4th Chapter

Functional Elements of Solid

Waste Management

4.0 Introduction

Waste management has become a major concern of our times. Bilaspur City
enormous amounts of residues are being produced, which need to be managed in an economical
way, while not compromising the environment and public health, intensive work is being done in
searching for means to reduce the growing amount of waste generated and technologies to discard
and dispose of it safely and economically. Solid waste management involves activities associated
with generation storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal of solid waste
which are environmentally compatible, adopting principles of economy aesthetics, energy and

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conservation. 14.(Tchobanoglous. G. and Frank K, ;2002) It encompasses planning organization,
administration, financial, legal and engineering aspects involving inter-disciplinary relationships.

Consequently the life standards are also increased with production of more and more
solid wastes especially in urban centres. Solid wastes are the direct consequences of what we do in
our modern society. Majority of the waste is dumped in open landfill and people are not involved
in solid waste decision making process or the solid waste management system. Further, the study
also analyzed the newly proposed solid waste management system. 13.(Supreme Court ;1999) It was
found that the newly proposed system is better than the existing system; the new proposal outlines
a framework of two stream waste segregation system. The proposed waste collection and
transportation system is an improvement on the current system.

The refuse materials such as newspaper, cotton pieces, foodstuff, skin, clothes, leather, old
dress, fish etc., anything of solids produced by the humans is going to become a waste some time
somewhere and somehow. It means waste material is produced as a result of human activity. The
quantity of this material is increasing readily due to increase in human population and increase in
the standards of living. Rapidly increase quantity of solid waste in Bilaspur City is dangerous for
environment in future. Bilaspur is the second largest Class-I City of Chhattisgarh State. Here per
day municipal solid waste generation is 200-250 tons.Municipal and other private sectors both
collect 310 mt solid wastes per day. Bilaspur City is divided into 55 wards and collection of
Garbage is carried out using door to door collection and road side garbage systems. The Collected
wastes are disposed at open space outside the City at a distance 2-5 km from the centre of City. In
Bilaspur City there is no recycling system to proper management in wastage material. Some
activities as sweeping, collection, storing, transporting of MSW and their creating their proper
dustbin outside road.

Corporation of Bilaspur pays cash labous 100 Rs.for sweeping, collection and transporting.
Some workers get monthly salary.

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 4.1 WHAT IS SOLID WASTE

The sight of a dustbin overflowing and the stench rising from it are all too familiar sights and
smells of a crowded City. You look away from it and hold your nose as you cross it. Have you
ever thought that you also have a role to play in the creation of this stench? That you can also
play a role in the lessening of this smell and making this waste bin look a little more attractive if
you follow proper methods of disposal of the waste generated in the house?

Since the beginning, humankind has been generating waste, be it the bones and other parts of
animals they slaughter for their food or the wood they cut to make their carts. With the progress
of civilization, the waste generated became of a more complex nature. At the end of the 19th
century the industrial revolution saw the rise of the world of consumers.

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 Not only did the air get more and more polluted but the earth itself became more polluted
with the generation of non-biodegradable solid waste. The increase in population and urbanization
was also largely responsible for the increase in solid waste. Management of municipal solid waste
involves (a) development of an insight into the impact of waste generation, collection,
transportation and disposal methods adopted by a society on the environment and (b) adoption of
new methods to reduce this impact.

4.2 SUSTAINABLE LIVING

Municipalities play a fundamental role in managing development and in the delivery of
essential services. The way they carry out their functions directly affects people and the
environment in which they live. Municipalities must be able to make choices that will promote
sustainable living, especially in the area of managing household waste and waste from other
sources. 14.(Tchobanoglous. G. and Frank K, ;2002) Municipalities will be moving towards
sustainability if they take into account the economic, social and natural environmental factors in
any activity that they undertake. When we produce waste, it eventually returns to the natural
environment to land, water or the air. The environment that receives the waste must be able to
assimilate it (take it up) without becoming degraded or polluted. Waste must be disposed of in a
way that does not have an adverse effect on the environment.
4.3 WHO PRODUCES WASTE?
4.3.1 EVERYBODY PRODUCES WASTE!
Wherever people live, work or spend their leisure time they produce waste. The type of waste
produced will vary depending on the demographics of the community - e.g. whether it is
developed or undeveloped, formal or informal, urban or rural, etc. It is extremely important when
managing waste to know the composition of the waste stream being handled.

4.3.2 HOW IS WASTE MANAGED?

Waste must be managed from the point of generation to the point of disposal through careful
control of the following functional elements:
• Waste avoidance (not making waste in the first place)
• Waste minimization (reducing waste, reusing, sorting and recycling)
• Generation (when waste is made)
• On-site storage (where waste is stored temporarily when it is first produced)
• Collection (how waste is picked up)
• Transport and Transfer (how waste is moved)
• Processing and materials recovery (how waste is treated or made useful)
• Disposal (how waste is finally discarded)

4.3.3 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN WASTE IS NOT MANAGED PROPERLY?

