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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Introduction: Now-a-days, all electronic devices which we use are based on the controlled flow of electrons. Before
1948 , mostly the electronic devices were made of vacuum tubes or valves such as diode valve with two electrodes,
triode valve with three electrodes and so on. In vacuum tubes, electrons can flow only in one direction, i.e., from
cathode to anode. The vacuum tube devices are bulky, operate at high voltages, consume more power, have limited
life and low reliability.
In 1930 , it was realized that some solid-state semiconductors and their junctions can be helpful in controlling the
number and direction of flow of charge carriers through them. The discovery of semiconductor junctions such as
junction diodes and transistors, replaced the vacuum tubes as they are small in size, operate at low voltages,
consume small power, having long life and high reliability. The semiconductor junctions led to the development of
integrated circuits (ICs) which have revolutionized the electronics industry.
The branch of science which is concerned with the controlled motion of charge carriers in semiconductor devices is
called solid state electronics.

Classification of solids based on electrical conductivity

On the basis of electrical conductivity (σ ) or resistivity ( ρ = 1 / σ ) , the solids can be classified into the following
three classes:
I. Metal conductors: These are those solids which possess high conductivity or low resistivity. This is due to the
fact that metals have a large number of free electrons. The conductivity of metal conductors lies between 102
and 108 Sm−1 while their resistivity is in between 10−2 and 10−8 Ωm . Examples of metal conductors are : Al ,
Cu , Ag , Au , etc.
II. Semiconductors: These are those solids which possess conductivity and resistivity in between metallic
conductors and insulators. This is due to the fact that semiconductors have very few free electrons at room
temperature and can be regarded as insulators for all practical purpose. The conductivity of semiconductors lies
between 10−5 and 100 Sm−1 while their resistivity is in between 10−4 and 0.5Ωm . Examples of elemental
semiconductors are germanium and silicon. Examples of compound semiconductors are inorganic compounds
like CdS and GaAs , organic compounds like anthracene and organic polymers like polypyrrole, polyaniline and
polythiophene.
III. Insulators: These are those solids which possess very low conductivity or very high resistivity. This is due to the
fact that insulators have practically no free electros. The conductivity of insulators lies between 10−11 and
10−19 Sm−1 while their resistivity is in between 1011 and 1019 Ωm . Examples of insulators are: glass, rubber,
plastic, etc.

Band theory of solids

The energy E of an electron in the orbit of an atom has certain discrete values. These discrete energy values of an
electron in an atom are called energy levels.
Consider two atoms which are far from each other. Then, the influence of one atom on the other being insignificant,
the two atoms have two energy levels, as if they are both isolated atoms.
When the two atoms are brought close enough, the charge due to one atom influences the other and hence each
energy level splits into two energy levels.
A solid has a very large number of close lying atoms. Hence, the energy level of each atom splits into a large number
of close lying energy levels. These close lying energy levels form almost a continuum and this is an energy band. Each
energy level of an isolated atom now forms an energy band. The highest energy band which is completely filled at
0K is called the valence band.
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
If sufficient energy is given to the valence electrons in an atom, they can be removed from the orbits. The These
electrons which are free to move inside the solid and cause a flow of electric current in the presence of an electric
field. Hence, these electrons are called the conduction electrons and the band of energies possessed by the
conduction electrons is called the conduction band
band.
In the case of certain solids, there exists a gap between the valence band and conduction band. This is called the
energy gap or forbidden band.. This is so called because electrons cannot possess these energy values in the given
solid.
The electrical properties of a solid can be interpreted in terms of its valence and conduction bands.

Conductors: A metallic conductor has a large number of free electrons. These move randomly inside the metal at
room temperature and act as charge carriers
arriers and hence when an electric field is applied, they provide a flow of
electric charge in a specified direction and cause a current. No additional energy in the form of heat or light is
necessary for this process. The conduction band is completely fil
filled
led and the valence band is empty. Thus, in the case
of conductors, the conduction and valence bands overlap and the forbidden gap is zero. The above figure shows the
energy bands of conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
Semiconductors: In the semiconductors, the conduction band and the valence band are partially filled. There exists a
small energy gap between the conduction and valence bands. The forbidden energy gap between the valence and
conduction band is of the order of 1eV . With this much of energy supplied to the electrons in the valence band, they
jump to the conduction band. At very low temperatures, all the electrons will be in the valence band and no
electrons in the conduction band. This is the reason forfo a semiconductor to behave as an insulator at ve very low
temperature. At room temperature, a few electrons gain sufficient energy to occupy the conduction band. Thus, the
conductivity increases. As temperature is further increased, more electrons from valence
valence band rise to the conduction
band, thus, increasing the electrical conductivity.
Insulators: In the case of insulators, the conduction band is empty and the valence band is completely filled. The
energy gap between conduction and the valence bands is ver veryy large. This is more than about 5eV for most of the
insulators. For diamond, this is about 7eV
eV . Because of this large gap, it is very difficult to rise the electrons from
valence band to the conduction band. Veryy high electric fields are required for causing this. The insulator is said to
break down under such conditions. In the case of an insulator at room temperature,, the conduction band is empty
and valence band is full.

