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Electrical Power Systems Engineering Carl J. Spezia, Constantine I. Hatziadoniu © 2011

Parametric Technology Corp.
2 Power system protection

Section 2.2 Mid-Line Fault Calculations

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Array origin:

ORIGIN ≔ 1

Section 2.2.1 Introduction

This section outlines a method for computing bus faults on power systems. This type of fault causes
the largest magnitude of fault current in a power system because several lines contribute current to
the bus. In practice this type of fault rarely occurs. Most faults occur at a point on a line some distance
from the substation bus. The current seen by a line protection system during a mid-line fault is
typically much less than that for a bus fault, and varies in magnitude depending on the position of the
fault relative to the end-point buses. Figure 2.2.1 shows an example system that has a mid-line fault
applied at a location r per unit (pu) from breaker A.

Fig. 2.2.1 Mid-line faults

The breaker relays at points A and B see varying magnitudes of fault current
depending on the location of the fault point F. To analyze this topological change
using the Zbus method requires three separate changes in the Zbus matrix. These
are the removal of line AB, the addition of a new segment AF, and the addition of
a new segment FB. These changes are computationally intensive. Also, a new bus
is added to the system, increasing the dimension of Zbus by one.

In [1] Han develops formulae that allow the computation of mid-line faults without resorting to multiple
changes in the original Zbus matrix of a system. Given a system Zbus matrix, and the general line
segment in Figure 2.2.2,

Fig. 2.2.2 Mid-line fault model

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the new column and row entries are found from the existing column and rows at points i and j in the
original matrix and the line impedance, zij. The mutual impedances of the new bus are

Z ＝ ((1 − r)) ⋅ Z +r⋅Z (2.2.1)

n,k n,i n,j

The Thevenin's equivalent impedance of the new bus is

Z ＝ ((1 − r)) ⋅ Z ⋅ r2 ⋅ Z + 2 ⋅ r ⋅ ((1 − r)) ⋅ Z + r ⋅ ((1 − r)) ⋅ z (2.2.2)

k,k i,i j,j i,j i,j

where
Zmk = mutual impedances for the new bus
Zkk = Thevenin's impedance for the new bus
Zjj = Thevenin's impedance for bus j
Zii = Thevenin's impedance for bus i
Zij = mutual impedance between buses i and j
zij = line impedance between buses i and j
n = number of buses in the original system

Equations (2.2.1) and (2.2.2) assume that all impedances are in per unit on a common power base.
Substituting the values of Zmk and Zkk into the fault current formulae gives the current for any fault
location.

Section 2.2.2 Protective Relaying Considerations

The fault currents seen by the breaker current transformers (CTs) determine the settings of the
protective relays which control the operation of the breaker. Bus faults result in the maximum fault
current a breaker CT will see, while midline faults produce currents of reduced magnitude. To protect
the lines, breakers should reliably trip for all faults from their terminal to the remote line terminal, so
maximum and minimum CT currents are important to relay coordination.

Ground fault protective devices on looped power systems use directional supervision. Line relays
send a trip signal to a breaker only for faults that occur on the line that it protects. In Figure 2.2.1,
breaker A should only trip for faults that occur between the two buses and not respond to faults that
occur on the generator side of the bus. Protective relaying associated with the generator will clear a
generator fault by opening a breaker at the plant represented by the single machine in the figure.
Comparing the phase angle of the fault current to a fixed reference, a polarizing quantity, is the
standard method of controlling the tripping direction of breakers.

Zero sequence voltages and currents polarize ground fault relays in most protection schemes. The
polarizing quantity of the relay produces a restraining signal that prevents undesired tripping of the line
breaker. The choice to use voltage or current polarization depends on the magnitude of the polarizing
quantity for faults near the breaker. The polarizing quantity should be large enough to restrain the
ground relay for a zero impedance fault at the breaker's terminals. Solving Equations 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 for
a number of fault locations produces a zero sequence current and voltage profile for a line segment.

Using the impedances computed from Equations 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 along with the fault current formulae
allows the computation of fault current magnitude seen by the terminal breakers for any fault location.
This method finds the minimum and maximum fault current values for any line segment in a system.

