).

Chapter 13

Day 1

Reduplicated Verbs

In the last lesson, we saw that some Sanskrit verbs (such as dviù) add the endings directly to the
root, without an intervening 'theme' vowel. One of the unusual features of such verbs is that the
vowel of the root may appear in different grades (e.g., dveùmi, dvimaþ). Some athematic verbs also
exhibit another peculiarity: the initial consonant and vowel of the root are reduplicated in the
present stem, producing a 'stuttering' effect:
 Original Root Present Stem
yuj yuyuj-
dih didih-
dà dadà-
kru÷ cukru÷-

In Greek, this formation survives in the verbs di'dwmi and ti/qhmi. Note that long vowels become
short when they are reduplicated, and that the initial consonant may undergo slight changes in
reduplication (e.g., cu-kru÷). The latter changes may be learned on a case-by-case basis, but
Coulson does provide some general rules. For example, velar consonants such as k and h
reduplicate with palatal consonants, such as c and j.

Here are the present indicative and imperative forms of hu (to sacrifice):

Person/Number Present Active Imperative Active

1st Singular juhomi juhavàni
2nd juhoùi juhudhi
3rd juhoti juhotu
1st Dual juhuvaþ juhavàva
2nd juhuthaþ juhutam
3rd juhutaþ juhutàm
1st Plural juhumaþ juhavàma
2nd juhutha juhuta
3rd juhvati juhvatu

Person/Number Present Middle Imperative Middle

1st Singular juhve juhavai
2nd juhuùe juhuùva
3rd juhute juhutàm
1st Dual juhuvahe juhuvàvahai
2nd juhvàthe juhvàthàm
3rd juhvàte juhvàtàm
1st Plural juhumahe juhavàmahai
2nd juhudhve juhudhvam
3rd juhvate juhvatàm

The original root, hu, is reduplicated with the palatal consonant, j. The root vowel is 'upgraded' to
o in singular present active forms and juhotu, and to au (av) in certain imperative forms. It
becomes a semivowel (v) before endings beginning with a vowel (e.g., juhv-atu). Note that the
3rd-person plural forms lose the n in their endings: thus juhvati, juhvate, juhvatu, juhvatàm. The
semivowel v distinguishes them from the singular forms (e.g, junoti, juhute, etc.). Two other
common verbs in this class (Class III) are dà, dadàti (give, cf. di/dwsi) and dhà, dadhàti (put, cf.
ti/qhsi).

Coulson mentions two other classes of verbs that show reduplication in the present stem. Class
VII verbs show a nasal n after the root vowel, which becomes na in strong forms. Class IX verbs
have a suffix -nà-, which becomes -nã- or -n- in its weaker grade:

Root Strong Grade Weak Grade

 yuj (VII), join yunakti yu¤janti
krã (IX), buy krãõàti krãõãmaþ, krãõanti

These and other variations can be learned on a case-by-case basis.

Elsewhere in Chapter 13 we learn that Sanskrit has another demonstrative pronoun, asau (he,
that). Here is a complete paradigm (cf. page 245 of the PDF):

Case Masculine Neuter Feminine

Nominative Singular asau adaþ asau
Accusative amum adaþ amåm
Instrumental amunà amunà amuyà
Dative amuùmai amuùmai amuùyai
Ablative amuùmàt amuùmàt amuùyàþ
Genitive amuùya amuùya amuùyàþ
Locative amuùmin amuùmin amuùyàm

Case Masculine Neuter Feminine

Nominative Dual amå amå amå
Accusative amå amå amå
Instrumental amåbhyàm amåbhyàm amåbhyàm
Dative amåbhyàm amåbhyàm amåbhyàm
Ablative amåbhyàm amåbhyàm amåbhyàm
Genitive amuyoþ amuyoþ amuyoþ
Locative amuyoþ amuyoþ amuyoþ

Case Masculine Neuter Feminine

Nominative Plural amã amåni amåþ
Accusative amån amåni amåþ
Instrumental amãbhiþ amãbhiþ amåbhiþ
Dative amãbhyaþ amãbhyaþ amåbhyaþ
Ablative amãbhyaþ amãbhyaþ amåbhyaþ
Genitive amãùàm amãùàm amåùàm
Locative amãùu amãùu amåùu

The forms of asau are, for the most part, built on the stem amu- or ami-. Familiar pronoun-endings
are used (cf. saþ).

Asau is less common than saþ (he, that) and ayam (this). It often appears in conjunction with ayam
to to say, 'there is', 'look at that':

ayamasau mahànadyorvyatikaraþ (ayam asau There is the confluence of the two great
mahà:nadyoþ vyatikaraþ) rivers.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

kàmaþ wish, desire, love

-tu-kàma wanting to, anxious to
 àkhyà (II), àkhyàti declare, tell

ati: too, over-, extremely, very

asau that, he

Reading Vocabulary

anveùin searching, in search of

àj¤à command, order
kàyasthaþ scribe, letter-writer
Lopàmudrà proper name
vyayaþ loss; expense, extravagance
øakañadàsaþ proper name
÷añha cunning
֌la m./n. stake
÷ålam àruh cause to mount the stake,
impale
sainikaþ soldier

upabhuj (VII), upabhuïkte enjoy, consume, spend

uparudh (VII), uparuõaddhi besiege, invade
parici (V), paricinoti become acquainted with,
recognize
på (IX), punàti, punãte purify
saüdhà (III), saüdhatte bring together, aim (arrow)

Exercise 1

1. dehi me prativacanam. 3. kathaü ÷ånyà iv àmi prade÷àþ (katham, ÷ånyàþ iva àmi prade÷àþ). 4.
eùa tamiùuü saüdadhe (eùaþ tam iùum saüdadhe) 6. ahamapyamuü vçttàntaü bhagavatyai
lopàmudràyai nivedayàmi (aham api amum vçttàntam bhagavatyai Lopàmudràyai nivedayàmi).
7. sa khalu mårkhastaü yuùmàbhiratisçùñaü prabhåtamartharà÷imavàpya mahatà
vyayenopabhoktumàrabdhavàn (saþ khalu mårkhaþ tam yuùmàbhiþ atisçùñam prabhåtam artha-
rà÷im avàpya, mahatà vyayena upabhoktum àrabdhavàn). 9. kiü cidàkhyàtukàmàsmi (kiü cit
àkhyàtu-kàmà asmi). 10. upàlapsye tàvadenam (upàlapsye tàvat enam). 13. j¤àsyathaþ khalvetat
(j¤àsyathaþ khalu etat). 12. ayamasau ràjàj¤ayà ràjàpathyakàrã kàyasthaþ øakañadàsaþ
÷ålamàropayituü nãyate (ayam asau ràja-àj¤ayà ràja-àpathya-kàrã kàyasthaþ øakañadàsaþ ÷ålam
àropayitum [to be impaled] nãyate). 14. puõyà÷ramadar÷anenàtmànaü punãmahe tàvat
(puõi:à÷rama-dar÷anena àtmànam punãmahe tàvat).

1. Vijayà, do you recognize this ornament? 2. That fellow is certainly cunning. 6. What, are
soldiers in-search-of-me invading the ascetic grove?

Day 2

Much earlier in this course, we saw that the Latin supine in -u has its morphological (but not
semantic) equivalent in the the absolutive form (e.g., dç÷tvà, having seen). The Latin supine in -
um, also known as the 'fourth principal part', is used after verbs of motion to express purpose
(e.g., eo cubitum: I go to lie down). It is descended from an Indo-European verbal noun. This form
not only survived in Sanskrit, but it became the infinitive for all verbs (e.g., netum to lead). It is
typically formed by adding the suffix -tum to the guna grade of the root:

Original Root Infinitive

nã (lead) netum
budh (learn) boddhum

Variant formations are possible; these can be learned as you go along:

Original Root Infinitive

bhå (be) bhavitum
likh (read) likhitum
dç÷ (see) draùñum

Some verbs may show more than one infinitive form:

Original Root Infinitive

nã (lead) netum, nayitum

Causatives generally retain the -ay- infix (e.g., càrayitum, to cause to move).