Classification of semiconductors
Semiconductors
nductors are classified into two types namely intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors. The
extrinsic semiconductors are again classified as n − type semiconductor and p − type semiconductor.
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Intrinsic semiconductors
Some of the most widely used semiconductors are silicon and
germanium. Silicon and germanium are tetravalent. The four
valence electrons of a germanium atom form four pairs of
covalent bonds with their neighbours is as shown in th
the figure.
At very low temperatures, all the electrons are rigidly held in the
bonds. As a result, no free electrons are available for electrical
conductivity. At room temperature, a few bonds get broken due
to thermal agitations. When an electron comes out of a bond, a
vacancy is created. The vacancy created by an electron coming
out of a bond is called a hole.. When an electric field is applied,
the holes and free electrons move in opposite directions. Thus, a
hole behaves like a positive charge. It is ther
therefore obvious that
the electrical conductivity of a semiconductor like germanium or
silicon in pure form is due to equal number of free electrons and
holes. Such a semiconductor is called an intrinsic semiconductor. Hence, a semiconductor, like germanium oor silicon
in pure form whose electrical conductivity is due to equal number of free electrons and holes is called an intrinsic
semiconductor.

Extrinsic semiconductors
One way of increasing the electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors, is by risi
rising
ng its temperature. However,
this method of increasing the electrical conductivity affects the proper working of semiconductors. Since, the
electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is due to two kinds of charge carriers, namely, free electrons and holes,
the electrical conductivity can be increased by increasing either the free electron population or the hole population.
This leads to a type of semiconductors called extrinsic semiconductors. A semiconductor whose electrical
conductivity is due to one kind of charge carriers in excess over the other kind is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types. 1. n − type and 2. p − type.

n-type semiconductor
Consider an intrinsic semiconductor in pure form such as silicon or germanium. Let a few atoms of a pentavalent
element like phosphorus be added. The phosphorus atoms added are called impurity atoms and the process of
adding the impurity is called doping. A phosphorus atom added forms only four pairs of covalent bonds with its
neighbours and the fifth valence electron becomes a free electron. Thus, every phosphorus atom added donates an
electron more than what is required for complete bond formation. Hence, the impurity is called the donor impurity.
There will be as many free electrons made available as the number of donor atoms. In addition, equal number of
free electrons and holes become available due to bond breaking. Hence, there are more free electrons than holes.
The majority charge carriers being free electrons which are negative, the kind of semico
semiconductor
nductor obtained is called an
n − type semiconductor.
p-type semiconductor
Consider an intrinsic semiconductor in pure form such as germanium or silicon. Let a few atoms of a trivalent
element like aluminium be added. An aluminium atom added forms only three covalent bonds with its neighbours
and one bond is left incomplete. As a result, a hole is formed. Thus, every aluminium atom added forms a hole which
behaves like a positive charge. The impurity of this kind creates new energy levels which can accept valence electrons
and hence is called acceptor impurity.
There will be as many holes as the number of acceptor atoms. In addition, equal number of holes and free electrons
are formed due to bond breaking. Hence, there are more holes than free electrons. The majority charge carriers
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
iconductor obtained is called p − type
being holes which behave like positive charges, the kind of semiconductor
semiconductor.

pn − junction
The pn − junction is a junction between a p − type
semiconductor and a n − type semiconductor. In a
single piece of pure semiconductor, one half is doped
with p − type impurity and the other half is doped
with n − type impurity. The plane separating the two
regions is known as pn − junction .
Consider a pn − junction that has just been formed.
At that instant, electrons are still in n − region and
holes are still in p − region. Due to this concentration
difference, electrons
ns and holes diffuse across the
junction. Then free electrons and holes combine to
produce a very narrow region at the junction known
as charge depletion region. The width of the charge
depletion region is about 10−6 m and it contains
immobile
mmobile positive and negative ions. However, the net
charge in the charge depletion region is zero.
Diffusion of electrons and holes stops after a while due to the presence of immobile ions in the depletion region.
Although depletion region does not have mobile
mobile charges, it still has oppositely charged fixed rows of ions on its two
sides. Due to these immobile ions, an electric potential difference is developed across the junction. This potential
difference is known as junction potential difference or contact potential difference (VB ) . It is about 0.7V for silicon
and 0.3V for germanium.
The significance of this potential difference is that it opposes the flow of holes and electrons across the junction. For
this reason, junction potential difference is called a potential barrier or potential hill (VB ) .

Figure (a) show a pn − junction and

Figure (b) show barrier potential under no bias.
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Semiconductor diode
A semiconductor diode shown in figure (a) is basically a
pn − junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends
for application of external voltage. It is a two terminal
device. A semiconductor diode is symbolically represented
in figure (b). Usually, the p − side is called anode and n −
side is called the cathode. The direction of the arrow
indicates the direction of the current under forward bias.
The barrier potential can be altered by applying an
external voltage V across the diode.
The potential difference across a pn − junction can be
applied in two ways- forward biasing and reverse biasing.

Forward biased pn-junction

When p − region of a pn − junction is connected to tthehe positive terminal of an external battery and n − region is
connected to the negative terminal, the pn − junction is said to be forward biased.
Figure (a) shows a forward biased pn − junction. The junction is said to be forward biased because it permits easy
flow of current across the junction.

