INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH

T.R. Ayodele et al., Vol.2, No.4, 2012

Challenges of Grid Integration of Wind Power on

Power System Grid Integrity: A Review

T.R. Ayodele*‡, A.A. Jimoh*, J.L Munda*, J.T Agee*

*Department of Electrical Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology

[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

‡
Corresponding Author; T.R. Ayodele*, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, Private
Bag X680 Pretoria 0001, Staatsartillerie Road, Pretoria West, South Africa, +27735605380, [email protected]

Received: 11.07.2012 Accepted: 01.08.2012

Abstract- Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECSs) exhibit variability in their output power as a result of change in their
prime movers (wind speed).This introduces a new factor of uncertainty on the grid and poses a lot of challenges to the power
system planners and the utility operators in terms of the power system grid integrity i.e. power system security, power system
stability and power quality. This paper discusses the various challenges of wind power when integrated into the grid and
identifies different mitigating strategies for its smooth integration. This paper therefore enables the specifications for
mitigation/integration technologies to be appreciated and quantified.
Keywords- Challenges, Intermittency, Grid Integration, Wind Power, Wind Energy Conversion System.

1. Introduction power system. For wind generators to effectively replace the

normal conventional generators, then, it must be able to
Efforts are geared towards grid integration of renewable provide the same ancillary services provided by the
energy sources into a grid as a result of environmental conventional power plant by controlling the nodal voltages,
concerns and the quest for energy security [1]. Among the ensuring load following, maintaining grid frequency, and
renewable energy sources, wind energy stands out because of contributing to fault current. Wind power penetration is still
its technological maturity, good infrastructure and relative low (20% maximum in Denmark); the ancillary services are
cost competitiveness [2]. At present, the wind power growth majorly supported by the conventional power plants. When
rate stands at 20% annually and it is predicted that 12% of the penetration level is increased, the technical impact on the
the world’s electricity may come from wind power by the grid integrity may arise which needs to be well understood.
year 2020 [3].
This, therefore, implies the need for certain technologies
However, grid integration of the Wind Energy to enable smooth and proper integration of WECSs to the
Conversion System (WECS) can potentially affect the power grid. As such the necessary specifications for such
system negatively due to the fluctuation in wind power. The technologies need to be properly understood and quantified.
WECS exhibits variability in its output power because of the This paper sets out to address this. It discusses the various
stochastic nature of wind resources as a result of incessant challenges of WECSs when directly integrated into the grid
changes in weather conditions. This intermittent and diffuse and sets out to define the parameters and variables necessary
nature of the wind power introduces a new factor of for smooth integration through different mitigating strategies.
uncertainty on the grid and may have a negative impact on
the grid integrity i.e. the power quality, the system security
2. Impact of Wind Power on System Security
and the system stability. The dynamics and the control of
conventional generators in a power system vis-à-vis grid
The security of a power system is regarded as the ability
interaction are well understood and falls under the control
of the system to withstand disturbances without causing a
capability of the utility operators. Wind energy is controlled
breakdown of the power system [4]. For wind power
by nature and this can have a repercussive effect on the
generators to contribute to the security of a power system,
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they must have the ability to contribute to both the voltage (LOEE) indices. The generating capacity credit attributed to
and frequency control in stabilising the power system wind power is expressed in terms of peak loading-carrying
following a disturbance, they must be able to ramp up or capability at the criterion risk level. An assessment of the
down to avoid insecure power system operation, they must generation adequacy of the Irish system incorporating wind
be able to ride through disturbances emanating from the energy capacity was studied in [15] using the application of
power system, they must be able to avoid excess fault levels both the LOLE and Monte Carlo simulation. Further readings
while still contributing to fault identification and clearance, on the adequacy assessment of power systems consisting of
and they should be able to operate in island mode when the intermittent wind generators can be found in [16-20].