In Greek, the infinitive is (generally speaking) the only verbal noun-formation. Thus, it can be
used in all the ways that a noun is used, even in the oblique cases (e.g., tou= le/gein). As we have
seen, Sanskrit has other ways of turning a verb into a noun (e.g., ÷rvanam, hearing), and so the
infinitive has less work to do. One of its functions is to complete the sense of certain verbs, such as
want, be able, and begin. (In Latin and Greek, we call this the 'complementary' or 'prolative'
infinitive.)

÷rotumicchàmi (÷rotum icchàmi) I want to hear

÷rotuü ÷aknoti he is able to hear
÷rotuü jànàti he knows how to hear
÷rotumarhati (÷rotum arhati) he is worthy to hear, he should hear

The Sanskrit infinitive also corresponds to the Latin supine as an expression of purpose. It usually
appears with verbs of motion:

vçùalastvàü draùñumàgacchati (Vçùalaþ tvàm Vçùala is coming to see you.

draùñum àgacchati).

The infinitive also appears in impersonal expressions, such as yujyate or yuktam (it is proper):

na yuktamanayostatra gantum (na yuktam It is not right for the two of them to go there.
anayoþ tatra gantum).

Note that the subject of the infinitive in such expressions goes into the genitive or instrumental
case.

Sanskrit has no passive infinitive. The active infinitive may take on a passive meaning if the main
verb is passive:

hantuü nãyate. He is taken to kill.

He is taken to be killed.
 kartum àrabhyate. It is begun to do.
It is beginning to be done.
kartum ÷akyate. Is is *possibled to do.
It can be done.

The infinitive may even appear in a compound:

kartu-kàmaþ desire to do
kartu-manas having a mind to do, intending to do

It may seem odd that we are already in Chapter 13, and we have not seen finite verbs in any
other tense than the present. But in Sanskrit, one can get along quite well with the present tense
and the past participle. We have seen that the present indicative can be used to express intention
(gacchàmi, I will go) as well as exhortation (gacchàmaþ, let's go!). The past participle can be used for
any completed action (gataþ, he has gone, he went). Sanskrit does, however, have other tense
forms, which will often remind you of the Greek system.

The future tense is Sanskrit is formed by inserting sya or iùya between the root (in the guõa grade)
and thematic personal endings. This formation corresponds to the sigmatic future in Greek (e.g.,
lu/sw):

Verbal Root Future Form

nã neùyati (he will lead)
bhå bhaviùyati (he will be)
kç kariùyati (he will do)
dà dàsyate (he will give [middle])

The future tense in Sanskrit corresponds equally well to shall and will in English. Coulson
discusses other nuances of the tense on page 175 of the PDF.

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

kanyakà girl

abhivçt (I), abhivartate approach, go towards, make

for
kup, caus. kopayati anger

Reading Vocabulary

etàvant this much

kçta-vedin conscious of debt; grateful;
obliged
Gautamã proper name
gauravam high esteem, duty of respect
tuccha trifling
matimant possessing wit, sensible
øatakratu m. name of Indra
 secanam (act of) sprinkling, watering

ullaïgh, caus. ullaïghayati transgress, violate

aticiràt after very long

Exercise 2

2. tvayà saha Gautamã gamiùyati. 16. nàyamavasaro mama øatakratuü draùñum (na ayam
avasaraþ mama øatakratuü draùñum). 18. aye etàstapasvikanyakàþ svapramànànuråpaiþ
secanaghatairbàlapàdapebhyaþ payo dàtumita evàbhivartante (aye, etàþ tapasvi-kanyakàþ
sva:pramàna-anuråpaiþ secana-ghataiþ bàla:pàdapebhyaþ payaþ dàtum itaþ eva abhivartante).
20. matimàm÷càõakyastucche prayojane kimiti candraguptaü kopayiùyati. na ca kçtavedã
candragupta etàvatà gauravamullaïghayiùyati (matimàn Càõakyaþ tucche prayojane kim iti
Candraguptaü kopayiùyati? na ca kçta-vedã Candraguptaþ etàvatà gauravam ullaïghayiùyati).

4. But where will you (ladies) wait for me? 5. Why, quite without giving an answer, he has started
to dance. 8. After not very long the minister will restore [àruh, caus.] us to (our) former state.

Day 3

In the last two chapters, we have seen how clauses may be related with the use of adverbs (e.g.,
yatra...tatra) and pronouns (e.g., yaþ...saþ). Typically, these words relate the subordinate clause to
a particular item of information in the main clause, which is called the antecedent. Sometimes,
however, the subordinate clause refers to the verbal idea of the main clause as a whole:

bakulamàle upakàrinyasi yataþ svàgataü Bakula garland, you are my ally--therefore [as a
bhavatyàþ (bakula-màle, upakàrinã asi, yataþ result of which], welcome to you.
svàgatam bhavatyàþ).

Here are relative words that perform this function, along with the equivalent
English phrasing:

yataþ therefore; for; because

yat that, the fact that
yathà how, that

Yathà can be correlated with tathà to set up a clause of result (cf. Latin ita...ut, Greek ou(/tw...w(ste):

bhostathàhamutpatità yathà sakala eùa Oh, I have flown up so (high) that this whole
vyatikara÷cakùuùà parikùipyate (bhoþ tathà expanse is encompassed by my eye.
aham utpatità yathà sakalaþ eùa vyatikaraþ
cakùuùà parikùipyate).

Yathà is also sometimes used as an alternative marker for indirect statements:

idaü tàvatprasiddhameva yathà Now it is entirely established how [=that]

bhårivasurnçpamuktavàn (idam tàvat Bhurivasu told the king....
prasiddham eva yathà Bhårivasuþ nçpam
uktavàn)....
Conditional sentences in Sanskrit are marked by yadi and cet (if). The latter conjunction never
appears first in its clause. Various correlatives are used in the main clause (iha, tataþ, tadà, tarhi):

àrye yadi nepathyavidhànamadhyavasitaü Lady, if arrangements backstage are

tadihàgamyatàm (àrye, yadi nepathya- completed, come here.
vidhànam adhyavasitam, tat iha àgamyatàm).
na cedanyakàryatipàtaþ pravi÷yàtra (na cet If (it means) no neglect of other duties, enter
anya:kàri-atipàtaþ pravi÷ya atra). here.

Yadi api and kàmam mean 'although'; they can be correlated with tathà api, punar, or tu.

âdi and other words meaning 'beginning' can be placed at the end of exocentric compounds to
mean 'beginning with...', 'such as', 'et cetera':

indràdayaþ suràþ (Indra:àdayaþ suràþ) the gods Indra, etc.

