Journal of Engineering and Sustainable Development Vol. 20, No. 05, September 2016 www.jeasd.

org (ISSN 2520-0917)

www.jeasd.org
Vol. 20, No.05, September 2016
ISSN 2520-0917

DESIGN, SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS OF AN INTELLIGENT

LEAD-ACID BATTERY CHARGER FED BY SOLAR SYSTEM

*
Hussain S. Maraud1, Dr. Isam M. Abdulbaqi2, Ammar I. Majeed3

1) Engineer, Electrical Engineering Department, Al-Mustansiriayah University, Baghdad, Iraq.

2) Prof., Electrical Engineering Department, Al-Mustansiriayah University, Baghdad, Iraq.
3) Lecturer, Electrical Engineering Department, Al-MustansiriayahUniversity, Baghdad, Iraq.

Abstract: The objectives of this work are to design, simulate and analyze the operation of an intelligent
lead-acid battery charger supplied from a two (250W) nominal power, Photovoltaic (PV) panel in parallel
to charge two (200Ah) capacity lead-acid batteries in parallel. The storage battery's effectiveness depends
on the charging process. Hence, this research deals with the study, simulation and design of an intelligent
charger fed by solar system due to the latest technologies. The developed charging method entitled "the
decreased charging current based on SOC" is adopted in this research to charge a lead-acid battery. The
principle of decreased charging current is to make the real charging current as close as possible to the
maximum acceptable current. The advantage of this technique is to mix between the rapidity of charging
and prevents of the overcharging and generates gases. Also, the design considers different operating
conditions of load, battery state of charge (SOC) and ambient effect in order to achieve the best charging
condition of the batteries and to be compatible with the user requirements. Therefore, this technique of
charging can be considered as intelligent charging compared to traditional charging ways, which are often
either an a constant charging current or a constant charging voltage. The flexible, simple and cheap
design is the objective of this research. The obtained results agree with the research objective.
Keywords: Lead-Acid Battery, SOC, Intelligent Charger.

‫تصميم ومحاكاة وتحليل الشاحنة الذكية لبطارية الحمض الرصاصية المغذاة من منظومة الطاقة‬
‫الشمسية‬
‫ إن فعالية‬.‫ تعتبر الشاحنة من أهم أجزاء المنظومة الشمسية وذلك لكون بطاريات الخزن هي الجزء الوحيد المحدود العمر منها‬:‫الخالصة‬
‫ عليه يهتم هذا البحث بدراسة و تمثيل و تصميم شاحنة ذكية تتغذى من منظومة شمسية باستخدام‬،‫هذه البطاريات تعتمد على عملية الشحن‬
‫ حيث تم اعتماد تقنية الشحن الموسومة (تخفيض تيار الشحن‬.‫ سُميت هذه الشاحنة بالذكية اعتمادا على تقنية الشحن المقترحة‬.‫أحدث التقنيات‬
‫ إن مبدأ هذه التقنية هوجعل تيار الشحن‬.‫)) في هذا البحث لشحن بطارية الرصاص الحمضية‬SOC) ‫إعتمادا على حالة الشحنة في البطارية‬
‫ إن فائدة هذه التقنية هي الدمج بين سرعة الشحن ومنع حالة اإلفراط في‬.‫الفعلي أقربما يمكن من الحد األقصى من تيار الشحن المقبول‬
‫ والتي غالبا ما تكون أما بتيار ثابت أو فولتية‬،‫ لذا تعتبر هذه التقنية من الشحن ذكية مقارنة بالطرق التقليدية للشحن‬.‫الشحن وتولد الغازات‬
‫ إن التصميم أخذ باالع تبار حاالت تحميل و حاالت شحنة بطارية و تأثيرات بيئية مختلفة و أن تكون مناسبة لمتطلبات المستخدم‬.‫ثابته‬
.‫ إن النتائج المتحصلة جاءت متوافقة مع أهداف البحث‬.‫ إن الغاية من البحث هو تصميم شاحنة مرنة و بسيطة و رخيصة‬.‫للمنظومة‬

*Corresponding Author [email protected]