LOOK AT SOME FACTS
Litter and illegal dumping in a community are signs of unmanaged or poorly managed waste.
Litter and illegally dumped waste can be defined as any waste found outside the formal waste
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management system (i.e. waste in the wrong place, scattered about in the streets, open spaces and
the veld).
4.4 Solid Waste Generation

An indication of how and where solid wastes are generated is depicted in a simplified. Both
technological processes and consumptive processes result in the formation of solid wastes. Solid
waste is generated, in the beginning, with the recovery of raw materials and thereafter at every
step in the technological process as the raw material is converted to a product for consumption.
Solid waste during technological processes involving mining manufacturing and packaging are
there showing. The process of consumption of products results in the formation of solid waste in
urban areas as shown. In addition, other processes such as street cleaning, park cleaning, waste-
water treatment, air pollution control measures etc. also produce solid waste in urban areas. A
society receives energy and raw material as inputs from the environment and gives solid waste as
output to the environment. In the long-term perspective, such an input-output imbalance degrades
the environment.

4.5 Environmental Impact of Solid Waste Disposal on Land

When solid waste is disposed off on land in open dumps or in improperly designed landfills
(e.g. in low lying areas), it causes the following impact on the environment.

(a) Ground water contamination by the leachate generated by the waste dump

(b) Surface water contamination by the run-off from the waste dump

(c) Bad odour, pests, rodents and wind-blown litter in and around the waste dump

(d) Generation of inflammable gas (e.g. methane) within the waste dump

(e) Bird menace above the waste dump which affects flight of aircraft

(f) Fires within the waste dump

(g) Erosion and stability problems relating to slopes of the waste dump

(h) Epidemics through stray animals

(i) Acidity to surrounding soil and

(j) Release of green house gas

4.6 Objective of Solid Waste Management

The objective of solid waste management is to reduce the quantity of solid waste disposed off
on land by recovery of materials and energy from solid waste as depicted. This in turn results in
lesser requirement of raw material and energy as inputs for technological processes. Such
techniques and management programs have to be applied to each and every solid waste generating
activity in a society to achieve overall minimisation of solid waste.

4.7 PRINCIPLES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

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 Municipal Solid Waste Management involves the application of principle of Integrated Solid
Waste Management (ISWM) to municipal waste. ISWM is the application of suitable techniques,
technologies and management programs covering all types of solid wastes from all sources to
achieve the twin objectives of (a) waste reduction and (b) effective management of waste still
produced after waste reduction.

4.7.1 Waste Reduction

It is now well recognised that sustainable development can only be achieved if society in
general, and industry in particular, produces ‘more with less’ i.e. more goods and services with
less use of the world’s resources (raw materials and energy) and less pollution and waste.
Production as well as product changes have been introduced in many countries, using internal
recycling of materials or on-site energy recovery, as part of solid waste minimisation schemes.

4.7.2 Effective Management of Solid Waste

Effective solid management systems are needed to ensure better human health and safety.
They must be safe for workers and safeguard public health by preventing the spread of disease. In
addition to these prerequisites, an effective system of solid waste management must be both
environmentally and economically sustainable.

(i) Environmentally sustainable: It must reduce, as much as possible, the environmental impacts
of waste management.

(ii) Economically sustainable: It must operate at a cost acceptable to community.

14.(Tchobanoglous. G. and Frank K, ;2002) Clearly it is difficult to minimise the two variables, cost
and environmental impact, simultaneously. There will always be a trade off. The balance that
needs to be struck is to reduce the overall environmental impacts of the waste management system
as far as possible, within an acceptable level of cost. An economically and environmentally
sustainable solid waste management system is effective if it follows an integrated approach i.e. it
deals with all types of solid waste materials and all sources of solid waste. 12.(Prüss, A., E. Giroult,
and P. Rushbrook.;1999) A multi-material, multi-source management approach is usually effective in
environmental and economic terms than a material specific and source specific approach. Specific
wastes should be dealt with in such a system but in separate. An effective waste management
system includes one or more of the following options:

(a) Waste collection and transportation.

(b) Resource recovery through sorting and recycling i.e. recovery of materials (such as paper,
glass, metals) etc. through separation.

(c) Resource recovery through waste processing i.e. recovery of materials (such as compost) or
recovery of energy through biological, thermal or other processes.

(d) Waste transformation (without recovery of resources) i.e. reduction of volume, Bilaspur City
or other physical/chemical properties of waste to make it suitable for final disposal.

(e) Disposal on land i.e. environmentally safe and sustainable disposal in landfills.
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4.8 Functional Elements of Municipal Solid Waste Management

The activities associated with the management of municipal solid wastes from the point of
generation to final disposal can be grouped into the six functional elements: (a) waste generation;
(b) waste handling and sorting, storage, and processing at the source; (c) collection; (d) sorting,
processing and transformation; (e) transfer and transport; and (f) disposal. The inter-relationship
between the elements is identified in this study.

4.8.1 Waste Generation: Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are
identified as no longer being of value (in their present form) and are either thrown away or
gathered together for disposal. Waste generation is, at present, an activity that is not very
controllable. In the future, however, more control is likely to be exercised over the generation of
wastes. Reduction of waste at source, although not controlled by solid waste managers, is now
included in system evaluations as a method of limiting the quantity of waste generated.