In forward biasing, the applied voltage opposes the junction potential difference. Due to this, the potential barrier is
considerably decreased and the width of the charge depletion region becomes very thin thin. The majory charge
carriers, electrons in the n − region and holes in the p − region are repelled by the applied voltage and move
towards the junction.
tion. On crossing the junction, the electrons and holes combine.
Therefore, an electric current will flow due to the diffusion of majority charge carriers across the junction. This
current is called as forward current.. Further, a small increase in applied voltage causes a large increase in forward
current.
Therefore, the resistance of pn − junction is low in the forward biased condition and the current is large ( mA ) .
Note: The effective barrier potential becomes (VB − V ) , { fig (b)} where V = external applied voltage and
VB = Junction potential or barrier potential.

Reverse biased pn-junction

When p − region of a pn − junction is connected to the negative terminal of an external battery and n − region is
connected to the positive terminal, the pn − junction is said to be reverse biased.
Figure(c) shows a reverse biased pn − junction. In reverse biasing, the applied voltage supports the junction
potential difference. The majority charge carriers in the p − region and n − region move away from the junction.
Therefore, the width of the charge depletion region becomes more and there is no conduction of charges across the
junction due to majority charge carriers.
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
rge carriers i.e., holes in n − region and electrons in p − region, diffuse across the
However, a few minority charge
junction due to large applied voltage. They constitute a small current and is known as reverse current or leakage
current.. Since, a large change in applied voltage shows very small increase in reverse current, the resistance of pn −
junction is extremely high in the reverse biased condition and the current is small ( µ A ) .
Note: The effective barrier potential becomes (VB + V ) , { fig (d )} where V = external applied voltage and
VB = Junction potential or barrier potential.

Little extra!
extra!

In extrinsic semiconductor, the number of holes and electrons are unequal. The conductivity is mainly due majority
charge carriers. The conductivity depends mainly on concentration of impurity atoms.
The semiconductor`s energy band structure is affected by doping.
In intrinsic semiconductors, additional energy states exist due to donor impurity and acceptor impurity.
In n − type semiconductor, the donor impurity level ED is slightly below the bottom of the conduction band EC as
shown in figure (a) and electrons will move into conduction band with very small supply of energy of about 0.01eV .
Similarly, in p − type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level E A is slightly above the top EV of the valence band
as shown in figure (b). With a small supply of energy ( 0.01eV − 0.05eV ) , electrons from valence band jump
jum to the
level E A and ionize the acceptor atoms negatively.
In a semiconductor, if the electron concentration is ne and hole concentration is nh , then ne nh = ni2 where ni is the
intrinsic carrier concentration.
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Semiconductor diode characteristics:

Figure ( a ) for forward bias and fig ( b ) is for reverse bias. A variable voltage source is connected to the diode. The
voltage V across the diode is measured using the voltmeter. The current I through the diode is measured using
miliammeter ( mA ) for forward bias and using microammeter ( µ A ) for reverse bias.

In forward bias as shown in figure ( a ) , the voltage V across the diode is increased from zero in small steps of say,
0.02V and the current I in the miliammeter is read in each step. The graph of voltage V against current I is drawn.
It is observed that the initially current increases slowly. But, beyond a certain voltage called threshold voltage or cut-
in voltage the current sharply rises with increase in voltage and the graph becomes almost linear as shown in fig ( c ) .
(Cut-in voltage is about 0.3V for germanium diode and about 0.7V for silicon diode).

In reverse bias shown in fig ( b ) , the voltage V across the diode is increased in steps of 1V . The current I is read on
the microammeter in each step and a graph of voltage V against current I is drawn. In reverse bias, the current is
very small ( µ A ) and it remains almost a constant with increase in voltage. It is called reverse saturation current.
Beyond a certain voltage called breakdown voltage, the current suddenly increases. Commonly, the diodes are used
well below the breakdown voltage.

∆V
In the linear part of the curve for forward bias, the dynamic forward resistance is called as Rd = and the static
∆I
V
forward resistance is called as Rs = . These resistances are in the region of a few ohm.
I
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
∆V
Similarly, in the linear part of the curve for reverse bias, the dynamic reverse resistance is calculated as rd =
∆I
V
and static reverse resistance is calculated as rs =
6
. Usually, these resistances are about 10 ohm.
I
Rectifiers: Rectifier is a circuit that converts an ac signal into dc signal. The unidirectional conducting property of a
diode is used in the construction of a rectifier.

Semiconductor diode as a half-wave rectifier

The primary of a transformer is connected to ac
mains. An ac voltage of suitable value appears
across the secondary coil ( AB ) of the transformer.
The voltage appearing across the secondary coil of
the transformer becomes the input of the rectifier.
Consider the half cycle when A is positive and B is
negative. The diode is forward biased and hence it
conducts. A current flows through the load RL from
X to Y . Since diode offers negligible resistance in
forward bias, the entire voltage across secondary of
transformer appears across RL as output voltage.