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Section 2.2.3 Mathcad Formulation

Fig. 2.2.3 Example system

What follows is a demonstration of computing mid-line faults on power systems. Computing the value of
a mid-line fault determines the fault current that a circuit breaker's protective relaying sees when a fault
occurs on the line that it protects. Knowledge of the fault current contributions from both ends of the line
allows the interrupting capacity of the breakers to be determined. The fault current contributions from
each end of the line are also used to coordinate the protective relays that control the line breaker
tripping.

This example shows a fault current and fault voltage profile for a line segment. The profiles determine
the magnitude of the polarizing current and voltage available to restrain the operation of ground-fault
protective relays. The data in the test system in Figure 2.2.3 illustrate this technique. The example is
small, but analysis of any size system that does not exceed the storage limits of Mathcad is possible.

All impedance and voltage information in this example is given in per unit on a 100 MVA base. The
prefault voltage is 1.0 per unit for all system buses.

Data Structure

The array called Lines holds the line data for the system in Figure 2.2.3.

⎡ 1 2 0.04j 0.04j 0.12j ⎤

Lines ≔ 2 3 0.06j 0.06j 0.18j ⎥
⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 1 0.03j 0.03j 0.09j ⎦

The columns of the Lines array are defined as

1. from bus,
2. to bus,
3. positive sequence Z,
4. negative sequence Z,
5. zero sequence Z.

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Generator Impedance Data

The generator subtransient reactance is the same for both generators 1 and 2 for both positive and
negative sequence.

Xd1 ≔ 0.15j positive sequence

Xd2 ≔ Xd1 negative sequence

Xd0 ≔ 0.30j zero sequence

Finding the Zbus

matrices for the system in Figure 2.2.3 yields

⎡ 0.081j 0.069j 0.077j ⎤

Zbus1 ≔ ⎢ 0.069j 0.081j 0.073j ⎥ positive sequence
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0.077j 0.073j 0.096j ⎦

For this case, the positive sequence impedances are equal to the negative sequence so

Zbus2 ≔ Zbus1
The matrix Zbus0 is the zero sequence impedance matrix.

⎡ 0.168j 0.132j 0.156j ⎤

Zbus0 ≔ ⎢ 0.132j 0.168j 0.144j ⎥ Zero sequence
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0.156j 0.144j 0.212j ⎦

Thevenin's Impedances

Define the Thevenin's impedance of the mid-line fault point as a function of the per unit distance, r,
from bus, i, the line terminal buses, i and j, and the line impedance.

For positive sequence,

2
Zk1 ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL⎞⎠ ≔ ((1 − r)) ⋅ Zbus1 + r 2 ⋅ Zbus1 + 2 ⋅ r ⋅ ((1 − r)) ⋅ Zbus1 + r ⋅ ((1 − r)) ⋅ ZL (2.2.3)
i,i j,j i,j

For negative sequence,

2
Zk2 ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL⎞⎠ ≔ ((1 − r)) ⋅ Zbus2 + r 2 ⋅ Zbus2 + 2 ⋅ r ⋅ ((1 − r)) ⋅ Zbus2 + r ⋅ ((1 − r)) ⋅ ZL (2.2.4)
i,i j,j i,j

For zero sequence,

2
Zk0 ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL⎞⎠ ≔ ((1 − r)) ⋅ Zbus0 + r 2 ⋅ Zbus0 + 2 ⋅ r ⋅ ((1 − r)) ⋅ Zbus0 + r ⋅ ((1 − r)) ⋅ ZL (2.2.5)
i,i j,j i,j

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Mutual Impedances

Define the mutual impedances as a function of the pu distance from bus, i, the terminal buses of the
line segment, i,j, and the bus of interest in the system, n.

For positive sequence,

Zmk1 ((r , i , j , n)) ≔ ((1 − r)) ⋅ Zbus1 + r ⋅ Zbus1 (2.2.6)

n,i n,j

For negative sequence,

Zmk2 ((r , i , j , n)) ≔ ((1 − r)) ⋅ Zbus2 + r ⋅ Zbus2 (2.2.7)

n,i n,j

For zero sequence,

Zmk0 ((r , i , j , n)) ≔ ((1 − r)) ⋅ Zbus0 + r ⋅ Zbus0 (2.2.8)

n,i n,j

The Znk values indicate the degree of coupling between the faulted bus and any other bus of interest.
Postfault voltage computation is possible for any bus in the system with knowledge of the fault current
and the values ofZnk.