4.8.2 Waste Handling, Sorting, Storage, and Processing at the Source: The second of the six
functional elements in the solid waste management system is waste handling, sorting, storage, and
processing at the source. Waste handling and sorting involves the activities associated with
management of wastes until they are placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also
encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection. Sorting of waste
components is an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the source. For
example, the best place to separate waste materials for reuse and recycling is at the source of
generation. 10.(Joseph, K,;2006). Households are becoming more aware of the importance of
separating newspaper and cardboard, bottles/glass, kitchen wastes and ferrous and non-ferrous
materials. On-site storage is of primary importance because of public health concerns and
aesthetic consideration. Unsightly makeshift containers and even open ground storage, both of
which are undesirable, are often seen at many residential and commercial sites. The cost of
providing storage for solid wastes at the source is normally borne by the household in the case of
individuals, or by the management of commercial and industrial properties. Processing at the
source involves activities such as backyard waste composting.

4.8.3 Collection: The functional element of collection includes not only the gathering of solid
wastes and recyclable materials, but also the transport of these materials, after collection, to the
location where the collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be materials processing
facility, a transfer station, or a landfill disposal site.

4.8.4 Sorting, Processing and Transformation of Solid Waste: The sorting, processing and
transformation of solid waste materials is the fourth of the functional elements. The recovery of
sorted materials, processing of solid waste and transformation of solid waste that occurs primarily
in locations away from the source of waste generation are encompassed by this functional
element. Sorting of commingled (mixed) wastes usually occurs at a materials recovery facility,
transfer stations, combustion facilities, and disposal sites. Sorting often includes the separation of
bulky items, separation of waste components by size using screens, manual separation of waste
components, and separation of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Waste processing is undertaken to
recover conversion products and energy. 8.(Government of India;2003)The organic fraction of
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) can be transformed by a variety of biological and thermal
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processes. The most commonly used biological transformation process is aerobic composting. The
most commonly used thermal transformation process is incineration. Waste transformation is
undertaken to reduce the volume, weight, size or Bilaspur City of waste without resource
recovery. Transformation may be done by a variety of mechanical (eg shredding), thermal (e.g.
incineration without energy recovery) or chemical (e.g. encapsulation) techniques.

4.8.5 Transfer and Transport: The functional element of transfer and transport involves two
steps: (i) the transfer of wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger transport
equipment and (ii) the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to a
processing or disposal site. The transfer usually takes place at a transfer station.

4.8.6 Disposal: The final functional element in the solid waste management system is disposal.
Today the disposal of wastes by landfilling or uncontrolled dumping is the ultimate fate of all
solid wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill
site, residual materials from Materials Recovery Facilities (MRFs), residue from the combustion
of solid waste, rejects of composting, or other substances from various solid waste-processing
facilities. A municipal solid waste landfill plant is an engineered facility used for disposing of
solid wastes on land or within the earth’s mantle without creating nuisance or hazard to public
health or safety, such as breeding of rodents and insects and contamination of groundwater.

4.9 HIERARCHY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

Current thinking on the best methods to deal with waste is centred on a broadly accepted
‘hierarchy of waste management’ (arrangement in order of rank) which gives a priority listing of
the waste management options available. 8.(Government of India;2003)The hierarchy gives important
general guidelines on the relative desirability of the different management options. The hierarchy
usually adopted is

(a) Waste minimisation/reduction at source,

(b) Recycling,

(c) Waste processing (with recovery of resources i.e. materials (products) and energy),

(d) Waste transformation (without recovery of resources) and

(e) Disposal on land (landfilling). The highest rank of the ISWM hierarchy is waste minimisation
or reduction at source, which involves reducing the amount (and/or Bilaspur City) of the wastes
produced. Reduction at source is first in the hierarchy because it is the most effective way to
reduce the quantity of waste, the cost associated with its handling, and its environmental impacts.

The second highest rank in the hierarchy is recycling, which involves

(a) The separation and sorting of waste materials;

(b) The preparation of these materials for reuse or reprocessing; and

(c) The reuse and reprocessing of these materials. Recycling is an important factor which
helps to reduce the demand on resources and the amount of waste requiring disposal by
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landfilling. The third rank in the ISWM hierarchy is waste processing which involves alteration of
wastes to recover conversion products (e.g., compost) and energy. The processing of waste
materials usually results in the reduced use of landfill BilaspurCity. Transformation of waste,
without recovery of products or energy, may have to be undertaken to reduce waste volume (e.g.
shredding and baling) or to reduce Bilaspur City. This is usually ranked fourth in the ISWM
hierarchy. Ultimately, something must be done with

(a) The solid wastes that cannot be recycled and are of no further use;

(b) The residual matter remaining after solid wastes have been pre-sorted at a materials
recovery facility; and

(c) The residual matter remaining after the recovery of conversion products or energy.
Landfilling is the fifth rank of the ISWM hierarchy and involves the controlled disposal of wastes
on or in the earth’s mantle.

It is by far the most common method of ultimate disposal for waste residuals.
14.(Tchobanoglous. G. and Frank K, ;2002) Landfilling is the lowest rank in the ISWM hierarchy
because it represents the least desirable means of dealing with society’s wastes. It is important to
note that the hierarchy of waste management is only a guideline. Depicts how management of
municipal solid waste as per the hierarchy of options leads to progressive reduction of waste
reaching the landfill.