During the next half-cycle, A will be negative and

B positive. Then, the diode is reverse biased. This
means that the diode offers infinitely large
resistance and hence it does not conduct. Thus, the
negative half of the input wave is not conducted
and hence, no output voltage appears across RL .

Again A becomes positive and B become negative

and the cycle of operations repeats itself. Since only
the alternate half waves are conducted, the circuit is called a half-wave rectifier.
Note: The output of a half- wave rectifier is not steady but pulsating dc.

Diode as a full wave rectifier

The primary of a transformer is connected to ac mains. The secondary coil has a centre tap O . Two diodes D1 and
D2 are connected, as shown, to the secondary coil of the transforme
transformer. RL is a load resistance across which the
output is taken.

Consider the half-cycle when A is positive and B is negative. The diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is
reverse biased. D1 offers negligibly low resistance while D2 offers infinitely large resistance. The result is that D1
conducts and D2 does not. Because of the conducting action of diode D1 , a current I L flows through the load RL
from X to Y .

During the next half cycle, A will be negative and B will be positive. Therefore, D2 is forward biased and D1 is
reverse biased. The result is that D2 offers negligibly low resistance and conducts while D1 offers infinitely large
resistance and does not conduct. Because of the conduction action of diode D2 , a current flows from X to Y .
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Again A becomes positive and B becomes negative and
the cycle of operations repeats. Thus, the current through
the load flows in the same direction X to Y for the entire
cycle. In other words, both halves of the input wave are
conducted. Thus, the circuit works as a full––wave rectifier.
Note: 1. The output of a full wave rectifier is not steady
but fluctuating.
Note: 2. In order to get a steady output voltage, the
variation in the output voltage should be reduced. This is
done by using a filter circuit consisting of inductor and
capacitor.
Note: 3. Instead of central tap arrangement, four diodes
can be connected in the form of a closed network. The
arrangement is called a bridge rectifier and it also works
as a full - wave rectifier.

Special purpose pn-junction diodes

We have studied that semiconductor diodes can be used
for rectification purpose. There are other types of pn −
junction diodes developed for different purposes. They are
1. Zener diode 2. Light emitting diode ( LED ) 3. Photodiode and 4. Solar cell.
Zener diode
A properly doped junction diode which has a sharp reverse breakdown voltage is called a Zener diode.
A Zener diode is designed specially to operate in the reverse breakdown voltage region continuously without being
damaged. It was invented by C. Zener. Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator.
Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping both the p − and n − sides of the junction. Due to this, the depletion

( ) ( )
region formed is very thin < 10 −6 m and the electric field of the junction is very high ~ 5 × 106 Vm −1 even for a
he I − V characteristics of a Zener diode is as shown in the figure.
small reverse bias voltage of about 5V . The
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
It is seen that when the applied reverse bias voltage reaches the breakdown voltage (VZ ) of the Zener diode, there
is a large change in the current. After the breakdown voltage (VZ ) , a large change in current can be produced by
very small change in the reverse bias voltage. In other words, the Zener voltage remains constant; eventhough
current through the Zener diode varies over a wide range. This property is used for regulating the supply voltages so
that they are constant.
Two things are worth noting about the Zener diode.
A Zener diode is always reverse biased because it operates in the reverse breakdown region.
A Zener diode has a sharp reverse breakdown voltage called Zener voltage (VZ ) .
When a Zener diode is forward biased (it is never connected in this way), its forward characteristic is just like that
of an ordinary junction diode.

Zener diode as a voltage regulator

One of the most important uses of Zener
diode is in making the constant voltage
power supply. The circuit diagram for a
voltage regulator using a Zener diode is
as shown in the figure.
The unregulated (fluctuating) dc voltage
(filtered output of a rectifier) is
connected to the Zener diode which is
reverse biased. If the input voltage
increases, beyond the Zener breakdown
voltage (VZ ) , current through RS and
also the Zener diode increase sharply. This increases the voltage drop across RS without any change in the voltage
across the Zener diode. This is because, in the breakdown region, the Zener voltage remains constant eventhough
current through the Zener diode changes.

Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current through RS and also the Zener diode decreases. Then voltage
drop across RS decreases without any change in the voltage across the Zener diode. Thus, any increase or decrease
in the input voltage results in the increase or decrease in the voltage drop across the resistance RS but the voltage
across the Zener diode remains constant. Therefore, a constant output voltage acts across the load RL .

Let Vi be the unregulated input voltage, Vo be the regulated output voltage and (VZ ) be the Zener voltage
(breakdown voltage).

If Vi < Vz then V0 = Vi

If Vi > Vz then V0 = Vz (for any value of Vi )

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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Photodiode:
biased silicon or germanium pn − junction in which reverse current increases when the
A photodiode is a reverse-biased
junction is exposed to light.
The reverse current in a photodiode is
directly proportional to the intensity of
light falling on its pn − junction. This
means that greater the intensity of light
falling on the pn-junction of photodiode,
the greater will be the reverse current.
The circuit connection for a photodiode
is as shown in the figure. In reverse bias,
the current through the junction is due
to minority charge carriers. When the
photodiode is kept under dark condition
and a sufficient reverse voltage is
applied, an almost constant current,
independent of the magnitude of reverse
bias is obtained. It is called dark current.. Suppose such a pn − diode is illuminated with light photons having energy

( )
greater than the energy gap hν > Eg . The photon will excite an electron from the valence band to the conduction
band and a electron – hole pair is generated. The electron – hole pairs generated in the depletion layer (or near the
junction) will be separated by the junction potential
potential difference and made to flow across the junction. As a result,
there will be an increase in reverse saturation current as shown in the figure. The reverse saturation current
increases with increase in intensity of light incident on photodiode.
Photodiodes are used
In switching circuits.
To detect both visible and invisible radiations.
To measure intensity of radiation.
As light meters in cameras.
In optical communication.
In logic circuits.