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1. Introduction
The charger is the most important part of the solar system because the only limited-
age part of this system is the storage batteries. So, the charger design must take into
consideration the latest knowledge in this field such that it must be efficient, reliable,
flexible, simple and cheap. The simulation depends on software (Proteus) computer
package to study the response of system. The maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
technique adopted to achieve as maximum as possible energy from the panel. This
power used for charging the battery and feeding the load at the same time with a priority
decided by the user, depending on the battery condition monitored by the charger and
on the load condition and requirements.
Because the battery must be replaced periodically so it increase the cost of the solar
system, hence, the charger must be well designed to keep the battery healthy life as long
as possible. For this purpose, the Lead-acid battery transient and steady state conditions
are considered in its equivalent circuit adopted in the simulation. The battery equivalent
circuit accomplishes the chemical and electrical behavior during charging and
discharging conditions.
The Programmable Interface Controller (PIC) used to perform the matching process
between the panel and the load to keep it work at MPP, and to control the charging
current avoiding the battery gassing voltage and heating due to overcharging during the
charging process.
The majorities of the research which dealt with this subject and that have been
mentioned in the list of references adopt the charge of batteries with constant current or
constant voltage and does not regard SOC of batteries thought the charging process to
excellently prevent the dangers of overcharging and deep discharge and prolong the
battery life-time. Also, these researches doesn’t match between excerpt the maximum
PV power and best charging techniques and don't considers different operating
conditions of load. Hence, this thesis deals with the study, simulation and design of an
intelligent charger fed by solar system due to the latest technologies. The design
considers different operating conditions of load, battery state of charge and ambient
effect in order to achieve the best charging condition of the batteries and to be
compatible with the user requirements.

2. Lead-Acid Battery
2.1. Lead-acid Battery Chemical Theory
The cell of a lead-acid battery comprises a set of positive and negative electrodes. In
full charge state, the positive electrode is lead dioxide (PbO2 ) and the negative
electrode is the sponge lead (Pb) and the electrolyte solution is the sulfuric acid
(H2 SO4 ) [1] [2]. For charging and discharging process, the chemical reaction could
convert the energy from electrical into chemical and back again. The following equation
shows the process of a chemical reaction inside the battery during charging and
discharging [1]:

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discharge
Pb + PbO2 + H2 SO4 →← 2PbSO4 + 2H2 O (1)
charge

The nominal potential of each Pb/PbO2 cell is about 2V. So, in order to prevent the
overcharging and gassing problems, the cell is charged for less than 2.4V which is
known the gassing voltage. The cell charging and discharging terminal voltage
characteristic is shown in Fig. 1[3].

2.4V
Discharge Charge
2.3V

2.2V
Voltage (V)

2.1V

2.0V

1.9V

1.8V

1.7V
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
Percent of full capacity *100%
Figure 1. Discharge and charge voltage of a lead-acid battery cell [3]

2.2. State of Charge (SOC)

State of charge (SOC) and depth of charge (DOC) are variables that can describe the
battery charge. The main difference is that the SOC describes the percentage of
remaining charge relative to the nominal capacity of battery while the DOC represents
that relative to the actual capacity under a specific discharge current.
These two variables can be achieved by calculating the charge consumed and the
battery capacity [2]:

SOC = 1 − Qe ⁄C10 (2)

DOC = 1 − Qe ⁄CI (3)

Knowing the State of Charge (SOC) is very important in the charging process of a
lead-acid batteries, because it determines the value of instantaneous charging current to
prevent the overcharging and gassing problems. Where as the SOC is increased during
the charging process and the battery is near from fully charging condition, the charging
current must be decreased gradually to overcome the gassing and electrolyte losses and
to increase the useful service life for the battery [2].

2.3. Effect of Specific Gravity on the Battery State of Charge

Specific Gravity (SG) is a measurement of concentration of electrolyte solution. SG
represents the ratio of solution to the water density. The specific gravity of electrolyte is

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related to the state of charge (remain of full capacity) of a lead-acid battery. Where as
the battery is charging, the sulfuric acid will be produced and SG is increasing, whereas
the opposite will happen during the discharge. For full charge capacity of a lead-acid
battery, SG of electrolyte is in the range of 1.25 (kg/L) to 1.28 (kg/L) at27℃. Therefore,
the SG is considered as one of the methods to calculate the state of charge of lead-acid
batteries.

