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ONLINE FILE W2.1: THE MMS RUNNING CASE

The fictional decision-making case provided here is loosely based on several real
situations. Thanks to Professor Elena Karahanna at The University of Georgia for
inspiring it.

Application Case W2.1.1

our new scheduling module of CLAUDIA. I know you
PART 1: THE INTELLIGENCE PHASE
have all read my e-mail about our latest problem—
MMS Rent-a-Car, based in Atlanta, Georgia, has outlets at sales are off by 10 percent. Basically, this will put us in
major airports and cities throughout North America. the red for the year if it continues for another four
Founded by CEO Elena Markum some seven years ago, it months. CLAUDIA’s forecasting system that links to
has seen fast growth over the past few years, mainly because our RMS (revenue management system) indicates that
it offers quality service, fast, at convenient locations. MMS is sales will continue to decrease for the next four
highly competitive, able to offer cars at slightly lower rates months, even after we adjust prices. Folks, what’s going
than its competitors because most of its airport facilities are on? I want to know what has caused this problem, how
located near but not at the airport. A keen user of informa- we can fix it, and how we can prevent it from happen-
tion systems, MMS tracks competitors’ prices, stored in a ing again. Aside from solving the problem, I want to
large data warehouse, through its Web-based enterprise develop some knowledge about it and use it as an
information system portal, CLAUDIA (Come Learn About opportunity to improve our business.
statUs for Deals and Information on Autos). CLAUDIA
MARLA: Frankly, Elena, I don’t understand it! I noticed
also tracks sales, fleet status, other internal status informa-
a slight dip in sales two months ago but was so busy
tion, and external information about the economy and its
with our new fleet acquisitions that I planned to go
relevant components. CLAUDIA has been a great success
back and look into what happened when I finished
in keeping MMS competitive.
replacing the fleet later this week. I should have passed
word on to our analysts to have a look back then. Sorry.
Problems
Elena has called a meeting of her vice presidents to dis- ELENA: No problem, Marla. I should have noticed it
cuss a problem that she noticed yesterday while tapping myself. I’m glad you were at least aware and ready to
into CLAUDIA. Rentals are off about 10 percent nation- move on it. So, we have evidence of a problem. What
ally from the MMS projections for last month. else do we have?
Furthermore, CLAUDIA’s forecasts indicate that they SHARON: My up-to-date reports from the travel industry
will continue to decrease. Elena wants to know why. This indicate that over the past six months, there has been
morning, the following VPs are present: a slight increase in business overall. More people are
flying for business meetings, conventions, trade shows,
Sharon Goldman, Marketing (CMO)
and pleasure. And the same proportion of them is rent-
Michael Lee, Operations (COO) ing cars in North America. This is true for all of our
Marla Dana, Fleet Acquisitions (CFAO) primary markets—major cities and airports—but
Tonia van de Stam, Information Systems (CIO) not for our secondary markets in the smaller cities,
where most rentals are for business. Overall, business
Mark Lams, Knowledge Systems (CKO) should be up. Vacation business is up quite a bit from
Jelene Thompson, Accounting (CAO) the central Florida theme parks advertising specials
Rose Franklin, Finance (CFO) and major conventions. Both political party conven-
tions were held in major cities. Data indicate that our
The First Meeting rentals did not increase while the total market did. Our
earlier forecasts indicated that business should have
Elena calls the meeting to order:
increased; our rental rates reflect this, as does our
ELENA: Thank you all for coming on such short notice. increased fleet size, by 15 percent. The cars should be
I’m glad that we could schedule this meeting through moving—but they’re not!
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ELENA: How about the advertising impacts? ELENA: How about the other classes of cars?
ROSE: Our financials indicate that we have been spend- MICHAEL: Rentals are down about 8 percent nationally
ing more on advertising in our primary markets. Yet on all the other ones.
those are where our sales are dropping fastest. ELENA: So sales are down 8 percent for everything but the
JELENE: I agree. Though our records were about three Spider, and the Spider, which should be a hot seller, is off
weeks behind, now they are up to date: and they’ll stay by 50 percent. I know from CLAUDIA that our inven-
up to date, thanks to our upgrade to CLAUDIA. I’m tory is okay. All the new cars came in on schedule, and
looking at the current data right now on our secure we were able to sell the used cars through electronic
wireless network, and we’re definitely down. auction sites and carmax.com. Folks, we definitely have