Light emitting diode (LED)

A light emitting diode (LED) is a diode that gives off visible light
when forward biased.
It is a heavily doped pn − junction diode which under forward
bias emits spontaneous radiation. The diode is covered with a
transparent cover so that the emitted light may come ou
out.
Working: When pn − junction is forward biased, the movement of majority charge carriers takes place across the
nd holes move from p − side to n −
junction. The electrons move from n − side to p − side through the junction and
side through the junction. As a result of it, the concentration of minority carriers increases rapidly
ra at the junction
boundary. These
hese minority carriers recombine with majority carriers near the junction. As a result, energy is released
in the form of photons. Photons with energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap are emitted. When forward
current of the diode is small, the intensity of light emitted is small. As forward current increases, the intensity of light
increases and reaches a maximum.
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
The V − I characteristics of a LED is similar to that of a Si or Ge junction diode. But the threshold voltages are much
higher. The reverse breakdown voltage of LEDs are very low (about 5V).
The colour of the emitted light depends on the type of semiconductor used for the light emitting diode.
Gallium arsenide : infrared radiation
Gallium arsenide phosphide : Red or yellow
Gallium phosphide : Red or green
Gallium nitrite : Blue
Applications of LED`s
LED`s are used for indicating ON/OFF conditions, power level indicators on stereo amplifiers.
LEDs are used in optical switching devices where fast switching on and off are needed.
LED`s are used in image sensing circuits.
LED`s are used in optical communications.
LED`s are used for solid state video displays, which are replacing cathode ray tubes.
Advantages of LEDs are
Low operational voltage and less
ss power.
Fast action and no warm-up
up time required.
100 0 to 500 A0 or in other words it is nearly monochromatic.
The bandwidth of emitted light is 100A
Long life and ruggedness.
Fast on-off switching capacity.
Give less heat and are less delicate.

Photovoltaic cell or solar cell

A solar cell is basically a pn − junction which generates emf
when solar radiation falls on it.
A solar cell converts light energy into d.c energy and thus acts
as a source
rce of d.c power. Solar cells can supply power for
electronic equipment aboard a satellite over a long period of
time which is a distinct advantage over batteries. A solar cell
works on the same principle as photo-diode diode except that no
external bias is applied. The junction area of these cells is kept
large so that large amount of solar radiation is incident on the
junction.
Figure shows the solar cell circuit.
Working: When hen solar radiation (light photons) falls on the
pn − junction, electron-hole
hole pairs are generated in the
depletion layer. The electrons and holes produced move in
opposite directions due to barrier electric field. The photo
photo-
generated electrons move towards n − side while photo
photo-generated holes move towards the p − side of the junction.
The collection of these charge carriers makes p − side a positive electrode and n − side a negative electrode. When
an external load RL is connected across the terminals of the solar cell, photo current I L flows through the load RL .
The current I L is directly proportional to the intensity of illumination
illumination.

V-I characteristic of solar cell: Figure (b) shows the V-I

V characteristics of the solar cell.
The intersection of the curve with the I L -axis
axis is the short-circuit current I SC corresponding to given light intensity.
The intersection of the curve with the VL -axis
axis is the open-circuit voltage VOC corresponding to given light intensity.
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Note that the I-VV characteristics of solar cell is drawn in the fourth quadrant of the coordinate axes. This is because a
solar cell does not draw current but supplies the same to the load.
Uses of solar cells are
Used for charging batteries during day time so that batteries can supply power during night.
night
To supply power to various electronic equipment in satellites.
In some wrist watches and hand calculators.
To supply power to traffic signs.
In remote radiotelephones.
In light meters in photography.

Junction transistor
The invention of the bipolar transistor in 1948 by John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Bradford
Shockley brought in a revolution in electronics. Understanding how transistors function is of vital importance to
anyone interested
rested in understanding modern electronics. In communication systems, it is used as the fundamental
component of the amplifier. In digital electronics, transistor is used as a high speed electronic switch.
A transistor is a semiconductor device made of two pn − junctions. There are two types of transistor
transistor- pnp and npn .
A pnp − transistor is a device in which a n − type semiconductor is sandwiched betwe
between two p − type
semiconductors. Similarly, a npn − transistor is a device in which a p − type semiconductor is sandwiched between
two n − type semiconductors. In the transistor symbol,
symbol arrowhead indicates the direction of conventional current
flow.