4.10 STAGES IN WASTE MANAGEMENT

The various stages involved in Waste management are:

[1] GENERATION: This is the stage when materials becomes waste and is discarded. The
generation rate is often defined as the weight of material discarded as solid waste by one person in
one day

[2] STORAGE: House storage, keeping solid waste in place or containers which is the
responsibility of the individual members of the household while, Command storage, is the
responsibility of the refuse collection agency.

[3] COLLECTION: This has to do with transportation of the solid waste from the point of storage
to the point of disposal, two stages are involved in the collection stages; The direct collection,
which makes uses only one means of transportation i.e. the Solid waste is picked up from the
point of storage in a truck that takes it to the disposal site, The second stage collection Carries the
solid waste from the storage facility to the Transfer station, at the transfer station, the waste is
loaded into the secondary stage, to transport the refuse to the Disposal site.

[4] DISPOSAL: The final destination of solid waste, usually it is dumped on land at a tip, this
may be done in an engineered and hygienic Way: - sanitary landfill or controlled tipping, or in a
careless Way: - open tipping or crude dumping.

4.11 The effects of Waste Management

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On the quality of life in my community could be divided (a) Environmental effect (b) Health
effect (c) Social effect (d) Economic effects

4.11.1 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS: There is a broad range of environmental concerns that

encompass the solid waste management worldwide, there is toxic (contamination to the
atmosphere, soil and water, which puts the entire ecosystem of an area) in danger. The
contamination of waste cases severs problems for hu8mans and animals alike. The major
environmental effects includes Air pollution which includes odour, smoke, noise, dust, etc, waste
pollution –pollution from disposal site via flooding because of blocked drains hand degradation.

4.11.2 HEALTH EFFECTS: The effects are numerous on man, the Flora or Fauna of the
environment in form of health problems from convulsion, dermatitis, irritation of nose/throat, a
plastic anaemia, skin burns, chest pains, blood disorders, stomach aches, vomiting diarrhoea, lung
cancer to death. 6.(Evans, R.G. and Stoddart, G.L. ;1990) Obviously something still needs to be
accomplished in the field of testing and linking waste exposure to human health Other health
effects includes: Flies which carry germs on their bodies and legs and also excrete them,
mosquitoes, breed in stagnant water in blocked drains in favourable location and also in cars, tyres
etc that collects rain water.Chaild health are effected by waste, that waste pikers who collect the
material 9.(Hunt, C. ;1996)

4.11.3 SOCIAL EFFECTS: A common thread that further unites people from across the globe, is
their sentiment on wastes, they do not want them in their neighbourhoods, countless stories of
social effects on people living near waste dumpsite have decorated the news in recent years and
some incidents have be so great that whole town have been evacuated”. The issue of solid waste is
a relatively new issue, spawned by the City landfills and the desire for other sites for dumping in
distance rural areas. “A City with a hazardous waste facility is now perceived as an undesirable
place to live

4.11.4 ECONOMIC EFFECTS: The impact of solid waste on economic values has received
limited attention. It is also presumed that its impact is a negative one, one economic effect of
living near a hazardous waste site disposal maybe increased taxes.

4.12 WASTE MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The end of the 1980S saw a radical reappraisal of our concerns over resource availability
and use, the environmental consequences of resources exploitation and the relationship between
the environment, poverty and economic change.

This re-appraisal has given rise to a new approach to environment and development issues
an approach, which seeks to reconcile human needs and the Bilaspur City of the environment to
cope with the consequences of economic systems. This approach is called sustainable
development. Sustainable development is an implied development without destruction.
Sustainable development can also be defined as judicious use of non-renewable resources for the
present and future generations. That is, non-renewable resources must be used at a judicious rate,
neither too fast nor too slow and to ensure that the natural wealth that they represent is converted
into long-term wealth as they are used.

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 Some scholars succinctly put it that sustainable development is development without
jeopardizing future development. Meaning that in our efforts to explore and exploit the natural
resources to serve us, there is an obvious paradox evident in the need to ensure economic
development, while protecting the environment.

4.13 THE ISSUE OF WASTE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL

Disposal often took place in an unsafe manner at landfills or in surface waters, as reported
in (Environmental Quality, 1991). Refuse and domestic waste will not constitute a strange sight to
Nigerians whose streets are littered with tons of garbage from animal to human carcass. Lately
however, a lot of concern has been expressed by the well-meaning residents that the battle against
refuse, especially on the streets, roads, and avenues is not being prosecuted in a way to guarantee
a healthy environment.

At present, in Bilaspur City private sector waste disposal operators diligently visits homes
and carry away filled refuse bags, load them into waiting trucks and cart them away for final
disposal " that is good, " the resident say. They however worry that a lot of littering goes on in the
environment and the streets and avenues may have been ignored and left not cleared.

“Household account for about half of the solid wastes generated solution. It could also be
Stated that the major problem caused by (domestic) wastes to the environment is pollution,
characterized by various types of solid wastes, which include, "paper, textile, plastic, metals,
glass, bone, wood, vegetal matter and food remnants of multiple consistency.