2.4. Electromotive Force of a Lead-Acid Battery

The electromotive force or the open circuit voltage of a lead-acid battery cell can be
obtained by using the Nernst's equation. This equation written as [1] [3]:

α2 (H2 SO4 )
EMF = 2.01 + 0.0296 ln 2 (4)
α (H2 O)

Because the concentration or specific gravity of the electrolyte solution varies

through the charging and discharging of the lead-acid battery, the relative activity of
H2 SO4 will also be changed in the Nernst's equation. Due to this, the open circuit voltage
of a lead-acid battery is changed proportionally with respect to temperature and specific
gravity of electrolyte solution. Therefore, by knowing the open circuit voltage of lead-
acid battery and temperature, specific gravity of electrolyte solution can be determined
and thus determine the state of charge. Graph in Fig. 2 shows the relation between the
electrolyte specific gravity and the open circuit voltage of a lead-acid battery cell
at 25℃ [1] & [3].

1.25

1.25
Specific gravity at 25℃

1.20

1.15
(kg/Liter)

1.10

1.05

1.80 1.85 1.90 1.95 2.00 2.00 2.10 2.15 2.20 2.25
Open-circuit voltage at 25℃
Figure 2. Open-circuit voltage of lead-acid cell as a function of(V)
electrolyte specific gravity at 25℃ [1]

3. Decreased Charging Current Method Based on SOC

The aim of the decreased charging current method is to make the actual charging
current closest to the maximum possible current as shown in Fig. 3[4] [5].
It is observed that the maximum charging voltage or overcharging voltage set to Vg is
about 2.4 V/cell. The execution process of this charging method is described as follows:
initially charging the batteries with the greatest charge rate Ca, then the alteration into

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Ca+1 by multiplying it by reduction coefficient (β= Cn /Cn-1) every time the battery
voltage arrives toVg . Then, the charging rate changes to Ca+2…..Cn in role. Thisprocess
is repeatedly continued till the maximum charging current is reached to C/100. Then a
battery charging voltage rise higher than2.4V/cell refers a 100% state of charge is
reached. In that situation, the charging current has stayed to at least value known as
Itrickle to the indemnity of the controlling unit power, depreciation and the self-discharge
of the battery. The first value of the maximum charging current of the battery is
renovated when a battery reach to the discharging condition.

𝑉𝑜

Ca Ca+1 Ca+2 Cn
𝑉𝑔
…..

0 𝑆𝑂𝐶, % 100%

Figure 3. Principle of decreased charging current (Vo is the battery voltage, Ca, Ca+1, Ca+2, … Cn, are
charging rates in a, a+1, a+2…n hour; Vg is the gassing voltage) [5]

For low panel output power, MPPT algorithm is done, maximizing the power
converted to the battery. In respect of other states, the battery charging current is
controlled to the maximum acceptable current.
Advantages of the proposed method over traditional charging methods are: The
method comparatively makes the batteries reach full capacity in a short time without
accurately gauging batteries current; also it reduces the current sensor accuracy required
and the cost for circuitry. Furthermore, in contrast to voltage-regulation methods, as the
proposed method is based on battery current regulation, it results in a uniform charging
of all cells. Thus, it can be effectively used in large battery strings. For these reasons,
this method increased battery lifetime by restoring the maximum possible battery (SOC)
in the shortest charging time.
The main drawback of this method is that the reduction coefficient β chosen too high
or low could result to batteries overcharge or not enough charge, which will adversely
affect battery life [4] [5].

4. Design and Simulation of an Intelligent Lead-Acid Battery Charger System

4.1. Design of Charger Power Circuit
The step-down (Buck) DC-DC converter interfaces between the PV panel and the
lead-acid battery to adjust the battery charging current.The diagram of the buck
converter is shown in Fig. 4.

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The design equations of the buck converter are presented from (5) to (8) [6].

VO = D VS (5)

The inductance and capacitance of buck converter filter are designed based on the
following equations to operate the converter in Continuous Current Mode (CCM).