supply from the grid is lost [5].
Wind power generation is often faced with difficulties 2.2. Impact of Wind Power on Reserve Management
with regards to reliability in terms of the generation,
planning and scheduling of the supply of electricity [6]. Electrical power is expensive to store. Hence, the power
There is always a lack of confidence by the utility operators produced at the generating station must be consumed by the
in the system’s capability to meet peak demands. Although, load. Therefore, there must be a power balance between all
no electricity system is 100 percent reliable, intermittent the generating plant and the load demand. Any imbalance
generation will increase the level of uncertainty and therefore would affect the frequency of the system which could lead to
also the reserve capacity band of the power system which in loss of synchronism in certain cases [21]. The
turn increases the generation costs. The effect is minimal at accomplishment of a power balance between the load and the
low penetration levels, but could be challenging at high generating plants is more challenging in the case of wind
penetration levels [7, 8]. Among these challenges are the power generation due to its unpredictable nature especially
effects on the power imbalance, reserve management, when the generating ratio is high. A system of high wind
voltage control and system stability. power integration would expand the reserve capacity due to
the variability of the primary resources [22]. A conventional
power plant is expected to provide for this variability. This
2.1. Power Imbalance
has an effect on both the operational costs and the ancillary
service costs of the power system. An extra reserve of 3-6%
WECS generate electricity when wind speeds exceed a
of the rated capacity of the wind plant is required in a 10%
certain minimum and the WECS output depends on these
wind integration and 4-8% approximation for 20% wind
wind speeds. Wind speeds cannot be predicted with high
integration [23]. In a United Kingdom study, an additional
accuracy over daily periods, and the wind often fluctuates
balancing cost due to 10% integration of wind power cost
from minute to minute and hour to hour. Consequently,
£40 million (£2/MWh) and £200 million per annum
electric utility system planners and operators are concerned
(£3/MWh) for 20% wind integration. A national grid
that variations in the output of WECS may increase the
assessment study on the impact of 30GW wind capacity
operating costs of the system [9]. This concern arises because
integration by the year 2020 on the reserve capacity
the system must maintain a balance between the aggregate
indicates that 30GW levels of wind generation will increase
demand for electric power and the total power generated by
the short-term operating capacity to 10.5GW from the 2009
all power plants feeding the system. The variability and the
(4GW capacity) at an additional cost of about £418 million
unpredictability of wind power can cause a power imbalance
per annum. This translates to approximately £5.4/MWh of
on the grid [7, 8, 10, 11]. Their output power may not be
wind generation [24]. A summary of studies conducted by
available to meet the demand when needed, while there could
the U.S. or on behalf of the U.S. utility which provides
be an excess when the demand is low, thereby causing an
valuable insight into the issue of wind power impacts on
upset on the grid. [12] reported a loss of 4000MW (58% of
overall electric system operating costs can be found in [9].
capacity) in Germany in December 2004 and a loss of
2000MW (83% of capacity) within 6 six hours in Denmark
in January 2005 as a result of large changes in wind power 2.3. Impact on the Power System Voltage Control
output due to a forecasting error. A penalty cost is often
attached to the deviation in the scheduled and actual energy The nodal voltage distribution on a power system
delivered to the grid to cover the reliability aspect of network must not be less than an acceptable limit. The
intermittent generation [12]. reactive power contribution capability of a power plant
determines its nodal voltage control. A conventional
In line with the above, several publications exist on the
generator has a way of controlling the reactive power to
generation adequacy of a power system incorporating
ensure a proper voltage distribution at the different nodes of
intermittent wind power. A method for capacity adequacy
the network. Most WECS make use of induction generators
evaluation of power system containing wind energy, solar
energy and energy storage was presented in [13]. Also, an which are not capable of injecting reactive power to the grid
approach to generating capacity reliability studies, using the [21]. This often forms one of the limitations of wind power
integration.
autoregressive moving average (ARMA) time series was
presented in [14]. The technique is used to illustrate the
effect of adding increasing amount of wind capacity to
conventional generating system using the Loss of Load
Expectation (LOLE) and Loss of Energy Expectation