Indra and the other gods

Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary

àdi m. beginning
amçtam nectar, ambrosia
kriyà doing; rite
kùatriyaþ warrior
priyam benefit, service
vàc f. speech, words
vedin knowing, conscious of,
appreciative of

arh (I), arhati be worthy; should

kam, caus. kàmayate desire, be in love with

kàmam admittedly, granted that,

though
cet (enclitic) if

Reading Vocabulary

atithi m. guest
anucaraþ companion
anutàpaþ remorse
antaram interval
apatyam offspring
aparàddha past participle offending, guilty
aparàdhin
abhiyogaþ attack
àpta trustworthy
iùu m. arrow
upapanna equipped with, possessed of
upasaügrahaþ embracing; collecting;
looking after
kàraõam reason
kàvyam literature
kumàrakaþ young man, son
koùaþ treasury, resources, wealth
guhya secret
ghataþ pot
cakùus n. eye
jàta past participle born
jàta-karman n. birth-ceremony
j¤àtç knower, person to know
tãkùõa:rasa-daþ poisoner
dàsã slave girl; servant girl
Devaràtaþ proper name
dauhitraþ daughter's son, grandson
dhurà pole, yoke, burden
Nandaþ proper name
nçpati m. king
payas n. water
para far, ultimate, supreme
parigrahaþ acquisition, possession
paritoùaþ satisfaction
puõya auspicious, holy
puràtana (f. -ã) former
pçthvã, pçthivã earth
pracchàdanam concealment
pratikåla contrary, hostile
pramàõam measure, size
pràkçta (f. -à, -ã) of the people, vulgar,
common
bàdhà molestation, damage
brahmacàrin m. student
sa:bhramacàrin fellow student
bhàrika burdensome
bhåùaõam ornament
bhraü÷aþ fall, decline
sthàna-bhraü÷aþ fall from position,
madhya-stha neutral
manorathaþ desire
mantrin m. minister
yukta proper, right
rahasya secret
ràja-kàryam, ràjya-kàryam state affairs, state
administration
ràmaõãyakam loveliness, delightful aspect
lakùaõam charecteristic, (auspicious)
mark
-vacanàt in the name of
varàka (f. -ã) wretched, poor
varõaþ color, appearance
vàdin speaking, talking
vàsin living in, dwelling
vij¤àpanà request
vidhi m. injunction
vidhi vat according to ritual
vivakùita past participle wished to be said, meant
vihàraþ (Buddhist) monastery,
convent
vyapade÷aþ designation, name
vyàghraþ tiger
øakuntaleya born of øakuntalà
ֈsanam command
÷uddhàntaþ women's apartments,
household
÷çgàlaþ jackal
÷rotç m. listener, someone to listen
÷rauta derived from scripture,
scriptural
÷vapàkaþ outcast
saücayaþ collection, quantity
satkàraþ hospitality
samartha capable, able
sàcivyam being minister, post of
minister
Siddhàrthakaþ proper name
Somaràtaþ proper name

ati÷i (II), ati÷ete surpass, triumph over

anuj¤à (IX), anujànàti allow, give someone leave to
(w. dative of verbal noun)
abhidruh (IV), abhidruhyati do violence to
avaj¤à (IX), avajànàti despise
àdç (IV), àdriyate heed, respect, defer to, refer
to
àruh, caus. àropayati cause to mount, raise onto
udghuù (I), udghoùati cry out
ut + hà (III), ujjihãte start over, depart
duù, caus. dåùayati spoil, defile
pãó (X), pãóayati squeeze
pé, caus. pårayati, pårõa fill, fulfill
prakhyà caus. prakhyàpayati publish, proclaim
pratinand (I), pratinandati receive gladly, welcome
pratividhà (III), prepare against, take
pratividadhàti precautions
prabhà (II), prabhàti shine forth, dawn
prayat (I), prayatate strive, exert oneself
prayuj (VII), prayuïkte employ; perform
man, caus. mànayati esteem, honor
mçù, caus. marùayati overlook, excuse
 vyàpé, caus. vyàpàrayati set to work, employ
÷ak (V), ÷aknoti be able, can
÷am, caus. ÷amayati quieten, appease
÷raddhà (III), ÷raddhatte trust, believe
satkç (VIII), satkaroti receive with hospitality,
entertain
samàsa¤j (I), samàsajati attach something to (+ loc.),
impose upon
spç÷ (VI), spç÷ati touch

anyatra elsewhere
itaretara (stem form) mutual, of/to (etc.) each
other
kaccit? I hope that...?
ciràt at long last
prabhçti (+ abl.) starting with..., from...,
onward, ever, since
pràdurbhå become manifest, arise
yat satyam what is true, truth to tell, in
truth
yadi evam in that case

Exercise 3

5. yadi rahaùyaü tadà tiùthatuyadi na rahasyaü tarhi kathyatàm (yadi rahaùyam, tadà tiùñhatu--
yadi na rahasyam tarhi kathyatàm). 8. diùñyà suprabhàtamadya yadayaü devo dçùñaþ (diùñyà
su:prabhàtam adya, yat ayam devaþ dçùñaþ). 11. bhadra siddhàrthaka
kàmamaparyàptamidamasya priyasya, tathàpi gçhyatàm (bhadra Siddhàrthaka, kàmam
a:paryàptam idam asya priyasya, tathà api gçhyatàm). 15. bhadre na tatparihàryaü yato
vivakùitamanuktamanutàpaü janayati (bhadre, na tat parihàryaü, yataþ vivakùitam an:uktam
anutàpam janayati). 17. sakhe na tàvadenàü pa÷yasi yena tvamevaü:vàdã (sakhe, na tàvat enàm
pa÷yasi yena tvam evaü:vàdã). 19. na cenmunikumàrako'yam, tatko'sya vyapade÷aþ (na ced
muni-kumàrakaþ ayam, tat kaþ asya vyapade÷aþ?). 21. tena hi vij¤àpyatàü
madvacanàdupàdhyàyaþ Somaràto'munà÷ramavàsinaþ ÷rautena vidhinà satkçtya svayameva
prave÷ayitumarhasãti (tena hi vij¤àpyatàm mad-vacanàt upàdhyàyaþ Somaràtaþ--'amun à÷rama-
vàsinaþ ÷rautena vidhinà satkçtya svayam eva prave÷ayitum arhasi' iti). 22. (smartavyaü tu
sausvayamasya nçpateryad aparàhinorapyanaparàddhayoriva nau kçtaprasàdaü ceùñitavàn.
(smartavyam tu sausvayam asya nçpateþ, yat aparàhinoþ api an:aparàddhayoþ iva nau
kçta:prasàdam ceùñitavàn). 23. he vyasanasabrahmacàrin yadi na guhyaü nàtibhàrikaü và tataþ
÷rotumicchàmi te pràõaparityagakàranam (he vyasana--sabrahmacàrin, yadi na guhyam na
àtibhàrikam và, tataþ ÷rotum icchàmi te pràõa-parityaga-kàranam). 24. àrya Vaihãnare adya
prabhçtyanàdçtya cànakyaü candraguptaþ svayameva ràjakàryàni kariùyatãti gçhãtàrthaþ
kriyantàü prakçtayaþ (àrya Vaihãnare, 'adya prabhçti anàdçtya Cànakyam Candraguptaþ
svayam eva ràja-kàryàni kariùyati iti gçhãt-àrthaþ kriyantàm prakçtayaþ). 25.
vayamapyà÷ramabhàdhà yathà na bhavati tathà pryatiùyàmahe (vayam api à÷rama-bhàdhà yathà
na bhavati, tathà pryatiùyàmahe). 26. kimidànãü candraguptaþ svaràjyakàryadhuràmanyatra
mantriõyàtmani và samàsajya svayaü pratividhàtumasamarthaþ (kim idànãm Candraguptaþ
sva:ràjya-kàrya:dhuràm anyatra mantriõi àtmani và samàsajya svayam pratividhàtum
a:samarthaþ?). 27. yatsatyaü kàvyavi÷eùavedinyàü pariùadi prayu¤jànasya mamàpi
sumahànparitoùaþ pràdurbhavati.(yat satyam, kàvya-vi÷eùa-vedinyàm pariùadi prayu¤jànasya
mama api su:mahàn paritoùaþ pràdur~bhavati). 28. candragupta÷arãramabidrogdhumanena
vyàpàrità Dàruvarmàdaya iti nagare prakhyàpya øakañadàsaþ ÷ålamàropitaþ ('Candragupta-
÷arãram abidrogdhum anena vyàpàrità Dàruvarm:àdaya' iti nagare prakhyàpya øakañadàsaþ
÷ålam àropitaþ). 29. sa khalu kasmiü÷cidapi jãvati nandànvayàvayave Vçùalasya sàcivyaü
gràhayituü na ÷akyate (sa khalu kasmiü÷ cit api jãvati Nand-ànvay-àvayave Vçùalasya sàcivyam
gràhayitum na ÷akyate). 30. idamatra ràmaõãyakaü yadamàtyabhurivasudevaràtyo÷ciràt pårno
yamitaretaràpatyasambandhàmçtamanorathaþ. (idam atra ràmaõãyakaü, yad
amàtya:Bhurivasu:Devaràtyoþ ciràt pårnaþ yam itaretar-àpatya-sambandh:àmçta-manorathaþ).