It was suggested that our problems emanate from solid waste essentially. These are wastes
from discarded materials generated from domestic and community activities or from industrial,
commercial and agricultural operations. It is against this backdrop that this paper intends to
review the impediments to effective and efficient waste management for sustainable development.

4.14 SOLID WASTE CHARACERISTICS

4.14.1 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Density: It is expressed as mass per unit volume (kg/m3). This parameter is required for
designing a solid waste management program. A reduction in volume by 75% is achieved through
normal compaction equipment, so that an initial density of 100kg/ m3 may readily be increased to
400 kg/m3. Significant changes in the density occur as waste moves from sources to disposal site,
as a result of severing, handling, wetting and drying by the weather and vibration during transport.
Density is critical in the design of sanitary landfill as well as for storage, collection and transport
of wastes. Efficient operation of landfill requires compaction of wastes to optimum density.

Moisture Content:

It is defined as the ratio of weight of water content in the waste to the total weight of the wet
waste.

Moisture content = Wet weight Dry weight x 100 Wet weight

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 A typical range of moisture content is 20-40% and it varies with the season of the year.
Values greater than 40% are also not common. Moisture increases the weight of the solid wastes
and therefore the cost of collection and transport increases. 4.(CPCB;March 2000) Consequently
waste should be insulated from rain or other extraneous water source. Moisture content is critical
determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by incineration. During incineration
energy must be supplied for evaporation of water and raising the temperature of vapour.

4.14.2 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Information of chemical characteristics is important in evaluating alternative processing and

recovery options. Typically waste is considered as combination of combustible and non-
combustible components. If solid waste is to be used as a fuel or for any other use we should
know its chemical components.

LIPIDS

These are included in the class of facts, oils and grease. The principal sources of lipids in the
garbage are cooking oil and fats. Since lipids become liquids at temperature slightly above
ambient they add to the liquid content during waste decomposition. They are biodegradable, but
they have low solubility in water and hence the rate of biodegradation is slow.

CARBOHYDRATES

These are primarily originated from the food sources rich in starch and celluloses. These
readily biodegrade into carbon dioxide water and methane, decomposition of carbohydrates
attracts the flies and rats and hence should not be left exposed for long duration.

PROTEINS

These are the compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen and organic acid
with amino groups. They are primarily found in food and garden wastes, but their partial
decomposition result in the production of amines, which impart unpleasant doors.

NATURAL FIBRES

These are the natural products contain cellulose and lignin’s that are relatively resistant to
biodegradation. These are found in paper products, food and yard wastes. Paper is almost 100%
cellulose, cotton over 95% and wood products over 40-50%. These are highly combustible
products most suitable for incineration.

SYNTHETIC ORGANIC MATERIALS

In the recent years plastics have become significant components of solid waste, accounting
for 1.10%. They are highly resistant to the biodegradation; hence their presence in the waste is
objectionable. Currently much attention is given to reduce this component at disposal sites.
Plastics have a high heating value, about 32000 Kj/Kg, which makes them very suitable for
incineration. However, among the plastics Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) when burnt produces dioxin

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and acid gas. The trace gases produced during the burning of plastic are proved to be
carcinogenic.

HEATING VALUES

An evaluation of the potential of the waste material for use as a fuel in the incinerator requires
the determination of its heating value, expressed as Kilo joules/kilo grams (Kj/Kg). The heating
value is determined experimentally using bomb calorimeter test in which the heat is generated at a
constant temperature of 250C from the combustion of dry sample. The beating values for various
components are showed in Table 1.3. The heating values are important in the evaluation of
incineration process as a means of energy recovery or disposal.

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS

During the mass balance calculations for a thermal process an analysis of waste must be carried
out to determine the proportion of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur which is
referred as ultimate analysis. The ash fraction is also analyzed as it contains toxic metal residues
such as cadmium, mercury, chromium, nickel, lead and zinc.

4.15 SOLID WASTE CLASSIFICATION

Garbage: Putreeible wastes from food, slaughter houses, canning and freezing industries.
Rubbish: non-putreeible wastes either combustible or non-combustible. These include wood,
paper, rubber, leather and garden wastes as combustible wastes whereas the non-combustible
wastes include glass, metal, ceramics, stones and soil.
Ashes: Residues of combustion, solid products after heating and cooking or incineration by the
municipal, industrial, hospital and apartments areas.
Large wastes: Demolition and construction wastes, automobiles, furniture’s, refrigerators and
other home appliances, trees, fires etc.
Dead animals: Households pets, birds, rodents, zoo animals, and anatomical and pathological
tissues from hospitals.
Sewage sludge’s: These include screening wastes, settled solids and sludge’s.
Industrial wastes: Chemicals, paints, sand and explosives.
Agricultural wastes: Farm animal Bilaspur City, crop residues and others.
Dairy wastes: Waste parameter BOD, COD, Suspended solids, Nitrogen, Fat, Phosphorus,
Chloride, pH, Oil & Grease.

4.16 Waste Management and 3Rs concept

In South Asian countries, the promotion of 3R in the Domestic Solid Waste Management
over- emphasises “Recycle and Reuse”, and less focus is given to “Reduction”. It is also
interesting to note that due to the low purchasing BilaspurCity in the developing countries the
market is overflowing with low quality and cheap products creating more waste after its short
useful life. Prior to formalising the 3Rs concept in the waste management hierarchy, few financial
and economic issues need to be addressed and resolved.