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3. Impact of Wind Power on Power Quality [29]. IEC issued a standard in 2001 (IEC 61400-21) for the
measurement and assessment of the power quality in wind
The degree of deviation from the normal sinusoidal turbines. The standard defines power quality characteristics
voltage and current waveforms in power system network of wind turbines and proposes a measurement procedure
determines the quality of the power transmitted on the grid [29]. Apart from the international standards, there are also
[25]. The liberation of the electricity market has resulted in various national grid codes in order to ensure quality power
power quality becoming an issue of focus in recent times. supply.
Power quality components of a power system comprise of
flickers, harmonic distortions, voltage imbalance, voltage sag
3.1. Harmonics
and voltage swells.
The level of tolerance of power quality depends on the Harmonics can be injected both at the generation and the
kind of load installed by the customer, that is, how sensitive consumer end. At the consumer end, harmonics are caused
the load is. The occurrence and frequency of power quality by non linear loads such as television, personal computers,
problems depend on the strength of the network, type of compact fluorescent lamps, and so forth. At the generation
consumer load fed by the network, electronic equipment level, sources of harmonics include the Flexible Alternating
utilised, geographical location of the area, length of the Current Transmission System (FACTS) such as reactive
network, load behaviour, climate change and the operational power compensators and power electronics devices. Others
practice of the utility operators [26]. include adjustable speed drives, generator speed controls,
HVDC installations, and underground and submarine cable
Poor power quality could lead to losses on the grid,
installations. Most of these are found in the power
malfunctioning of the electrical equipment and even a loss of
conditioning devices of integrating WECS into the grid.
synchronism that could lead to network failure. Low power
They could cause distortion to the voltage and current
quality has negative consequences on the economic and
waveform of a power system. Also, the power electronic
social life of a modern society. A power quality survey
converters in use by the variable speed WECS such as DFIG
conducted in Europe revealed an estimated loss of
are sources of harmonic. This serves as a drawback to these
approximately 150B€ in a year [27], while an estimated loss
types of WECS.
of between 119b$-188b$ per annum was reported in the
United States of America [26]. Harmonics increase line losses and cause excessive
heating of equipment which decreases their lifetime [30, 31].
Variable speed wind generators, that is, WECS made of
Sub-harmonics could cause flickers that result in an
doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) and synchronous
uncomfortable visual effect on the eyes, imbalance and core
generator (SG), require power converters to achieve
saturation of transformers and thermal aging of induction
controllable grid integration. These converters are sources of
motors. IEEE 519-1992 is a standard that sets the
harmonics especially in grids with low short circuit capacity.
requirements and imposes limits for the harmonic
In addition, most wind resources are found very far from the
measurement of different order harmonics and the total
city where access to strong grids is limited. The grid in this
harmonic distortion (THD). The limits for system voltage
area is initially planned for unidirectional power flow. Wind
distortion are 5% for THD and 3% for any individual
power integration could have a negative impact on the steady
harmonics as stipulated by IEEE 519-1992 [26]. IEC 61400-
state operation of these kinds of grids.
21 requires harmonic testing and certification of variable
Fixed speed wind turbines produce power pulsation due speed wind turbines before grid connection since power
to shear effects and tower shadows and this could result in a electronic converters are utilised to achieve grid integration.
voltage fluctuation that could cause flickers on the grid [28];
however, the effects are reduced in variable speed wind
3.2. Flickers
generators.
There are certain standards in place to ensure uniform Flickers are the periodic voltage frequency variations
power quality measurement. These standards specify how a typically between 0.5 and 25Hz that cause annoyance from
power quality measurement should be conducted and the the incandescent bulb [29, 32]. Flicker annoyance is severe at
level it should not exceed. The standards are IEEE 519-1992, a frequency of 8.8Hz [29]. The international electrochemical
IEC 61000-4-30 and EN50160. IEEE 519-1992 deals with commission (IEC) standard 61000-4-15 describes the
the practices of and requirements for harmonic control in measurement of flicker given the instantaneous flicker level
electrical power systems. It specifies the limits of harmonic (IFl) as well as the probability short term (Pst) measure for a
voltage and current at the point of common connection time span of 10 min, and the probability long term (Plt)
between the end user and the distribution utilities. The measured for an average of 2 hours. For flicker free voltage,
standard requires the participation of both the utilities and the Pst = 0. A Pst=1 indicates that the flicker pollution has
customers. IEC 61400 describes the adequate measurement reached the tolerable limit of an average person. The flicker
methods for ensuring voltage and current quantities. It level for a medium-voltage grid is specified by 0.35(Pst) and
provides the aggregation periods and the measurement 0.25(Plt).
formulars. The EN50160 code is mostly adopted by
European countries and it sets the standard level for different The wind generators sometimes produce oscillatory
power quality components which should not be exceeded output power, which could cause flickers in the power
system network. The fluctuation caused by the tower shadow