3. Lavangika has managed-well, since Madhava's-attendant Kalahamsaka is in love with that

servant-girl-of-the-convent, Mandarika. 7. Granted that this is to be prized, yet we are neutral
about it [atra]. 9. It is not right to despise even a common man. 10. King Candragupta, it is
already known to you that we lived for a certain interval-of-time with [loc.] Malayetu. 11. Oh
Viùõugupta, you should not touch me (who am) defiled-by-the-touch-of-an-outcaste. 12. My dear
child, I hope you have greeted [abhinand] the son born of øakuntala whose-birth-ceremony-and-
other-rites-were-performed by us according to ritual? 13. Then give me leave to go. 14. We are
not able to triumph with words over Your Excellency's words. 15. If your Excellency thus sees the
time-for-attack, why delay? 16. Come in, my dear fellow: you will get someone to listen and to
understand. 17. 'Just now [he] has directed his daughter to (show) hospitality-to-guests and gone
to Soma-tãrtha to appease a fate hostile to her'--'In that case she is the one I will see.' 18. Why do
you ask, friend, un-believingly? 19. Is the earth without-warriors, that (you) cry out in this way?
20. I should like to employ you, my dear fellow, on a certain task that-must-be-performed-by-a-
trustworthy-person. 21. If the grandson-of-the-sage proves to be [bhu] possessed-of-those-marks,
you will welcome her and introduce her into your household. 22. Do you then not pity the poor
(girl) whose-life-is-departing? 23. Loss-of-place will not oppress one-without-possessions. 24.
[We] have established øaktadàsa with a great quantity-of-wealth to-look-after the prisoners-and-
so-forth employed-by-us to do violence to Candragupta-s person, and to-instigate-[his]-subjects-
to-rebellion. 25. Màdhavya my friend, you have-not-obtained-the-reward-of-your-eyes, since you
have not seen the ultimate of things to see [draùñavya]. 26. Oh merchant Candanadàsa, a king so
severe-in-punishment towards traitors will not overlook your concealment-of-Ràkùasa's wife. 27.
Since those tigers and others, deceived-by-mere-appearance, without-knowing (him to be) a
jackal regard that one (as) king--see [pl.] to it that he is recognized. 28. Your Majesty, who else
anxious-to-live would have violated Your Majesty's command? 29. Though (your) master's-
merits cannot be forgotten, Your Excellency should honor my-request.

Chapter 14

Day 1

In the last chapter you met the future tense, which can be distinguished from the present tense by
a change in the root vowel and the addition of a special infix (-sya, -iùya) before the personal
endings. Sanskrit also has two common past-tense formations, which may occur in place of the
familiar past participle. The first of these is the imperfect tense, so called because in some Indo-
European languages it signifies past actions viewed as ongoing or habitual, and thus never really
'perfected' (e.g., he was leading, he used to lead). In Sanskrit, however, the imperfect serves as an
all-purpose past tense, like the simple past in English (he led). The imperfect is common in some
styles of Sanskrit, such as prose romances; it is rare in others.

The forms of the Sanskrit imperfect resemble those of the equivalent tense in Greek. The
imperfect is marked as a past tense by two things: an augment before the verbal root (a- in
Sanskrit, like e- in Greek), and a special set of endings used only for past-tense forms. Note that
Coulson and other grammarians use the term 'secondary' to refer the past tenses; the 'primary
tenses' are the present and future. Here are the imperfect forms of nã (lead):
Person/Number Imperfect Active Imperfect Middle
1st Singular anayam anaye
2nd anayaþ anayathàþ
3rd anayat anayata
1st Dual anayàva anayàvahi
2nd anayatam anayethàm
3rd anayatàm anayetàm
1st Plural anayàma anayàmahi
2nd anayata anayadhvam
3rd anayan anayanta

In many cases, the secondary endings appear to be 'shorter' versions of the primary endings (-mi,
-si, -ti, etc.). As such, they often overlap with imperative endings that you have already learned.
There is no danger of confusion, however, because the imperfect always carries the augment.
Comparison with the Greek imperfect may also be helpful (-am/-an = -on; -ata = -eto, etc.). In
Latin, primary and secondary endings were generally merged, except in the first-person singular
(thus -o never occurs in a past tense).

Athematic verbs are similarly conjugated in the imperfect tense. Verbs that show the third-person
plural ending -ati in the present tense have -uþ (not -an) in the imperfect. Singular active forms
show the strong grade of the root, as in Greek. Verbs that begin with a vowel are 'upgraded' to
vçddhi by the augment; thus icchati becomes aicchat.

The imperfect of the verb as (be) is somewhat irregular:

Person/Number Imperfect Active

1st Singular àsam
2nd àsãþ
3rd àsãt
1st Dual àsva
2nd àstam
3rd àstàm
1st Plural àsma
2nd àsta
3rd àsan

The imperfect of as is sometimes used in periphrastic forms to create a kind of past perfect tense:

atha taralikà mayà saha gatà snatumàsãt (atha Now Taralika had gone to bathe with me.
Taralikà mayà saha gatà snatum àsãt).

Another feature that Sanskrit shares with Greek is the use of optative forms. The term 'optative'
signifies wishing, but in Sanskrit it most often appears with a potential force (he may lead, he might
lead). In legal texts, the optative also has a perscriptive force (he shall lead). Here are the optative
forms of nã:

Person/Number Optative Active Optative Middle

1st Singular nayeyam nayeya
2nd nayeþ nayethàþ
3rd nayet nayeta
1st Dual nayeva nayevahi
2nd nayetam nayeyàthàm
3rd nayetàm nayeyàtàm
1st Plural nayema nayemahi
2nd nayeta nayedhvam
3rd nayeyuþ nayeran

The optative is built on the weak grade of the root. Secondary endings are added to the infix -ã,
which becomes e when added to the stem vowel of thematic verbs (a + i = e). Some forms show an
expanded version of the infix (yà). All this will remind you of the optative in Greek, where
secondary endings are added to the optative signs i and ih.

In addition to the potential and prescriptive uses mentioned above, the optative may be
construed with api nàma to express wishes:

api nàmàhaü nçpo bhaveyam (api nàma If only I could become king!
aham nçpaþ bhaveyam).

As a marker for potential action, the optative can be used in remote conditionals. In English,
conditional clauses are introduced by the conjunction if. They become remote if there is some
doubt about the fulfillment of the condition:

Present Remote Conditional Future Remote Conditional

If I were leading the army, the king would be If I should lead the army, the king would come.
coming.

English marks such sentences with helping verbs, such as might and would. Both the condition
and the main clause are treated as hypothetical.

Sanskrit uses the optative to mark both present and future unreal conditionals:

yadi senàü nayeyaü nçpo gacchet (yadi If I should lead the army, the king would
senàm nayeyam, nçpaþ gacchet ). come.
If I were leading the army, the king would be
coming.

The verb in both clauses takes the optative. Sanskrit is less precise than Greek and English in
distinguishing the time of the condition, but the context usually supplies this information.