VO (1 − D)
Cmin = (6)
8 ∆VO L fS2

VS
Lmin = (7)
8 fS IO,min

IO,min ≥ ILB,max (8)

Low-pass filter

IS S L IL IO

+VL -
IC +
+
C RL VO
VS D
_
_

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of buck converter [6]

In this search, the chosen operating switching frequency (fs ) of the buck convertor
that is design in this search is 50 kHz. Also, the step down convertor will be operated in
CCM as long as the charging current within the range between the greatest charging
current (in this search, its take as C/12 = 200/12 ≅16A) (C is the nominal battery
capacity in ampere-hours) to value close to the trickle current (about C/40 =5A). When
the charging current less than this value (C/40), the inductance current will become
discontinues. According to this and by applying equations (5)-(8), the determined values
of inductance and capacitance of buck converter filter are 15μH and 4.9 mF
respectively.

4.2. Modeling and Simulation of Battery

The equivalent circuit of a lead-acid battery is based on nonlinear equations. The
equivalent circuit consisted of two main parts: a main branch which approximated the
battery dynamics under most conditions, and a parasitic branch which accounted for the

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battery behavior at the end of the charging period. The equivalent circuit of the battery
is shown in Fig. 5 [7] & [8].
The values ofEm , R 0 ,R1 ,C1 ,R 2 and Ip are determined from (9)-(14) with the given
parameters.

Em = EmO − K E (273 + θ)(1 − SOC) (9)

R 0 = R 00 [1 + A0 (1 − SOC)] (10)

R1 = −R10 ln(DOC) (11)

C1 = τ⁄R1 (12)

e[A21 (1−SOC)]
R 2 = R 20 ∗ (13)
1 + e(A22 Im ⁄I )

VPN θ
IP = VPN GP0 exp. ( + AP (1 − )) (14)
VP0 θf

Where:A0 , A21 , A22 , AP , GP0 and Vpoare constants for a lead-acid battery.
R 00 , R10 andR 20 are parameters related to the state of health (SOH) of battery and they
do vary a little among different batteries built with the same technology.

𝐶1
𝐼𝑚 𝑅2 𝑃 𝑅0 𝐼

𝐼𝑃
𝑅1

+
𝐸𝑚 𝐼𝑃 (𝑉𝑃𝑁 ) 𝑉𝑜
_

𝑁
Main Branch Parasitic
Branch
Figure 5. Equivalent circuit of the lead-acid battery [8]

The values of this battery model parameters and constants are reported in the Table 1
for the lead acid battery, C10=500 Ah capacity [7].

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Table 1.Parameters of the Lead-Acid Battery model, C10=500 Ah Capacity [7].

Parameter Value Parameter Value Parameter Value
Emo 2.18 V A22 -8.45 R 20 15 mΩ
KE 0.84 ×10-3V/ ℃ τ 7200 s A0 -0.20
R 00 2.0 mΩ GP0 2 PS A21 -8.0
R10 0.4 mΩ AP 2.0 θf -40 ℃

5. System Description
The block diagram of the proposed PV battery charging system is shown in Fig. 6.
This PV system consists of eight major parts: (1) solar panels, (2) buck converter circuit
as the charger power circuit, (3) Voltage and current sensors of panel and battery, which
achieved by means of a voltage divider and a Hall-effect current sensors respectively,
(4) PIC18F45K22microcontroller to control the power MOSFET switching duty cycle
on the buck converter, (5) gate drive circuit, (6) rechargeable lead-acid battery, (7)
resistive load and (8) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD), which informs the user about
various parameters of the system operation, for example, it shows the value of charge
current.

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the proposed PV battery charger system

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The charging algorithm flowchart is shown in Fig. 7. A set of variables is used to

store the following parameters of the system operation:
• The minimum and maximum permissible battery voltage and current levels.
• The MPPT control action (variable B in Fig. 7, taking values 1 or 0), indicating
whether the MPPT process must be performed or the charging current must be
decreased (if B=1 then MPPT is performed; except that, the charging current must
be decreased where, in this case, it is higher than the maximum battery current).
The maximum battery charging current is set to C/12 to protect the battery from
overheating. The minimum current is set to C/100, corresponding to a battery
100% state of charge, according to Fig. 3. When the battery is fully charged, the
PV panel will feed the load directly and the battery charging current is regulated to
Itrickle to compensate for the control system power consumption and the battery
self-discharge.