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and turbulence effect in wind may cause flickers. IEC process after the fault has been cleared. It could damage the
61400-21 furnishes the measurement procedure to calculate equipment components especially the power electronic
the flicker impact of wind turbines. According to this frequency converters.
standard, the voltage fluctuation by the wind turbine is
3.3.1. Fault Ride through Capability
divided into two components: the continuous operation and
the switching operation. Voltage fluctuations due to Fault ride through has come to play a role in
continuous operations result from the variation of active and strengthening power system security due to the increase in
reactive power due to the fluctuation in wind speeds (3p the integration of wind power in recent times. It requires the
effect in fixed speed wind turbines) [29], whereas variable generators to remain connected in the likelihood of a
speed wind turbines have the ability to absorb the 3p effect disturbance on the network. A severe disturbance such as a
by mean of a small change in their rotor speed. Switching fault could lead to a voltage dip and if the generators are
operations are caused by fast changes of power from one unable to remain connected it could lead to an excessive loss
level to another which could be due to generator cut-in, cut- of generation. This could cause stability problems and may
out and switching between wind generators. eventually lead to cascaded tripping of other generators.
Most wind generators are designed to disconnect following a
The effects of flickers are generally not severe in
grid disturbance before the advent of a fault ride through
variable speed wind turbines unlike in fixed speed wind
requirement. There is always a fear that large penetrations of
turbines. This is because the variable speed wind turbines
wind power could cause a considerable amount of generation
have the ability to provide speed controls to damp the
loss following the disconnection of wind generators due to
fluctuations of the aerodynamic torque emanating from
disturbances on the grid, causing the system to become
switching operations or changes in wind speed therefore
unstable in an otherwise harmless disturbance situation. To
mitigating flickers [33]. Both the continuous operation
prevent such situations, newly installed wind turbines are
flicker coefficient and the flicker emission due to the
designed to comply with grid connection requirements
switching operations of the wind turbines are provided based
known as grid codes that demand wind turbines to ride
on the network impedance phase angle and 10-minute
through faults.
average wind speed [34-36]. This information is based on
tests carried out on wind turbines by the manufacturer and Grid codes define the responsibility of wind turbine
will help in ensuring compliance with the acceptable owners and the technical requirements their wind turbines
standards before connecting them to the grid. must meet in order for their turbines to be connected to the
power system network. The codes also specify the
In power quality campaigns, some of the parameters
responsibilities of the owners to protect their machines
which characterise power quality are the steady state voltage
against damage caused by internal or external impacts, active
variations and the flickers present in both continuous and
and reactive power control, frequency control, voltage
switching operations.
quality and external control [41]. The grid codes vary from
one Transmission System Operator (TSO) to another and it
3.3. Voltage Dip focuses on the testing methods used in the verification of the
fault ride through capability of the wind turbines and their
Voltage dip also called voltage sag, is a momentary behaviour during a grid fault. The Scottish grid code (SB/2
reduction in the rms voltage value beyond a specified 2002) requires a wind turbine with a non-synchronous
threshold for a short duration of time [25, 31, 37, 38]. generator to remain connected to the grid in the event of a
Voltage dip is considered according to European standard the zero-voltage grid fault for 140ms. The transmission utility
EN 50160, as a drop in power voltage to a level below 90 from Germany, E.ON Netz, specifies requirements for wind
percent of nominal voltage for no longer than a minute. It is a turbines connected to transmission networks of 110 kV or
very common and serious type of power quality disturbance above. This grid code states that wind turbines must not be
due to its effects on sensitive equipment and industrial disconnected from the network in the event of an 85%
processes [31, 39, 40]. Voltage dip could occur when there is voltage dip caused by a three-phase short circuit for 150ms
a large load such as motor start up, transformer energising, with voltage recovery to 80% within 3 seconds. The Danish
capacitor energising, switching of electronic load, system operator specifies grid code requirements separately
momentary overload or a fault in the system network. It can for wind turbines connected to grids with voltages below 100
cause the disconnection of wind generators, which could kV and above 100 kV which also specifies wind farms’
have a negative impact on the stability of the network due to stability in the event of asymmetric grid faults and
loss of generation. This sometimes discourages the grid unsuccessful re-closure. Fig 1 shows the fault ride through
connection of WECS. requirements of different TSOs [42].
Voltage dip as a power quality component could extend
to stability studies for wind turbines; the limit of voltage dip
is given as 70% rms voltage reduction in 1s duration,
whereas the limit for many electronic devices is 85% for
40ms [25]. Data mining as well as the characterisation and
classification of voltage dips are further explained in [40].
Another problem often experienced as a consequence of
voltage dips is the large inrush current during the recovery