Past unreal conditionals (if I had led the army, the king would have come) may be construed with
the optative or with the so-called conditional tense. This is formed by putting an augment and
secondary endings on the future stem (e.g., a-kariùya-t, he was going to do, he would have done).
The conditional tense appears in both clauses:

yadi senàmanayeùyaü nçpo'gamsyat (yadi If I had led the army, the king would have
senàm anayeùyam, nçpaþ agamsyat ). come.

Vocabulary

a:÷eùa without remainder, complete,

 whole, all
àpanna:sattva pregnant
khedaþ exhaustion
guõaþ merit, strand, spring
jarañha old, decrepit
jàlapàdaþ goose
dvandam pair
dvandvasaüprahàraþ single combat, duel
padam step
bisam lotus fibre
laghu light, brief
svapnaþ dream

nigaóayati denom. fetter, bind

pratidç÷ (I), pratipa÷yati see
bhid (VII), bhinatti split, separate

api nàma if only

nu khalu I wonder...?

Exercise 1

2. kva nu khalu gatà syàt? 3. àsãt tàdç÷o munir asminn à÷rame (àsãt tàdç÷aþ muniþ asmin à÷rame).
10. api nàma duràtmana÷càõakyàccandragupto bhidyeta (api nàma dur:àtmanaþ Càõakyàt
Candraguptaþ bhidyeta). 12. suratakhedaprasuptayostu tayoþ svapne bisaguõanigaóitapàdo
jarathaþ ka÷cijjàlapàdaþ pratyadç÷yata. pratyabudhyetàü cobhau (surata-kheda-prasuptayoþ tu
tayoþ svapne bisa-guõa-nigaóita:pàdaþ jarathaþ kaþ cit jàlapàdaþ pratyadç÷yata.
pratyabudhyetàü ca ubhau.). 13. tadaniviùyatàü yadi kà cidàpannasattvà tasya bhàryà syàt (tat
aniviùyatàm yadi kà cit àpanna:sattvà tasya bhàryà syàt). 14. àrya-putra nàyaü
vi÷rambhakathàyà avasarastado laghutaramevàbhidhãyase (àrya-putra, na ayaü
vi÷rambhakathàyà avasaraþ, tadaþ laghutaraü eva abhidhãyase). 15. kathamãdç÷ena saha
vatsasya candraketordvandva-saüprahàramanujànãyàm (katham ãdç÷ena saha vatsasya
Candraketoþ dvandvasaüprahàram anujànãyàm?) 19. anayaiva ca kathayà tayà saha tasminneva
pràsàde tathaiva pratiùiddhà÷eùaparijanaprave÷a divasamatyavàhayam (anaya eva ca kathayà
tayà saha tasmin eva pràsàde tathà eva pratiùiddha a÷eùa:parijana-prave÷a divasam
atyavàhayam). 20. tadupàya÷cintyatàü yathà saphalapràrthano bhaveyam (tat upàyaþ cintyatàm
yathà saphala:pràrthanaþ bhaveyam). 23. yadi punariyaü kiüvadanti mahàràjaü prati syandeta
tatkaùñaü syàt (yadi punaþ iyam kiüvadantã mahàràjam prati syandeta, tat kaùñam syàt).

3. And I observed in that hermitage in the shade of a young-mango-tree an ascetic of-melancholy-

appearance. 4. The writing might be spoiled, friend, by the sweat-from-(my)-fingers. 6. And so
saying she drew it (pattrikà, the letter) from the betel-box and showed (to me). 9. He may even,
perhaps, ashamed-of-his-lapse-from-self-control, do something dreadful [aõiùña]. 10. Now [yàvat]
I heard that it was Màlatã who was the cause-of-his pangs-of-love.

Day 2

Let's take a break from verbs and talk about adjectives. So far, we have encountered adjectives in
their basic or positive form (e.g., mçdu, soft), which is inflected to agree with nouns or pronouns in
gender, number, and case. But adjectives have two other degrees: the comparative (softer) and the
superlative (softest). Like English, Sanskrit uses suffixes to mark these degrees:
 Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
mçdu mçdutara mçdutama
soft softer softest
rather soft very soft

The comparative suffix -tara is comparable to Greek -teroj; the superlative -tama is cognate with
Latin -[t]imus (e.g., ultimus). Note the alternative English translations of the higher degrees.

Students of Greek will recall that a few common adjectives show comparative and superlative
forms in -iwn and -istoj. There are analogous forms in Sanskrit, with the suffix [ã]yàüs in the
comparative degree and -iùñha in the superlative. A few examples from Coulson's list are given
here:

Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree

guru heavy garãyàüs gariùñha
priya dear preyàüs preùñha
mahànt great mahãyàüs (cf. mei/zwn ) mahiùñha (cf. me/gistoj)

Some of these words show both regular and irregular suffixes (e.g., priyatara or preyàüs, dearer).

In a comparison, the second element is usually expressed (as in Latin) by the ablative case:

svàrthàtsatàü gurutarà praõayikriyaiva (sva- More important than their own self-interest is
arthàt satàü gurutarà praõayi-kriyà eva). the carrying out the petitioner's request.

An alternative construction uses the nominative after na ca (and not). This construction is common
with the word varam (the preferable thing):

varaü vandhyà bhàryà na càvidvànputraþ A barren wife is the preferable thing and not
(varam vandhyà bhàryà na ca avidvàn an ignorant son.
putraþ). A barren wife is better than an ignorant son.

After the superlative, both the genitive and instrumental cases may be used:

sodaryànàü jyeùñhaþ eldest of the brothers

buddhimatsu ÷reùñhaþ supreme among sentient beings

We have already seen the considerable versatility of the particle iti, the original meaning of which
is thus, in this way. But in Classical Sanskrit, this word is used mainly as a marker of speech that
stands outside of the narrative. It can represent both direct and indirect statements in English:

candraguptàdaparaktànpuruùànjànàmãtyupa 'I know men disloyal to Candragupta,' he

kùitamanena ('Candraguptàt aparaktàn hinted.
puruùàn jànàmi' iti upakùitam anena) . He hinted that he knew men disloyal to
Candragupta.

Occasionally, the fact that a speech is being quoted by someone else causes a shift in person:

bhartçdàrike tvamavastha÷arãreti Mistress, the queen has arrived, after hearing

parijanàdupalabhya mahàdevã pràptà from her retinue that you are well.
 (bhartçdàrike, 'tvam avastha:÷arãrà' iti
parijanàt upalabhya mahàdevã pràptà).

What the queen actually heard was 'The princess is well.'

Iti typically stands at the end of a quotation, but it may appear at the beginning of a new sentence
or paragraph and refer in general to what has been said previously:

iti ÷rutvà devaþ pramànaü. Having heard [what I have told you], your
Majesty is the judge.

It is even possible to omit the verb of telling, hearing, etc., and to let iti alone stand for a
statement that prompts some other action:

ityasmayata (iti asmayata). So [saying], she smiled.

Since iti can represent not only what has been said, but also what has been known, understood,
imagined, etc., it can become the equivalent of because and [the fact] that in causal and nominal
clauses:

rakùaõãyaþ suhçdasava iti Because a friend's life must be saved, I speak

kathyàmi(rakùaõãyaþ suhçd-asavaþ iti out.
kathyàmi).

satyaü janàmãti kathametat (satyam janàmi iti How is it that I know the truth?
katham etat?).

Iti will also sometimes mark the equivalent of a purpose clause, since it reflects what is in the
mind of the subject:

mà bhådà÷ramapãóeti (The two of them travelled) with a limited

parimeyapuraþsarau('mà bhåd à÷rama-pãóà' entourage (with the thought), 'Let there not be
iti parimeya:puraþsarau). affliction-of-the-hermitage.'
(The two of them travelled) with a limited
entourage lest they trouble the hermitage.

Iti can, of course, be used to report commands and questions as well as statements. Since
questions have their own markers, iti is sometimes omitted:

pa÷yasi kà vàrttà. You see what the news is.