Begin Charging
Algorithm

Measure: VB, IB, VPV

(K), IPV (K), Ta

Compute: PPV (k) =VPV (K) ×IPV

(K)VB, max and VB, min

Yes
IB>IB, max? B=0

No
No Yes
VB>VB, max?

VB<VB, min? IB, max>IB, min?

Yes No No
Yes
Restore the initial IB, max =Itrickle IB, max =β ×IB, max
Value of IB, max

No Decreasing the
B=1?
duty cycle
Yes
Execute the
MPPT

VPV (k-1) =VPV (k)

PPV (k-1) =PPV (k)

Figure 7.Control algorithm flowchart of a lead-acid battery charging

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The minimum and maximum battery voltage levels are then calculated as [3] [4]:

Vbat,max = 28.8 + (Ta − 25)NC α (15)

Vbat,min = 25.4 + (Ta − 25)NC α (16)

The initial values of this set of variables are given in Table 2,[4].

Table 2.The Initial Values of the Program Variables [4]

Variable Initial value

Minimum battery current (IB, min) C/100
Maximum battery current (IB, max) C/12
Trickle current (Itrickle) C/100 =2A
Minimum battery voltage (VB, min) 25V at
25℃
Maximum battery voltage (VB, max) 28.8V at
25℃
MPPT control action, B 1

Perturbation and observation (P&O) MPPT method is most commonly used among
various MPPT algorithms because it is easy to implement. This algorithm is shown in
Fig. 8, [9] & [10].

Start

Measure: V (k), I (k)

Compute: P (k) =V (k) I (k)

Yes
P (k) =P (k-1)?

No
No Yes
P (k) > P (k-1)?

V (k) <V (k-1)? V (k) >V (k-1)?

Yes No No Yes
Increase Panel Decrease Panel Decrease Panel Increase Panel
Voltage Voltage Voltage Voltage

V (k-1) =V (k)
P (k-1) =P (k)

Figure 8.Flowchart of P&O MPPT algorithm [9]

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6. Results
Table 3 shows the simulation parameter of the PV panel that was used in the
simulation program (Proteus).

Table 3.Simulation Parameters of PV Panel

Parameter Value
Peak Power, PMPP (W) 481
Peak power current, IMPP (A) 15.8
Peak power voltage, VMPP (V) 30.44
Open circuit voltage, VOC (V) 38.2
Short circuit current, ISC (A) 16.4

Fig. 9 presents the PV output current, power versus the output voltage for the
variable load for the PV panel that used in this research.

Figure 9. PV output current, power versus the output voltage to a variable load

The simulation curves in Fig. 10 shows the relationship between the cell voltage and
the state of charge (SOC) of a lead-acid battery for a fixed ambient temperature 𝜃 (in
these cases, (𝜃 =25℃), which is built depending on the equations of battery model that
is discussed in the section (4.2).

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Figure 10. The relation between the cell voltage and the state of charge of the Lead-acid battery

The complete charging process can be divided into three main stages:
First stage is the maximum charging current period, this stage will continue until the
battery voltage reaches overcharging limit. Second stage is the period when the current
is decreasing from greatest allowed current to the trickle current. The last stage
represents the trickle charging current period.
Fig. 11shows the charging current and voltage at maximum charging stage. PV panel
will be runs at maximum power point in this charging stage. Where the output power,
current and voltage of the panel are agreement to that in the Table 3.

Figure 11. The charging voltage and current at maximum charging stage

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Fig. 12 shows the charging current at decreasing charging stage at reduction

coefficient (β)equal 0.99. The current value that noted at each step that gassing voltage
is reached programmed as a maximum current value for the next step.

16

14

12
Charging current (A)

10

Steps of charging voltage reaches the overcharging limit

Figure 12. The charging current at decreasing charging stage

Fig. 13 shows the charging voltage and current at trickle charging stage. As shown in
this figure, the filter inductance will be operates in DCM in this stage of charging.