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system. With the increasing trend of wind power integration,

it may begin to have a significant influence on the power
system transient stability margin.
The induction generators mostly employed in wind
power applications operate asynchronously and are
characterized by poor reactive power control capability. A
surge in the input torque of a generator and a voltage dip
beyond the threshold limit at the point of common
connection (PCC) [21, 45] can lead into poor feeder
regulation which can eventually cause voltage collapse as a
result of reactive power demand from the grid.
Fixed speed induction generators are provided with
reactive power compensator to cater for the large reactive
power demand from the network. The power electronics
devices provide the reactive power to the grid in the case of
Fig 1. Different operating voltage range for different TSOs variable speed generators. Critical clearing method has been
[42] widely adopted for transient stability studies [46-48].
Excitation system and voltage source static var compensators
such as STATCOM have been used to increase the stability
4. Challenges of Wind Power on Power System Stability margin thereby improving the ride through capability of the
generators [49].
Kundur [43] stated that “when a power system maintains
a state of equilibrium during normal operating condition or
returns to acceptable state of equilibrium after being 5. The Mitigation Strategies for WECS Integration
subjected to a disturbance, then the system is said to be
stable”. A disturbance could be disconnection of generators, An acceptable integration level of wind power has not
load, lines, transformers or a fault. The stability where a been definite. No particular definition has been given in the
generator remains in synchronism in order to deliver power literature. However, by adopting and improving the various
is known as angular stability and is governed by the mitigating strategies, it is understandable that some of the
relationship between the generator rotor angle and power integration challenges can be alleviated and higher
angle [43]. The stability that considers large disturbances is integration level achieved. Gonza’lez et al [50] is of the
referred to as transient stability, and small signal stability is opinion that the boundary between the low penetration and
one that considers small system disturbances [44]. Small high penetration depends on the amount that can be
signal stability problems occur when there is an insufficient integrated without causing problem to the network. The
damping of system oscillations as a result of changes in the perception of WECS integration depends on the acceptability
operating parameters of a power system [43].Frequency of individual willingness to accept the operational change in
stability, is related to dynamics that influence system the system which most often goes with additional cost. It is
frequency in the range of 10s to 10s of a minute [44]. A reported in [8] that the integration of WECS has no
typical cause of frequency instability is the loss of technical limit but has an economic impact. Some of these
generation, which results in an imbalance between the mitigation strategies are briefly discussed.
generation and load. Frequency stability could also be related
to issues like slow control actions, poor coordination of 5.1. Geographical Location
protection and inadequacy in system equipment. Voltage
instability is characterized by a steady decrease of voltage in One of the mitigating methods includes the use of wide
one or several buses of the power system causing a system geographical location to smoothening out the oscillations in
collapse as a result of the protective equipment. Voltage the output of the intermittent energy sources. Different
collapse results from the inability of a power system to studies have shown that the correlation between the
maintain balance between the demand and supply of reactive fluctuating primary resources of different site decreases with
power within the system network [7]. the distance between the site [23].
Before the advent of wind power plants, power systems A study also reviewed that ten or more geographically
mainly consisted of synchronous generators for electricity separated wind farms connected together have a reliability of
production. The behaviour and control of these generators about 33-47% of their average output compared to a
following a disturbance are well understood by the utility concentrated located wind farms [24]. This is better explain
operators due to their experiences thereof over the years. The in Fig 2 [23] where the power output of a geographically
advent of wind power introduces induction generators into distributed wind farms (GDWF) is compared to the same
the power system for electricity generation because they are capacity (1000MW) of a single wind farm in western
cheap, robust and support variable speed operations. At the Denmark. The result shows that GDWF gives a better
earlier stage of wind power integration, there was little smoothening output power. Fig 3 explains the decreasing
concern about its influence on the overall stability of a power correlation between the wind turbine output power in respect