In indirect questions, a relative pronoun may also sometimes take the place of an interrogative:

bråhi yadupalabdham (bråhi yat Tell me that which has been discovered.
upalabdham). Tell me what you have discovered.

Finally, note about the uses of repetition in Sanskrit style. Often it indicates emphasis:

sàdhu sàdhu. Bravo! Bravo!

punaþ punaþ. again and again
It may also have a distributive sense:

svàn svàn bàlàn ànayanti. They bring their various children.

tat tat kàraõam utpàdya producing this and that reason, producing
various reasons.

Vocabulary

adhyavasàyaþ resolution
an:adhyavasàyaþ irresolution, hesitation
anilaþ wind, breeze
an:iùñaþ undesired, unpleasant
anuràgaþ passion, love
antaþ end
antaþpuram women's quarters (of palace),
harem
antarita concealed
apade÷aþ pretext
apara other, different
apasarpaõam getting away, escape
abhilàùin desirous, anxious
arthin having an object, wanting,
petitioning
a:÷obhana unpleasant, awful
ahamahamikà rivalry
àdaraþ care, trouble
àdaraü kç take care [to]
àdhoraõaþ elephant-driver
àrti f. affliction, distress
àrdra moist, tender
àrya-putraþ nobleman
indriyam sense
uttama uppermost, supreme, top
unmàthaþ shaking, disturbance
manmathonmàthaþ pangs of love
upakàraþ help, service
upanyàsaþ mention, allusion
upasthànam religious attendance
ekàkin alone
Aikùvàka descended from King
Iksvaku
kàtara timid, nervous
kànanam forest
kàrmurkam bow
kiüvadantã rumor
kusum:àyudhaþ flower-weaponed; the god of
love
kålam bank, shore
kçpàlu compassionate
kolàhalaþ clamor
gaõikà courtesan
gandhaþ smell, scent
garãyàüs important, considerable;
worthy/worthier of respect
gahanam dense place
gir f. speech, voice, tone
ghràõam smelling, (sense of) smell
candana m./n. sandal, sandal-wood tree
cåtaþ mango-tree
jyàyàüs older, elder
taru m. tree
taru-gahaõam thicket of trees, wood
tàmbålam betel
dakùiõa right, on the right hand
dur:nimittam ill omen
dçùñi f. gaze
drohaþ injury, hostility
dvàr f. door
dharma-vit learned in the sacred law
nava:yauvanam [fresh] youth
nikhila entire
nipuõa clever, sharp
nirbhara excessive, full
nivedaka announcing, indicating
pa¤ca five
pañu sharp
pañãyàüs shaper
pati m. lord, husband
parava÷a in another's power, helpless
parimalaþ perfume
pàñhaþ recitation, reading; part (in
play)
pàtram vessel, receptacle; worthy
recipient; actor
pàtra-vargaþ cast (of play)
potakaþ young animal/plant
cåta-potakaþ young mango-tree
pratikriyà remedy, remedying
pradhàna principal, important
prastàvaþ prelude
pràsàdaþ mansion; terrace; (upstairs)
room
bàõaþ arrow
Bharataþ pr. nom.
bhàjanam receptacle, box
bhàryà wife
bhåyàüs more, further
matta in rut, rutting
madaþ intoxication
madhukaraþ, madhukarã bee, honey-bee
mårchà faint, swoon
madana-murchà amorous swoon
målam root, basis, foundation
mçgatçùõikà mirage
raühas n. speed
råpam form; beauty
locanam eye
vargaþ group
vigrahaþ separation; body
viñapa m./n. branch, bush, thicket
vitarkaþ conjecture, doubt
vipinam forest
vilakùa disconcerted, ashamed
vihvala tottering, unsteady
vãthikà row, grove
÷astram knife, sword
saüskàraþ preparation, adornment
sa-phala fulfilled
saüprahàraþ fighting, combat
saümåóha confused
saras n. lake
sàrathi m. driver of a chariot
su:ratam love-making
surabhi fragrant
su:labha easily got, natural
skhalanam failure, lapse
svàminã mistress
svedaþ sweat
Hari m. pr. n.
harùaþ joy, delight
hastin m. elephant
hita beneficial; well-disposed,
good (friend)

ativah caus. (ativàhayati) spend (time)

adhiruh (I), adhirohati ascend, mount
anubandh (IX), anubadhnàti pursue, importune
anulip (VI), anulimpati anoint
anuvçt (I), anuvartate go after, attend upon
apayà (II), apayàti go away, depart
abhighrà (I), abhijighrati smell
abhibhå (I), abhibhavati overpower
abhisyand (I), abhiùyandate flow
avagam (I), avagacchati acquire
avadhç, caus. avadhàrayati determine, resolve
avalamb (I), avalambate cling to, hold on to
àgam caus. àgamayati acquire
àgrhà (I), àjighrati smell
àcar (I), àcarati conduct oneself, act, do
 à÷vas caus. à÷vàsayati cause to breathe freely,
comfort
uccal (I), uccalati move away, rise
utsthà (I) uttiùñhtati stand up, get up
utas (IV), udasyati throw up, throw out, push
out
upakç (VIII), upakaroti furnish, provide
upakùip (VI), upakùipati hint at
upajan (IV), upajàyate come into being, be roused
past part. upajàta
upasthà caus. upasthàpayati cause to be near, fetch, bring
up
upa+i (II), upaiti approach, come to
këp (I), kalpate be suitable, conduce to, turn
to (dat.)
tçp caus. tarpayati satisfy
ni÷am caus. ni÷àmayati perceive, observe
paritrai (II) paritràti rescue, protect
pratinivçt (I), pratinivartate return
pratipad (IV), pratipadyate assent, admit
prabudh caus. prabodhayati inform, admonish
prasvap (II), prasvapiti fall asleep
prahi (V), prahiõoti despatch, send
vikas (I), vikasati burst, blossom, bloom
vicar (I), vicarati move about, roam
vicar caus. vicàrayati deliberate, ponder
vilok caus. vilokayati look at, watch
visçp (I), visarpati be diffused, spread
samjan (IV), saüjàyate come into being, be aroused
past part. saüjàta
samàcar (I), samàcarati conduct onself, act, do
spand (I), spandate quiver
syand (I), syandate flow, move rapidly

agrataþ in front of (gen.)

ati: extremely
kadàcit perhaps
jhañiti suddenly
sakà÷am to [the presence of]
yathà yathà...tathà tathà in proportion as, the more
that

Exercise 2

1. priyaüvadaka j¤àyatàü ko'smaddar÷anàrthã dvàri tiùñhati (Priyaüvadaka, j¤àyatàü kaþ