• Ιs there any budget allocated for 3Rs activities such as awareness, motivation etc?

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• How 3R can be used to meet the budget and expenditure of local governments?

• How to link the 3R financing and environmental benefits?

Both treatment and 3R technology are well developed and implemented as part of the solid
waste management program. Several cities and towns get together and constitute one wide area
over which an efficient 3R system is planned and implemented. An integrated system with various
facilities for the 3Rs, such as biomass utilization, recycling, waste power plants, asbestos
treatment and so on, are formulated under close collaboration among cities and towns.

4.17 Recommendations

4.17.1 Technical Aspects:

The adoption and transfer of the technologies from the developed countries without
adapting them to the local or regional perspective would be fallacious on the part of the
developing countries. Therefore, the technical aspects for a sustainable SWM would have to take
into account the following points for planning and implementation of strategies.

• Provision of facilities for primary collection of waste from curbside/community bins and
adequate storage facilities in the urban areas based on the population density.

• Transportation of waste from the community storage facilities at regular intervals and
improvement in the waste collection fleet.

• Transfer stations (at optimal distances from residential areas) should be constructed
wherever necessary with provision for weighbridges.

• There must be a separate SWM system for hospitals, health care establishments and
industries to prevent the infectious and hazardous wastes from entering the municipal waste
stream.

4.17.2 Management Aspects:

Sustainable SWM would call for the strengthening of the management sector which has to
go hand in hand with technical planning. 4.(CPCB;March 2000) In most developing countries,
overstaffed management due to politically motivated appointments result in absenteeism and
hence the working efficiency decreases while at the same time there is a squeeze in resource
allocation for technical aspects that get neglected. The effectiveness can only be achieved by a
strong management that takes into consideration the following aspects.

• An executable master plan and implementation plans for MSWM at the provincial level or
the State level in accordance with the strategy for national environmental quality would help the
management;

• Application of Polluter Pays Principle to all waste generators, especially in urban areas
including governmental and non-governmental agencies, private sectors and commercial
enterprises;

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• Application of the 3R concepts, product stewardship, cleaner production and
specification in the selection of packaging materials to the manufacturers.

• Continuous monitoring and record keeping of MSW aspects with the development of a
systematic information system that can be comparable, utilizable and updated;

• Appointment of responsible governmental agencies that can regulate and supervise

MSWM activities of both local government and private operators so as to reduce the
environmental impacts;

• Providing of organizational support for encouraging the involvement of private sector

operators, NGOs and CBOs; and

• The informal sector needs to be formalized.

4.17.3 Financial aspects:

• There should be transparency and coordination amongst the staff regarding the
operation and maintenance costs at each level of waste handling so that the expenses are rational;

• The levying of waste collection and disposal fees should be based on waste generation
rates and according to the economic standard of the area, whilst considering the nature of the
waste wherever necessary. However, these fees should not be levied solely to meet the financial
lacunae for management and the equipment demand;

• The larger generators should be charged on excessive waste generation which could be
prevented with cleaner production principles;

• There should be provisions for subsidies (grant, soft loan, etc.) from government to local
authorities, including the private sector, NGOs and CBOs;

• Tax exemption for importing recycling technology and reduced tax benefits from those
industries using waste and scraps as raw materials;

• A fund or trust for promoting 3R needs to be developed instead of a micro credit program
in the informal sector; and

• Transformation of 3R into financial terms or economic value is needed.

4.17.4 Legislative aspects

Legislation and its effective enforcement is a key to sustainability for which the
framework requires to be established. The related aspects are given hereunder:

• Set up of appropriate pollution discharge standards for solid waste disposal facilities such
as effluent and emission standards either based on World Health Organization (WHO) norms or
related to the national standards for pollution control;

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• Declare all solid waste disposal facilities as pollution sources, which if done should be
strictly enforced such that discharges should be regulated in pursuant to the established
standards;

• Develop regulations and related laws to set up mechanisms for implementing 3R concepts –
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle;

• Regulate an appropriate SWM system for the mass-transportation terminals;

• Declare a no-development buffer zone within 500 meters from the boundary of all
processing and disposal sites; and

• The joint involvement of the Ministry of Finance, City planning offices and the
Ministry of Environment to develop infrastructure plans on promotion of 3R is needed.

4.17.5 Supportive aspects

Municipal bodies could have the required technology, financial resources, management
structure and a framework of legislation for effective SWM. 3(CPHEEO;2000),“However, its
implementation cannot be effectual unless the supportive aspects are mobilized to work hand-in-
hand with the system. This can be achieved if the system can:

• Encourage private sector involvement for waste collection, hauling and disposal as both
short term and long term contractors since efficiency is found to increase with their involvement;

• Promote public education program, trainings and workshops, revise school curriculum by
introducing the 3R concepts in general and SWM in particular, and reinforce social values for all
children and citizens in the society;

• Initiate education and training program in fostering technical and administrative

Bilaspurbilities to local government and private personnel;

• Encourage waste separation and recycling program at sources households, commercial

centers, institutions and factories by employing segregation strategy that would fit the appropriate
waste collection and disposal practices;

• Encourage research and development projects for suitable technology in coping with the
mounting MSW management problems and enhance management efficiency through established
academic and research institutes; and

• The coordination between stakeholders is important.