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to the distance between the site [51].This is extensively power quality. Smart technologies also include artificial
explained by Holttinen in [51]. intelligent monitoring equipment that has the ability to pre-
detect fault and monitor power quality on the network.
Included also are real- time transmission power flow
monitoring equipments and power electronics that can limit
the waveform distortion either from the generator or the load
and correct the waveform deformity.
Power electronics that can limit the
waveform distortion
either from the generator or
the load and correct
the waveform deformity

Artificial intelligent
monitoring
equipment that has the Real- time transmission
ability power flow
SMART GRID
Fig 2. Smoothening impact comparison between a single to pre-detect fault and monitoring equipments
monitor power
farm and a geographically separated farm (both farm have quality
1000mw capacity) [23]. on the network

Renewable energy technologies that

will provide quality
power into the networks

Fig 4. Components of smart grid

Super grid allows the transmission of wind power from a
site of favourable generation to places of high demand over a
long distance [54]; this is mostly practiced with the high
voltage direct current lines (HVDC). It allows the possibility
of smoothing out the intermittent output power by
geographical location, where wind power is transmitted from
variety of large generation sites scattered over wide area with
the ability to manage both fluctuation supply and load.

Fig 3. The correlation of wind turbine output power and 5.3. Improved Energy Storage Technology
distance between them for site 200-400km apart from the
Nordic countries [51] Power schedule and dispatch can be made possible with
the adoption of energy storage. It allows intermittent power
to be harvested at the time of excess and redistributed during
5.2. The Use of Smart and Super Grid scarcity. With this technology, degree of intermittency can be
reduced and integration flexibility is enhanced, therefore the
References [31, 52] described smart grid as an ICT- contribution from WECS can be increased. Hydrogen storage
based network that would allow bi-directional flow of power proves to be a promising storage technology compared to
and information. According to [53], IEC defines smart grid other technologies limited by expensive cost of storage. [50]
as “a concept of integrating the electrical and information Suggested the generation of hydrogen from the excess wind
technologies in between any point of generation and any power. In Pump-hydro, water is stored when the cost of
point of consumption”. Smart grid involves the electricity is low and then released during the peak hours for
modernization of the electric grid in such a way that it would electricity generation. The use of electric vehicles (EV) as a
encourage active users, participation at all levels. It would be storage technique will increase the integration level of wind
accessible to the distributed generators such as wind turbines power. The battery of EV is charged at night when the cost
without threatening the network integrity; it would enhance of power is low and there is excess power from wind
power quality and system stability; it would enable market generators.
competition with pricing flexibility control.
For this to be fully realized, improvement must be made 5.4. Improved Forecasting Techniques
in the area of smart technologies. This will include smart
meters that will be able to quantify the energy consumption Reliable estimation of wind speed will allow improved
and the power quality of each electrical equipment connected schedule and dispatch of wind power. This can be
to it and allow the user to take a decision on the best way to advantageous in term of reduction in the upset that can be
consume power and what equipment to consider as regard to generated on the grid due to intermittent power supply. With

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