asmad-dar÷an-àrthã dvàri tiùñhati). 4. àyuùman ÷råyatàü yadarthamasmi harinà tvatsakà÷aü
preùitaþ (àyuùman, ÷råyatàü yat artham asmi Harinà tvat-sakà÷am preùitaþ). 5.
evamukto'pyahamenaü pràbodhayaü punaþ punaþ (evam uktaþ api aham enam pràbodhayam
punaþ punaþ). 6. ciràt prabhçtyàryaþ parityaktocitasarãrasaüskàra iti pãdyate me hçdayam (ciràt
prabhçti àryaþ parityakta-ucita;÷arãra-saüskàraþ iti pãdyate me hçdayam). 7.
vismayaharùamåla÷ca kolàholo lokasya odajihãta (vismaya;-harùa:målaþ ca kolàholaþ lokasya
udajihãta). 8. taducyatàü pàtravargaþ sveùu sveùu pàñheùvasaümådhairbhavitavyamiti (tat
ucyatàü pàtravargaþ 'sveùu sveùu pàñheùu asaümådhaiþ bhavitavyam' iti.). 9. sakhe cintaya
tàvatkenàpade÷ena punarà÷ramapadaü gacchàmaþ (sakhe, cintaya tàvat kena apade÷ena punaþ
à÷rama-padaü gacchàmaþ ) 11. ayam asau mama jyàyànàryaþ ku÷o nàma
bharatà÷ramàtpratinivçttaþ (ayam asau mama jyàyàn àryaþ Ku÷aþ nàma Bharat-à÷ramàt
pratinivçttaþ.) 16. ityavadhàryàpasarpaõàbhilàsiõyahamabhavam (iti avadhàri apasarpaõa-
abhilàsiõi aham abhavam). 17. kasminprayojane mamàyaü praõidhiþ prahita iti
prabhåtatvatprayojanànàü na khalvavadhàrayàmi (kasmin prayojane mama ayam praõidhiþ
prahitaþ iti prabhåta~tvat prayojanànàm na khalu avadhàrayàmi). 18. yadi ka÷cidastyupàyaþ
patidrohapratikriyàyai dar÷ayàmuü matiþ hi te pañãyasi (yadi kaþ cit asti upàyaþ pati-droha-
pratikriyàyai, dar÷aya amum -- matiþ hi te pañãyasi). 21. ÷rutvà caitattameva
mattahastinamudastàdhoraõo ràjaputro dhiruhya raühasottamena ràjabhavanamabhyavartata
(÷rutvà ca etat tam eva matta:hastinam udasta:adhoraõaþ ràja-putraþ adhiruhya raühasa
uttamena ràjabhavanam abhyavartata). 22. upalabdhavànasmi praõidhibhyo yathà tasya
mleccharàjabalasya madhyàtpradhànatamàþ pa¤ca ràjànaþ parayà suhçttayà Ràkùasam
anuvartanta iti (upalabdhavàn asmi praõidhibhyaþ yathà tasya mleccha-ràja-balasya madhyàt
pradhànatamàþ pa¤ca ràjànaþ parayà suhçt~tayà Ràkùasam anuvartante iti) 24.
ityavadhàryànveùtumàdaramakavaram. anveùamàõa÷ca yathà yathà nàpa÷yaü taü tathà tathà
suhçtsnehakàtareõa manasà tattada÷obhanamà÷aïkamànastarugahanàni candanavithikà
latàmaõóapànsaraþkålàni ca vãkùamàõo nipuõamitastato dattadçùñiþ suciraü vyacaram (iti
avadhàrã anveùtum àdaram akavaram. anveùamàõaþ ca yathà yathà na apa÷yaü taü, tathà tathà
suhçtsneha-kàtareõa manasà tat tat a÷obhanam à÷aïkamànaþ taru-gahanàni candana-vithikà
latà-maõóapàn saraþ-kålàni ca vãkùamàõaþ nipuõam itaþ tataþ datta:dçùñiþ su:ciraü vyacaram.)
25. ekasmiü÷ca prade÷e jhañiti vanànilenopanãtaü nirbharavikasite'pi kànane
bhibhåtànyakusumaparimalaü visarpantamatisurabhitayà nulimpantamiva tarpyantamiva
pårayantamiva ghràõendriyamahamahamikayà
madhukarakulairanubadhyamànamanàghràtapårvamamànuùalokocitaü kusumagandham
abhyajighram (ekasmiüs ca prade÷e jhañiti vana-anilena upanãtam nirbhara:vikasite api kànane
bhibhåta:anya:kusuma:parimalaü visarpantam ati:surabhi~tayà anulimpantam iva tarpyantam
iva pårayantam iva ghràõa-indriyam, ahamahamikayà madhukara-kulaiþ anubadhyamànam
an:àghràta:pårvam a:mànuùa-loka-ucitam kusuma-gandham abhya-jighram).

1. Latavya, do you know whose arrow this is? 2. Ah you fool! Are you more-learned-in-the-
sacred-law than our preceptor? 5. What then is this great hesitation at every step? 7. The allusion
to (such) considerable love-and-service is indeed opportune (avasare). 8. Raivataka, tell our-driver
to bring up the chariot complete-with [sa-]-bow-and-arrows. 11. And she became mistress-of-his-
entire-harem. 12. Tell (me) what further benefit I can provide for you. 13. After speaking thus he
fell silent, his-gaze-fixed-on-my-face (to see) what I [f.] would say.

Chapter 15

In Sanskrit, past action may also be expressed by the perfect tense. This is formed, as in Greek, by
reduplication of the root and a special set of endings. Here are the perfect forms of dç÷ (see):

Person/Number Perfect Active Perfect Middle

1st Singular dadar÷a dadç÷e
2nd dadar÷itha dadç÷iùe
3rd dadar÷a dadç÷e
1st Dual dadç÷iva dadç÷ivahe
2nd dadç÷athuþ dadç÷àthe
3rd dadç÷atuþ dadç÷àte
1st Plural dadç÷ima dadç÷imahe
2nd dadç÷a dadç÷idhve
3rd dadç÷uþ dadç÷ire

Note that the singular active forms appear in the strong grade of the root (dadar÷-), while all other
forms show the weak grade (dadç÷-). The strong grade is usually guõa, but in many verbs the
vriddhi grade is used instead (kç > cakàra). This is optional in the first person, so that it becomes
possible to distinguish it from the third person (cakara, I did; cakàra, I/he did). In the weak grade,
the vowel a may disappear altogether (gam > jagàma, jagmuþ). As in Greek, the perfect of the root
vid (know) is not reduplicated and retains a present sense: veda (I know; cf. oi]da).

Vowel-initial verbs reduplicate by lengthening the vowel (as > àsa); in strong forms, the vowel i
reduplicates as iye- (iù, want > iyeùa). Reduplication with a semi-vowel (samprasàraõa) shows up in
the strong form of other roots, as well: thus vac (say) becomes uvàca.

The perfect tense has an active participle with the ending -vàüs. The middle participle ends in
-àna, and declines like a÷va.

Causative and other derivative verbs do not have a perfect form, but one can be created by
combining the perfect of kç with an abstract noun:

dar÷ayàü cakàra. He did a showing.

He showed.

There is a corresponding middle construction with the verb as or bhu:

dar÷ayàm àsa. He showed.

Although the Sanskrit perfect resembles its Greek equivalent, it does not have a 'perfective' sense
(cf. le/luke, he has freed). It is used instead as an historical tense (cakàra, he did). Sanskrit
grammarians stipulated that it should not be used for actions in the personal experience of the
writer. For this reason, it is rare in drama and common in narrative poetry.

Nor is that the end of past tenses in Sanskrit. There is also an aorist formation. Like the imperfect,
this is marked by an augment and secondary endings. The aorist stem, however, is formed in
various ways that distinguish it from the present stem. Some of these will remind you of the
aorist in Greek and the perfect tense in Latin. The following table summarizes Coulson's
presentation:

Type of Aorist Stem Example Analogous Formation

Root Aorist abhåt (he was) e)/fu (he was)
(athematic endings, active
only)
A-aorist apatat (he fell) e)l
/ abe (he took)
(thematic endings, week
grade of root)
Reduplicated Aorist adãdç÷at (he showed) cucurrit (he ran)
(thematic endings; sense
normally causative)
Sigmatic Aorists anaiùãt (he led) e)/luse (he freed)
(suffixes -s, iù, siù, sa, with
 thematic or athematic
endings
Aorist Passive akàri (it was done) e0bla/bh (he was harmed)
(Occurs only in the third
person, singular)

The aorist tense in Sanskrit does not differ in meaning from the imperfect. It was replaced in
ordinary writing by participial constructions. Its frequent use is characteristic of a 'learned' style.