Equations (2.2.9) and (2.2.10) define the three-phase and single-line-to-ground faults as functions of
the distance r.

For three-phase faults,

1
I3ϕ ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL⎞⎠ ≔ ――――― (2.2.9)
Zk1 ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL⎞⎠

For single-line-to-ground faults,

3
Islg ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL1 , ZL2 , ZL0⎞⎠ ≔ ――――――――――――――――
Zk1 ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL1⎞⎠ + Zk2 ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL2⎞⎠ + Zk0 ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL0⎞⎠

(2.2.10)

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Zero Sequence Currents

The polarizing current seen by the ground fault protective relays is the zero sequence current. This
current is defined as

Islg ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL1 , ZL2 , ZL0⎞⎠

I0 ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL1 , ZL2 , ZL0⎞⎠ ≔ ―――――――― (2.2.11)
3

The following example shows the relationship between line fault location and fault current magnitude.

Plot the three-phase fault current profile for the line 1-2. Let r vary over the range

r ≔ 0.05 , 0.1 ‥ 0.95

For Line 1-2,

zL1 ≔ 0.04j positive sequence line Z

zL2 ≔ 0.04j negative sequence line Z

zL0 ≔ 0.12j zero sequence line Z

i≔1 from bus

j≔2 to bus

Use Equation (2.2.9) to plot the three-phase fault current magnitude over the range of r for line 1-2.

12.255
12.21
12.165
12.12
12.075
12.03
||I3ϕ ⎛⎝r , i , j , zL1⎞⎠|| 11.985
11.94
11.895
11.85
11.805
11.76

0.05 0.14 0.23 0.32 0.41 0.5 0.59 0.68 0.77 0.86 0.95
r

Fig. 2.2.4 Three-phase fault current

magnitude for sliding fault position

The fault current magnitude is minimum for line faults located at the center of the line. The current
magnitude increases as the fault location approaches the terminal buses.

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Three-Phase Fault Contribution from Bus i

Equation (2.2.12) defines the current that the breaker on bus i will see for a three-phase fault a
distance r pu from the bus.

Zk1 ⎛⎝r , i , j , zL1⎞⎠ − Zmk1 ((r , i , j , n))

Iik ⎛⎝r , i , j , n , zL1⎞⎠ ≔ ―――――――――― (2.2.12)
Zk1 ⎛⎝r , i , j , zL1⎞⎠ ⋅ r ⋅ zL1

Use Equation (2.2.12) to plot the three-phase fault current contribution from Bus 1 over the range of r
for line 1-2.

8.4
7.95
7.5
7.05
6.6
6.15
||Iik ⎛⎝r , i , j , i , zL1⎞⎠|| 5.7
5.25
4.8
4.35
3.9

0.05 0.14 0.23 0.32 0.41 0.5 0.59 0.68 0.77 0.86 0.95
r

Fig. 2.2.5 Three-phase fault current

contribution from Bus 1

The current contribution from bus 1 increases as the fault location approaches bus 1. As the distance
from the fault to bus 1 increases, the current contribution from the bus 1 terminal decreases.

Use Equation (2.2.10) to compute the single-line-to-ground fault current magnitude as a function of
the fault distance from bus 1.

9.01
8.97
8.93
8.89
8.85
8.81
||Islg ⎛⎝r , i , j , zL1 , zL2 , zL0⎞⎠|| 8.77
8.73
8.69
8.65
8.61
8.57

0.05 0.14 0.23 0.32 0.41 0.5 0.59 0.68 0.77 0.86 0.95
r

Fig. 2.2.6 Single-line-to-ground fault current magnitude for line 1-2

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Ground Fault Current at Terminal i

Computing the single-line-to-ground fault current that breaker 1 sees on line 1-2 requires the use of all
three sequence mutual impedances and Thevenin's impedances.

Create a function to sum the mutual impedances for all sequences.