Transistor terminals
Every transistor has three regions - the
emitter, the base and the collector.
Emitter: The emitter is a region which
is heavily doped and is of moderate
size. The emitter provides a lot of
majority charge carriers (electrons in
npn and holes in pnp transistors) for
conduction.
Base: the base is the central region of a
transistor. It is very small and is very
lightly doped. It acts as a control
terminal.
Collector: The collector is a region
which is moderately doped and largest
in size. The collector collects the charge
carriers emitted by the emitter.

Action of transistor
Whenever a transistor is used, emitter-base
base junction is always forward biased and collector
collector-base
base junction is reverse
biased. Two terminals are needed for applying bias to the junction. Since a transistor has only three terminals, one
terminal is made common n to the input and the output regions.
Accordingly, there are three combinations possible: common-base (CB), common-collector collector (CC) and common-
emitter (CE).
But it is common-emitter (CE) configuration which is widely used. Moreover, the commonly used transistorstran are
npn − Si transistors. Hence, we consider for our discussions only npn − transistor in common emitter (CE) mode. For
pnp − transistors, the polarities of the external power supplies hav
have to be reversed.
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
The heavily doped emitter has a high concentration of majority charge carriers, which are holes ( o ) in pnp −
transistor and electrons ( • ) in npn − transistor. These majority carriers enter the base region in large numbers. This
results in emitter current I E . The base is thin and lightly doped. So, the majority carriers in the base would be few.

Action of pnp-transistor
Figure shows the action of pnp − transistor. Base is a common terminal for the two power supplies VEE and VCC
whose other terminals are connected to emitter and collector respectively. The power supplies VEE and VCC are
connected such that emitter-base
base junction is forward biased and collector
collector-base
base junction is reverse biased.
bia In this
state.. The voltage between emitter and base is VEB and that between
case, the transistor is said to be in active state
collector and base is VCB .

In pnp − transistor, the majority carriers

iers in the
base are electrons (since base is n − type). When
large number of holes from the emitter enter the
base, only a few holes get neutralized by the
electron-hole
hole combination. This results in a small
base current I B . The remaining large number of
holes enter the collector region on account of high
negative potential of the collector. This results in a
collector current I C . The base is made very thin so
that most of the holes find themselves near the
reverse-biased collector-base
base junction. So they
cross the junction, instead of moving to the base
terminal.

Applying KVL to the circuit, we get I E = I B + I C , where I E is towards whereas I B and I C are away from the
junction.

Action of npn-transistor
In npn − transistor, the majority carriers in the

base are holes (since base is p − type). When large

number of electrons from the emitter enter the

base, a few of them get neutralized by the holes in
the base. This results in the base current I B . The

remaining large number of electrons enter the

collector since the base is very thin and the
collector is at high positive potential. This results in

a collector current I C .

Applying KVL to the circuit, we get I E = I B + I C ,

where I E is away whereas I B and I C are towards the junction. Usually I B is very small compared to I E and I C .

( I C and I E are in millliampere whereas I B is in microampere).

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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Common-emitter
emitter (CE) transistor characteristics
When a transistor is used in CE configuration, the input is
between the base and the emitter while the output is
between the collector and the emitter.

The variation of base current I B with base

base-emitter voltage
VBE keeping collector-emitter voltage VCE constant is called
the input characteristic.

The variation of the collector current I C with collector-

emitter voltage VCE keeping the base current I B fixed is
called output characteristic.
The input and the output characteristics of an npn − transistor can
be studied using the circuit shown in fig (a)..

To study the input characteristic of the transistor, the voltage VCE

between the collector and the emitter is kept fixed at a suitable
value and the base current I B is noted for various values of VBE . A
graph is plotted between base current I B and the base-emitter
voltage VBE . The curve obtained is as shown in the figure (b). The
T
input characteristics for different values of VCE give almost
identical curves.
To study the output characteristics of the transistor, the base
current I B is kept constant at a suitable value and the collector
collecto
current I C is noted for various values of collector-emitter
collector voltage
VCE . A graph is plotted between I C and VCE . The curve obtained is
as show in figure (c). The plot of I C versus VCE is obtained for
different fixed values of I B . There will be different output
characteristics for different values of I B as shown in figure (c).

From the linear segments of the input and output characteristics, we can calculate the following important
parameters of transistors.

Input resistance ( ri ) : This is defined as the ra

ratio of change in base-emitter voltage ( ∆VBE ) to the resulting change in

 ∆VBE 
base current ( ∆I B ) at constant collector-emitter
emitter voltage (VCE ) . That is ri =  
 ∆I B VCE
Input resistance ri will be equal to the reciprocal of the slope in the linear part of input characteristic shown in fig (b).
Output resistance ( ro ) : This is defined as the ratio of change in collector
collector-emitter voltage ( ∆VCE ) to the change in

 ∆VCE 
collector current ( ∆I C ) at the constant base current ( I B ) . That is ro =   . Output resistance ro is equal
 ∆I C  I B
to the reciprocal of the slope in the linear part of the output characteristic shown in fig (c)
 16
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Current amplification factor ( β ) : This is defined as the ratio of change in collector current ( ∆I C ) to the change in
base current ( ∆I B ) at a constant collector--emitter voltage (VCE ) .