4.18 WASTE MINIMISATION

Waste minimisation or reduction at source is the most desirable activity, because the
community does not incur expenditure for waste handling, recycling and disposal of waste that is
never created and delivered to the waste management system. However, it is an unfamiliar activity
as it has not been included in earlier waste management systems. 1(Akolkar, A.B ;2005), To reduce

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the amount of waste generated at the source, the most practical and promising methods appear to
be

(i) The adoption of industry standards for product manufacturing and packaging that use less
material,

(ii) The passing of laws that minimise the use of virgin materials in consumer products, and

(iii) The levying (by communities) of cess/fees for waste management services that penalise
generators in case of increase in waste quantities. Modifications in product packaging standards
can result in reduction of waste packaging material or use of recyclable materials. Minimisation of
use of virgin raw materials by the manufacturing industry promotes substitution by recycled
materials. Sorting at source, recycling at source and processing at source (e.g. yard composting)
help in waste minimisation. 4(CPCB;1996) One waste management strategy used in some
communities in developed countries is to charge a variable rate per can (or ton) of waste, which
gives generators a financial incentive to reduce the amount of waste set out for collection. Issues
related to the use of variable rates include the ability to generate the revenues required to pay the
costs of facilities, the administration of a complex monitoring and reporting network for service,
and the extent to which wastes are being put in another place by the generator and not reduced at
source.

4.18.1 RESOURCE RECOVERY THROUGH MATERIAL RECYCLING

Material recycling can occur through sorting of waste into different streams at the source or at a
centralised facility. Sorting at source is more economical than sorting at a centralised facility.

Sorting at Source

Sorting at source (home sorting) is driven by the existing markets for recyclable materials and
the link between the house holder and the waste collector. The desirable home sorting streams are:

(a) Dry recyclable materials e.g. glass, paper, plastics, cans etc.

(b) Bio-waste and garden waste

(c) Bulky waste

(d) Hazardous material in household waste

(e) Construction and Demolition waste, and

(f) Commingled MSW (mixed waste). At present recycling of dry recyclables does take place at
the household level in India. However, source separation and collection of waste in streams of (b),
(c), (d) and (e) has to be developed in most cities.

Centralised Sorting

Centralised sorting is needed wherever recyclable materials are collected in a commingled

(mixed) State. Hand sorting from a raised picking belt is extensively adopted in several countries.

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Mechanised sorting facilities using magnetic and electric field separation, density separation,
pneumatic separation, size separation and other techniques are used in some developed countries.
Such facilities are usually prohibitively expensive in comparison to hand sorting. In India,
centralised sorting is not adopted.

Sorting Prior to Waste Processing or Landfilling

Home sorting and centralised sorting processes normally recover most of the recyclable
materials for reuse. However, a small fraction of such materials may escape the sorting process.
Sorting is also undertaken just prior to waste processing, waste transformation or landfilling to
recover recyclable materials. In a landfill, sorting may be carried out by ragpickers immediately
after spreading of a layer of waste. In waste processing or transformation centres, manual sorting
or size separation is usually undertaken. Wherever manual sorting is adopted, care must be taken
to ensure that sorters are protected from all disease pathways and work in hygienic conditions.

4.19 RESOURCE RECOVERY THROUGH WASTE PROCESSING

Biological or thermal treatment of waste can result in recovery of useful products such as compost
or energy.

4.19.1 Biological Processes

Biological treatment involves using micro-organisms to decompose the biodegradable

components of waste. Two types of processes are used, namely: (a) Aerobic processes: Windrow
composting, aerated static pile composting and in-vessel composting; vermi-culture etc. (b)
Anaerobic processes: Low-solids anaerobic digestion (wet process), highsolids anaerobic
digestion (dry process) and combined processes. 1.(Akolkar, A.B ;2005), In the aerobic process the
utilisable product is compost. In the anaerobic process the utilisable product is methane gas (for
energy recovery). Both processes have been used for waste processing in different countries – a
majority of the biological treatment process adopted world-wide are aerobic composting; the use
of anaerobic treatment has been more limited. Biological processes are discussed in chapter 14 &
15. In India, aerobic composting plants have been used to process up to 500 tons per day of waste.

4.19.2 Thermal Processes

Thermal treatment involves conversion of waste into gaseous, liquid and solid conversion
products with concurrent or subsequent release of heat energy. Three types of systems can be
adopted, namely:

(a) Combustion systems (Incinerators): Thermal processing with excess amounts of air.

(b) Pyrolysis systems: Thermal processing in complete absence of oxygen (low temperature).

(c) Gasification systems: Thermal processing with less amount of air (high temperature).

Combustion system is the most widely adopted thermal treatment process world-wide for MSW.
Though pyrolysis is a widely used industrial process, the pyrolysis of municipal solid waste has

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not been very successful. Similarly, successful results with mass fired gasifiers have not been
achieved. However both pyrolysis and gasification can emerge as viable alternatives in the future.