Zm ((r , i , j , n)) ≔ Zmk1 ((r , i , j , n)) + Zmk2 ((r , i , j , n)) + Zmk0 ((r , i , j , n)) (2.2.13)

Create a function to sum the Thevenin's impedances of all sequences.

Zth ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL1 , ZL2 , ZL0⎞⎠ ≔ Zk1 ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL1⎞⎠ + Zk2 ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL2⎞⎠ + Zk0 ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL0⎞⎠ (2.2.14)

Compute the current through breaker 1 CTs with the formula below.

⎛ Zm ((r , i , j , i)) ⎞
⎜ 1 − ―――――――― ⎟
⎜ Zth ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL1 , ZL2 , ZL0⎞⎠ ⎟ (2.2.15)
Isik ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL1 , ZL2 , ZL0⎞⎠ ≔ ―――――――――
⎜ ZL1 ⋅ r ⎟
⎝ ⎠

This relationship will compute the breaker currents for any distance down the line.

Use Equation (2.2.15) to compute the single-line-to-ground fault current magnitude for the range of r.

10.25
9.7
9.15
8.6
8.05
7.5
||Isik ⎛⎝r , i , j , zL1 , zL2 , zL0⎞⎠|| 6.95
6.4
5.85
5.3
4.75

0.05 0.14 0.23 0.32 0.41 0.5 0.59 0.68 0.77 0.86 0.95
r

Fig. 2.2.7 Single-line-to-ground current contribution from Bus 1

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Bus Fault Voltage (Single-Line-to-Ground Fault)

Compute the bus voltage that the breaker at bus i sees as a function of the fault location. Equation
(2.2.16) defines the relationship between bus voltage a bus i and the single-line-to-ground fault position,
r.

⎛ Zm ((r , i , j , n)) ⎞
Vb ⎛⎝r , i , j , n , ZL1 , ZL2 , ZL0⎞⎠ ≔ ⎜1 − ―――――――― ⎟ (2.2.16)
⎝ Zth ⎛⎝r , i , j , ZL1 , ZL2 , ZL0⎞⎠ ⎠

where
r = per unit fault location
i = from bus
j = to bus
n = bus of interest
ZL1 = positive sequence line Z
ZL2 = negative sequence line Z
ZL0 = zero sequence line Z

To plot the magnitude of bus voltage against the fault location, define the bus voltage magnitude as a
function of the per unit fault distance, r.

Vbb ((r)) ≔ ||Vb ⎛⎝r , i , j , i , zL1 , zL2 , zL0⎞⎠|| (2.2.17)

Use Equation (2.2.17) to create a plot of the bus voltage at bus 1 as a function of the fault location.

0.2
0.185
0.17
0.155
0.14
0.125
0.11
Vbb ((r)) 0.095
0.08
0.065
0.05
0.035
0.02

0.05 0.14 0.23 0.32 0.41 0.5 0.59 0.68 0.77 0.86 0.95
r

Fig. 2.2.8 Voltage at Bus 1 for a single-line-to- ground fault

The previous example shows how the total fault current magnitude of both three-phase and single-
line-to-ground faults decreases as the fault location moves toward the center of a line segment. The
fault current contributions seen by terminal breakers are also a function of the fault location. The
largest line current is produced by a fault that is just beyond the bus that the breaker protects. The
minimum current occurs when the fault is just outside the remote terminal bus. Bus fault voltages on a
bus increase as the location of the fault moves away from the bus of interest.

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Section 2.2.4 References

1. Han, Z. X., "Generalized Method of Analysis of Simultaneous Faults in Electric Power Systems,"
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-101, No. 10, October 1982.

User Notices

 Equations and numeric solutions presented in this Mathcad worksheet are applicable to the
specific example, boundary condition or case presented in the book. Although a reasonable effort
was made to generalize these equations, changing variables such as loads, geometries and
spans, materials and other input parameters beyond the intended range may make some
equations no longer applicable. Modify the equations as appropriate if your parameters fall
outside of the intended range.
 For this Mathcad worksheet, the global variable defining the beginning index identifier for vectors
and arrays, ORIGIN, is set as specified in the beginning of the worksheet, to either 1 or 0. If
ORIGIN is set to 1 and you copy any of the formulae from this worksheet into your own, you need
to ensure that your worksheet is using the same ORIGIN.

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