Figure 13. The charging voltage and current at the trickle charging stage

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Also, in this proposed system, the following conditions are considered:

• The battery will be feeding the load as long as its voltage is higher than 24V.
• When the battery closes to full charge where the charging current closes to the
trickle current (about C/50 i.e. 4A), the power of PV panel can be exploited for
other applications.
• The battery separated from the charger and load as long as its terminal voltage is
less than the normal value (Less than 22V) or the charging current is less than
Itrickle, which foretelling the existence of fault in the battery (short circuit or open
circuit of battery cells), so, in this case, an alarm indicator must be used.
These conditions can be happening programmatically by running the relays
connected between the battery and charger, the battery and load and the PV panel and
other load (any other applications).
Also, in this charger system, there is flexibility for the user by three external switches
(S1, S2 and S3). Where through observation the state of charging current that displayed
in LCD screen, the user can be adopting the suitable proceeding by externally
controlling of system using these switches.
Fig. 14 shows these three external switches (S1, S2 and S3).

Figure 14.External switches (S1, S2 and S3) for flexibility the proposed system

7. Conclusions
This work presents the design of an intelligent charger, avoids the overcharging and
gassing problems in Lead-Acid batteries. This charger increases the lifetime of the
storage battery, which is the most expensive part of the solar system because it is
required to be replaced in a short time as compared with the PV panels.
The flexibility of this charger is very important due to the load requirements and the
effect of the ambient natural variations like temperature and irradiation. Also, it takes
into consideration the state of charge of the batteries and their faults.
This design can be extended to control the charging process for more number of
batteries by design and implement a powerful charger. The information of the state of
charge of each battery and to assign whether the battery is "healthy" or "faulty" is
required in order to control the charging process by such intelligent charger.

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Symbols
Cmin Minimum capacitance of DC-DC converter (F)
C10 Battery nominal (rated) charge capacity (Ah)
CI Battery actual capacity under the actual discharge current I (Ah)
Cn, C/n The charging current at a rate of (battery capacity/ n hours) (A)
D Duty cycle
fS Switching frequency (kHz)
I∗ Nominal battery current (A)
ILB,max Maximum boundary current of inductance (Average value) (A)
Im Actual charge main branch current (A)
IO,min Minimum output current to operate in CCM (A)
KE Temperature coefficient of a lead-acid battery cell (V/℃)
L Convertor inductance (μH)
Lmin Minimum inductance of DC-DC converter (μH)
Qe Charge consumed from the battery (Ah).
Ta Ambient temperature
VS ,VO Input and output voltage of Buck Convertor.
VPN Parasitic branch voltage (V)
EMF Battery cell voltage (V)
α Relative activity of the electrolyte (V/℃/cell)
β Reduction coefficient
∆VO Ripple of the output voltage of Buck convertor (V)
θ Electrolyte temperature (℃)
θf Electrolyte freezing temperature (-40℃)
τ Time constant of the main branch (s)
NC Number of cells of the battery stack (NC = 12)

Abbreviations

SOC State of charge

DOC Depth of charge
SOH State of health
SG Specific Gravity (kg/L)

8. References
1. David Linden and Thomas B. Reddy, (1995). "Handbook of Batteries". 3th ed., ISBN
0-07 -135978-8, Printed in the United States of America.
2. Shen Guo, (2010). "The Application of Genetic Algorithms to Parameter Estimation
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University of Birmingham.
3. Ola Subhi Waheed Al-Qasem, (2012). "Modeling and Simulation of Lead- Acid
Storage Batteries within Photovoltaic Power Systems", A Thesis Presented to the
An-Najah National University, Palestine.
4. E. Koutroulis and K. Kalaitzakis, (2004). "Novel Battery Charging Regulation System
for Photovoltaic Applications", IEE, Technical University of Crete, Chania, Vol.
151, No. 2, P.P. 191-197.

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5. Tiezhou Wu, Qing Xiao, Linzhang Wu, Jie Zhang and Mingyue Wang, (2011)"Study
and Implementation on Batteries Charging Method of Micro-Grid Photovoltaic
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