The plastic industry in the developed world has realized the need of environmentally
acceptable modes for recycling plastics wastes and has set out targets and missions. Prominent
among such missions are the Plastic Waste Management Institute in Japan, the European Centre
for Plastics in Environment, the Plastic Waste Management. Manufacturers, civic authorities,
environmentalists and the public have begun to acknowledge the need for plastics to conform to
certain guidelines/standards and code of conduct for its use.

Designing eco-friendly, biodegradable plastics are the need of the hour. 12.(Prüss, A., E. Giroult,
and P. Rushbrook.; 1999) Though partially biodegradable plastics have been developed and used,
completely biodegradable plastics based on renewable starch rather than petrochemicals have only
recently been developed and are in the early stages of commercialization.

4.20 Source of generation of waste plastics

4.20.1 HOUSEHOLD

• Carry bags

• Bottles

• Containers

• Trash bags

• Packages

4.20.2 HEALTH AND MEDICARE

• Disposable syringes

• Glucose bottles

• Blood and urine bags

• Intravenous tubes

• Catheters

• Surgical gloves

4.20.3 HOTEL AND CATERING

• Packaging items

• Mineral water bottles

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• Plastic plates, glasses, spoons

4.20.4 AIR/RAIL TRAVEL

• Mineral water bottles

• Plastic plates, glasses, spoons

• Plastic bags

The following gives you an idea about the type of litter we generate and the approximate
time it takes to degenerate

Organic waste such as vegetable and fruit peels, leftover foodstuff, etc.: A week or two

Paper: 10–30 days

Cotton cloth: 2–5 months

Wood: 10–15 years

Woolen items: 1 year

Tin, aluminium, and other metal items such as cans: 100–500 years

Plastic bags: One million years?

Glass bottles: Undetermined

What you can do to reduce solid waste?

Carry your own cloth or jute bag when you go shopping

Say no to all plastic bags as far as possible

Reduce the use of paper bags also.

Reuse the soft drinks poly bottles for storing water.

Segregate biodegradable and the non biodegradable are put into separate bins and disposed
off separately.

Dig a compost pit in your garden and put all the biodegradable materials into it.

See to it that all garbage is thrown into the municipal bin as the collection is generally
done from there.

When you go out do not throw paper and other wrappings or even leftover food here and
there, make sure that it is put in the correct place, which is into a dustbin.

What you should not do?

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Do not litter. If we drop litter it will encourage others to litter.

Do not put out garbage too early, especially garbage that contains meat and fish scraps.

Do not dump or litter illegally at the sides of the roads or in gullies, it is not only unsightly
but dangerous and hazardous to health.

Do not allow water to collect in your garbage bin.Do not place your old stoves,
refrigerators, or other big or bulky items at the side of the road.

Do not use an oversize bin (e.g. 50 gallons (190L) drum) to contain your garbage. They
are generally too heavy to lift.

Do not overload your garbage bags; they may burst as a result of excessive weight or bulk.

Do not throw broken objects (e.g. glass, ceramic, etc.) into the garbage without wrapping
them first.

Do not place needles and syringes in the garbage or leave them lying around.

Do not overload your waste bin or put out loosely tied or untied bags for collection.

Do not compact waste in the waste bin. This makes it difficult to extract the waste.

4.21 Conclusion

The management of Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) in Bilaspur City still have many
problems. The current regulation system is not perfect and the existing management system and
the collection facilities do not fit the present requirements. Municipal solid wastes are still
collected without separation at the source, treatment facilities are limited and the collected
wastes are mostly dumped haphazardly in open areas. Government, NGOs, CBOs and private
sectors are working hard in this field but still much needs to be done. The main management
strategies to remedy this should include amendment of current laws and regulations, improve
current management systems and introduce classified collections. The effective implementation of
these strategies will help to solve the environmental pollution problems to a large extent. It is
also important to observe that there are possibilities for research implementation and collaboration
among other cities having similar climatic and solid waste characteristics.

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 Reference
1.Akolkar, A.B (2005), “Status of Solid Waste management in India: Implementation status of Mu- nicipal Solid
Waste (Management and Handling )Rules,2000”, New Delhi, Central Pollution Control Board.

2.All India Institute of Local Self Government, (2000), “Manual on Solid Waste Management”, Mumbai,

3.CPHEEO (2000),“Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management” Ministry of Urban Development, Government
of India, New Delhi

4. CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board). June 1996. Hospital Biomedical Wastes: Environmental S t a n d a r d s and
Guidelines for Management. New Delhi, India.

5.CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board). March 2000. Information M a n u a l on Hospital Waste M a n a g e m e n t .
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6.Evans, R.G. and Stoddart, G.L. (1990) “Producing Health, Consuming Health Care,” Social Sciences and
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7.Gunn, S.E. and Osters Z. (1992) “Dilemmas In Tackling Child Labour: The Case Of Scavenger Children In The
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8.Government of India,(2003)“Report of the Technology Advisory Group on Solid Waste Management” New Delhi,
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9.Hunt, C. (1996) “Child Waste Pickers In India: The Occupational And Its Health Risks,” Environment and
Urbanization 8(2): 111-118.

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