 ∆I C 
That is β ac =   . This is also known as small signal current gain.
 ∆I B VCE
IC
The ratio of I C and I B is called β dc of the transistor. i.e., β dc =
IB
Both β ac and β dc are nearly equal and they vary with VCE as well as I B (or I C ) slightly.

Transistor as a Switch
Consider a circuit using npn − transistor in the
common emitter configuration as shown in
figure (a). Applying Kirchhoff`s voltage law to
the input side of this circuit, we get
−VBB + I B RB + VBE = 0
or VBB = I B RB + VBE − − − − − − − − − (1)
In the case of Si transistor, VBE is 0.6V to
0.7V .
Applying KVL to the output circuit, we get,
−VCC + I C RC + VCE = 0
or VCE = VCC − I C RC − − − − − − − (2)
We shall treat VBB as dc input voltage Vi and
VCE as dc output voltage Vo .
Therefore, equations (1) and (2) becomes
Vi = I B RB + VBE − − − − − − − − − (3)
Vo = VCC − I C RC − − − − − − − − − (4)
Now we shall try to understand how Vo changes as Vi increases from zero onwards for a Si transistor.
(1). When Vi < 0.6V , it is not able to forward bias the transistor and there is no collector current ( I C = 0 ) . Now the
transistor will be in cut off state. From equation (4), we have Vo = VCC .
(2). When Vi > 0.6V but less than nearly 1.0V , there will be some collector current I C . From equation (4), it is
found that as I C increases, the value of output voltage Vo decreases. With the increase of Vi beyond 0.6V , I C
increases almost linearly and so, Vo decreases linearly till Vi becomes nearly 1.0V . In this situation, transistor is in
active state.
(3). When Vi ≥ 1.0V , variation of Vo with Vi is non-linear. Because with the increase in Vi , Vo is found to decrease
towards zero but it never becomes zero. In this situation, the collector current I C becomes maximum and the
transistor is in saturation state.
If we plot a graph between Vi and Vo , we get a curve as shown in the figure (b). It is called transfer characteristics of
the base biased transistor in CE configuration
configuration.
 17
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
The transition from cut off state to active state and from
active state to saturation state are not sharply defined as
indicated by the non-linear
linear region in the graph.

From the above discussion, we note that as long as Vi is

low (less than 0.6V for Si), Vo is high and it is equal to VCC .
The collector current I C is nearly equal to zero. Now the
transistor is not working and it is in the cut off state or in
the switched off state. If Vi is high (more than 1.0V ), Vo
is low and it is nearly equal to zero. In this case, I C is
nearly maximum or saturated. Now, the transistor is fully
conducting and it is said to be switched on statestate. This
shows that, we can define low input state as below a
certain voltage corresponding to cut off and high input
state as above a certain voltage corresponding to saturation of the transistor. Then, low input switches the transistor
off and high input switches the transistor on. The switching circuits are designed in ssuch
uch a way that the transistor
does not remain in active state.
Concept of an amplifier: An amplifier is a device which is used for increasing the amplitude of variation of alternating
voltage or current or power.. The amplifier thus produces an enlarged ver
version
sion of the input signal.

Transistor as an amplifier (CE configuration)

Principle: A small change
in the base current causes
a larger change in the
collector current. This is
the underlying principle of
the transistor amplifier.
Circuit: Figure shows an
npn − transistor amplifier
in CE mode. VCC reverse
biases the collector-base
junction and VBB (lower
voltage) forward biases
the emitter-base junction.
RB is a resistor to limit
the base current to a convenient value. RC is the resistor in the collector circuit and this forms the load across which
the output is taken. ( vi ) is an ac voltage source providing the signal to be amplified. Capacitor at input allows the ac
signal to reach the base of the transistor but blocks dc. The capacitor at output allows only the ac at the output.
The condition necessary for the amplifier to work is that the base emitter junction must be forw
forward biased and the
collector base junction should be reverse biased.
Action: The
he circuit connections are made as shown in the figure (a) such that emitter junction is forward biased and
collector junction is reverse biased with the help of power supplies VBB and VCC respectively. When the signal ( vi ) is
impressed to the base, the effective voltage between base and emitter changes periodically. Therefore, base current
 18
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
fluctuates sinusoidally. This changing current through load RB develops a large a.c output voltage ( vo ) across RC .
Because of reverse bias of collector junction, there is a phase difference of 1800 between signal ( vi ) and output

( vo ) as shown in the above wave form.

Little more!

Phase relationship between input and output

During the positive half cycle of input signal, the forward bias of emitter-base junction increases. Due to this, the emitter current
increases and consequently the collector current increases. As a result of this, the collector voltage VCE decreases and therefore
the output voltage Vo decreases. Since collector is connected to the positive terminal of battery VCC , the decrease in collector
voltage means the collector becomes less positive (or negative with respect to initial value). Thus, during positive half cycle of
input voltage signal, the output voltage signal varies through a negative half cycle.

When the negative half cycle of the input signal comes, the forward bias of emitter–base junction decreases. As a result, the
emitter current decreases and hence collector current decreases. Therefore, the collector voltage VCE increases and the
collector become more positive. This indicates that during the negative half cycle of input voltage signal, the output signal varies
through positive half cycle.