To summarize, we have seen three past tenses in Sanskrit: the imperfect, perfect, and aorist. They
can all be rendered with the simple past in English. Sanskrit grammarians distinguished them
with the following formula: the aorist refers to an action 'of today', the imperfect to an action 'not
of today', and the perfect to an action in the 'remote' past.

In Greek and Latin, the secondary tenses are sometimes used to express hypothetical action. In
Sanskrit, two verbal formations are based on the imperfect and or aorist stem. One of these is
called the injunctive. It consists of the imperfect or (more commonly) the aorist form without an
augment. Once common in Vedic Sanskrit, its use in Classical Sanskrit is confined to negative
commands after mà (cf. Greek mh/):

mà bhaiùta. Do not fear.

mà bhåt. Let it not be.

The other formation is called the precative. Coulson describes it as 'a kind of aorist optative',
which is used to express wishes and prayers. It is formed by adding the suffix -yà[s] to the un-
strengthened root:

avirahitau dampatã bhåyàstàm. May husband and wife be un-separated.

kriyàdaghànà maghavà vighàtam (kriyàd May Indra cause elimination of evils.
aghànàm maghavà vighàtam).

Finally, a word about Sanskrit metre. Like Latin and Greek, Sanskrit possessed a quantitative
rhythm, in which the difference between 'light' and 'heavy' syllables was audible in ordinary
speech. In general, a 'heavy' syllable is one that contains a long vowel or diphthong, or a short
vowel followed by two or more consonants. Other syllables are 'light'. Visarga (þ) and anusvara
(ü) are treated as consonants in versification. In metrical notation, heavy syllables are marked
with a macron (-) and light syllables with x or u.

The most common verse-form is the anuùñubh metre, which is the functional equivalent of dactylic
hexameter in Latin and Greek. This metre consists of stanzas, which are divisible into quarters
called pàdas ('feet'). Each pàda may be divided in turn into two half-verses of four syllables each.
The first half-verse is always indeterminate: each of the four syllables may be light or heavy (o).
The second half-verse, on the other hand, normally consists of a double iambus (x-x-) in the
second and fourth pàdas. The first and third pàdas end with a different metre: x- -x. Thus, an
entire stanza follows this pattern:

oooo x- -x/oooo x-x-

oooo x- -x/oooo x-x-

In practice, the final syllable of a pada may be heavy or light by nature. Thus, the anuùñubh metre
is a mix of freedom and restriction, which gives considerable scope for poetic creativity.
To illustrate the anuùñubh metre, here are the first two stanzas of the Atmabodha (Self-Knowledge),
a versified treatise attributed to the philosopher Shankara ():

o o o o x - - - o o o ox-x-
tabobhiþ kùãnapàpànàü ÷àntànàü vãtaràginàm

o o o o x- - x o o o o x -x -
mumukùunàm apekùyo'yam àtmabodho'vidãyate.

o o o o x - - x o o o o x - x x
bodho'nya sàdhanebhyo hi sàkùàn mokùaikasàdhanam

o o o o x - - x o o o o x - x x
pàkasya vanhivajj¤ànaü vinà mokùo na sãdhyati.

Exercise

In place of the readings given in Coulson's chapter, you may read the first ten stanzas of the
Atmabodha. This work describes the quest for enlightenment with a series of analogies drawn
from nature. For Shankara, 'knowledge of the self' means the realization that one's true Self
(atman) is identical with the Absolute (brahman).

tapobhiþ kùãnapàpànàü ÷àntànàü vãtaràginàm

mumukùunàmapekùyo'yamàtmabodho'vidhãyate.

tapas austerity
kùãna-pàpàna pure (feeble criminal, one who is purified
after suffering the consequences of sin)
÷àntàna calm
mumukùuþ desirous of liberation
apekùyaþ for the sake of (comparative < apekùa)
ayam this
àtmabodhaþ self-knowledge
vidhãyate is offered, dedicated

bodho'nya sàdhanebhyo hi sàkùànmokùaikasàshanam

pàkasya vanhivajj¤ànaü vinà mokùo na sidhyati.

bodhaþ knowledge
anya-sàdhanam other-discipline
hi indeed
sakùàt directly, really, obviously
sàdhanam means
pàkaþ cooking
vanhi-vat fire-like (vanhi, f. fire)
j¤ànam knowledge
vinà without (+ acc.)
mokùaþ liberation
na not
sidhyati is possible (< sidh, succeed)
avirodhãtayà karma nàvidyàü vinivartayet
vidyàvidyaü nihantyeva tejastimirasaïghavat.

virodhãtà opposition (with negating prefix, a-)

karman, n. action
na not
vinivartayet destroys (causative opative < vi-ni-vçt
vidyà knowledge
avidyà ignorance
nihanti destroys (< ni-han)
eva only
tejas, n. light
timira-saõgha-vat as deep darkness (darkness-multitude-like)

paricchinna ivàj¤ànàttannà÷e sati kevalaþ;

svayaü prakà÷ate hyàtma meghàpàye'm÷umàniva.

paricchinna limited
iva as though
aj¤ànam ignorance
tan-nà÷e sati on the destruction of that (loc. abs.)
kevala unique, alone, one
svayam [by] itself
prakà÷ate shines
hi indeed
àtman self
meghaþ cloud
apàyaþ passing away
aü÷umàn sun
iva like

aj¤ànakaluùaü jãvaü j¤abhyàsàtvinirmalaü

kçtvà j¤ànaü svayaü na÷yejjalaü katakareõuvat.

aj¤àna-kaluùa sullied by ignorance

jãvam individual
j¤àna-bhàsa practice of knowledge
vinirmala pure
kçtvà having made
j¤ànam knowledge
na÷yet removes (optative)
jalam water
kataka-reõu kataka-nut-powder

saüsàraþ svapnatulyo hi ràgadveùàdisaükulaþ

svakàle satyavadbhàti prabhode satyasatbhavet.
 samsàraþ world
svapna-tulyo like a dream
hi indeed
ràga-dveùa adi likes-dislikes-et cetera
saükulaþ full of
sva-kàlam its time
satya-vat truth-like, as real
bhàti appears
prabhode sati on waking up
asat-bhavet it is falsified

tàvat satyaü jadadbhàti ÷uktikàrajataü yathà

yàvanna j¤àyate brahma sarvàdhiùñhànamadavyaü.

tàvat so long
satya true
jagat world
bhàti appears
÷uktikà on the pearl
rajatam silver
yathà as
yàvat as long
na not
j¤àyate is known (passive)
brahman the Absolute
sarva-dhiùñhànam support of all
advayam non dual

upàdàne'khilàdhàre jaganti parame÷vare

sargasthitilayànyànti budbudànãva vàriõi

upàdàna material cause

akhila everything
àdhara support
jaganti worlds
parame÷vara highest god
sarga-stithi-layàni rise-exist-melting
anti pass away
budbudàni bubbles
iva like
vàriõi in the waters

saccidàtmanyanusyåte nityeviùnau prakalpitàþ.

vyaktayo vividhàssarvà hàtake kañakàdivat.

sat-cit-atma existence-consciousness-selfed; whose nature

is existence and consciousness
anysyåta all-pervading
nitya eternal
 viùnau on Vishnu
prakalpita projected
vyaktaya manifested
vividha manifold
sarva all
hàtaka gold
hàtaka-adi-vat bracelet-etc.-like, just as bracelets, etc.

yathàkà÷o hçùãke÷o nànopàdhigato vibhuþ

tadbhedàdbhinnavatbhàti tannà÷e kevalo bhavet.

yathà just as
àkà÷aþ space
hçùãke÷aþ truth
nàna different
upàdhigata available in enclosures
vibhuþ all pervading
tad-bhedàt due to differences in these (enclosures)
bhinna-vat as though diverse
bhàti appears
tan-nà÷e on the destruction of these (enclosures)
kevala one, non dual
bhavet becomes (optative)

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