Thus, in common-emitter amplifier circuit, the input voltage signal and the output voltage signal are opposite in phase or 1800
out of phase, as shown in the above wave form.

1. ac current gain: ac current gain ( β ac ) is defined as the ratio of change in collector current ( ∆I C ) to the
corresponding change in base current ( ∆I B ) at constant collector-emitter junction voltage( VCE =constant).
∆I C
That is β ac = at VCE = constant.
∆I B
2. dc current gain: dc current gain ( β dc ) is defined as the ratio of collector current ( I C ) to the base current ( I B ) .
IC
That is β dc = . Since I C > I B , we have β dc or β ac > 1 .
IB
3. ac voltage gain: ac voltage gain of the amplifier is defined as the ratio of the change in output voltage ( ∆Vo ) to
∆Vo ∆I C × Ro R
change in input voltage ( ∆Vi ) . That is, AV = = = β ac × o
∆Vi ∆I B × Ri Ri
R 
where , Ri is the input resistance and Ro is the output resistance of the circuit.  o  is known as resistance gain.
 Ri 
4. ac power gain: ac power gain is defined as the ratio of the change in output power to the change in input
power. That is,
∆P ( ∆I C ) × Ro
2
R
ac power gain = o = = β ac2 × o
∆Pi ( ∆I B ) × Ri
2
Ri

or ac power gain = β ac × AV
 19
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Transistor as an oscillator:
An oscillator is a device which can produce undamped electromagnetic oscillations of desired frequency and
amplitude.
In an amplifier, a sinusoidal input is given which
appears as an amplified signal in the output. It means
that an external input is necessary to sustain ac signal in
the output for an amplifier. In oscillator, we get ac
output without any external input signal. gnal. In other
words, the output in an oscillator is self-sustained
sustained. To
attain this, an amplifier is taken and a portion of the
output power is returned back (feedback) to the input,
in phase with the starting power (positive feedback) as
shown in the block diagram (a).
Essential parts of an oscillator
1. Tank circuit:: It consists of inductance coil L connected in parallel with capacitor C . The frequency of oscillations
1
is given by: f =
2π LC
By changing the value of L or C (or both), oscillations of any desired frequency can be obtained.
2. Transistor amplifier:: The oscillations occurring in the LC circuit are applied to the input of the transistor
amplifier. Because of amplifying properties of the transistor, we get an amplified output of these oscillations. A
suitable fraction of the output of transistor is fed to LC circuit to meet the losses in LC circuit. Output from the
LC circuit can be obtained through transformer action.
3. Feedback circuit:: It is a circuit which receives output of the
transistor and supplies correct amount of energy to LC
circuit to meet the losses (including output power).

Transistor LC oscillator
Figure shows the essential parts of a tuned collector oscillator.
It contains tuned circuit L1C1 in the collector and hence the
name. The feedback coil L2 in the base circuit is magnetically
coupled to the tank circuit coil L1 . In practice, L1 and L2 form
primary and secondary of transformer. The
he biasing is provided
by potential divider arrangement.
Working:
1. When switch S is closed, collector current starts increasing and charges the capacitor C1 . When the capacitor is
1
fully charged, it discharges through coil L1 , setting up oscillations of frequency given by f = . These
2π L1C1
oscillations induce some voltage in the coil L2 by mutual induction. The frequency of voltage in coil L2 is the same as
that of L1C1 circuit but its magnitude depends upon the number of turns of L2 and coupling between L1 and L2 .
2. The voltage across L2 is applied between base and emitter and appears in the amplified form in the collector
circuit, thus, overcoming the losses occurring in the L1C1 circuit. The number of turns of L2 and coupling between
 20
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
L1 and L2 are so adjusted that oscillations across L2 are amplified to a level just sufficient to supply losses to the tank
circuit ( L1C1 circuit).

Digital Electronics and Logic circuits

In the modern world of science and in particular electronics, the term digital is more often used. Every area of life is
influenced one way or the other by a digital computer. Automatic savings, checking and savings acc accounts of a bank,
credit card accounts, income taxes, airline tickets are only a few of the functions controlled by large computer
systems.
The semiconductor industry provided the first commercially available digital ICs in the early 1960s. These devices
werere used to develop smaller, faster, economical and more powerful digital computers. Today, digital circuits and
systems are found in almost every field of electronics. Digital circuits are found in compact discs, VCRs and television.
The list is almost endless.
Logic gate: A logic gate is a digital circuit that works according to some logical relationship between input and output
voltages. A logic gate will have one or more inputs and only one output.
Truth table:: A table giving the output for different combinations of the input is called the truth table.
Below we have device symbols and truth table for some basic logic gates.

Integrated circuits (IC):: Integrated circuit is that

t circuit in which the components like resistors, capacitors, diodes and
transistors etc are automatically part a small semiconductor chip. IC consists of a number of circuit components and
their inter-connections
connections within a small chip of semiconducting material.

Advantages:
1. It requires very small space.
2. It is highly reliable.
3. Its total cost is low.
4. It has lesser weight.
5. It requires low power to operate.
Limitations:
1. If any component in an IC goes out of order, the whole IC has to be replaced by a new one.
2. It is not possible to produce high powers.