ELENA: Okay. Our advertising expenditures are up. That’s a big problem.
because we made that deal with GMC (Gold Motors MICHAEL: As COO, I see that this is primarily my prob-
Corporation). We just finished replacing our entire fleet lem, though all of you here are involved. We’ve never
with GMC cars and vans, right, Marla? had this happen before, so I really don’t know how to
classify the problem. But I think we can get at most of
MARLA: Absolutely! The cars are much more reliable and
the information we need. This situation is only a symp-
cheaper to maintain than the ones that had the transmis-
tom of the problem. We need to identify the cause so
sions burning out every 45,000 miles [72,000 km]. These
we can correct the problem. I want some time to get my
cars and vans are the national best-sellers, have great
analysts, and Tonia’s moving on it. I will need some
reputations, and are of high quality. They have the high-
major help from Sharon’s people, and probably a bit
est safety records in most categories. All of the standard
from everyone else. Sharon and I talked before the
models came in first: subcompacts, compacts, mid-size,
meeting. We both have a feeling that there is something
full-size, and minivans. About six weeks ago, we started
wrong with how we are marketing the new cars, but we
getting in the hot new GMC Spider 1600 convertible.We
don’t have enough information just yet to identify it.
have an exclusive deal on this hot little number. It looks
I hope that once we solve this problem, we’ll have a
like the sporty 1971 Fiat Spider but is built to new qual-
nice piece of strategic knowledge for Mark to put into
ity standards. It’s fun to drive—they let me have one for
the knowledge management system (KMS). I’ll tenta-
a year before we got the fleet in! They are expensive, and
tively schedule a meeting through CLAUDIA next
GMC owns the domestic market. We should be able to
week, as close to this time as possible, depending on
rent these out all the time. We have 5 at each agency
people’s previous commitments. I’ll e-mail the major
across the country, and by year’s end, we should have 10.
results as we go. I’m sure we’ll know something before
SHARON: We got an exclusive with them for the next the next meeting.
three years. They only give the fleet discount to us, we
ELENA: Thanks Michael. Okay, folks! We know we have
feature their cars in our advertising, and they feature us
a serious problem. We’ve seen its effects. Michael will
in theirs. And the Spider came to us right off the new
assume ownership and move ahead. I also want our IS
assembly line in Pittsburgh.
analysts looking at data even before anyone requests
ELENA: I have one of the Spiders, too. So I suspect that them. That includes any weird economic trends or
they’re constantly rented out, aren’t they? events—and look at the underlying structure and para-
MICHAEL: Well, no. Only about half of them are rented. meters of our forecasting models, okay, Tonia? Sharon,
The rental rates were supposed to be set pretty high, you look into the advertising. See if there are any
but our RMS recommends setting it at the same price external events or trends or reports on the cars that
as a compact. We hedged a little and set the price to could affect our rentals. The RMS has been accurate
about 10 percent higher. Some local agency offices are until now. It’s been able to balance price, supply, and
overriding the system and setting the prices 15 percent demand, but something happened. Thank you all and
less, and they still can’t move them. have a great day.

Application Case W2.1.2

PART 2: THE DESIGN PHASE

Later on the day of the first meeting, Michael Lee has his gram). He was still trying to understand the problem and
top analyst, Stephanie Elberson, look into what might separate the problem that could be analyzed from the
have happened. Michael recognized that it was too early symptoms. He wanted to make the connection between
to start looking into criteria, solutions, and more (he had the two, but he felt that something was fundamentally
studied decision making in a DSS course in his MBA pro- wrong, and CLAUDIA could not identify it. A good
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decision maker relies on judgment and has a good feel for of the features that CLAUDIA has, but it allows us to
what makes sense and what does not. Michael is one of look into multidimensional data from any of our data
the best. sources in any “slice” we choose. It also lets us link into
Stephanie put together a team of analysts and started other databases and data marts like the one that mar-
formulating areas to investigate. One member of the team, keting has. Let me start it up!
Dot Frank, worked closely with Sharon’s analyst, Phil PHIL: I agree. I learned how to use the OLAP software
Abrams, to establish the accuracy of the forecasting on my own, and I’ve developed some interesting views
model. Amy Lazbin, on Stephanie’s team, looked into of our marketing data that show relationships we did
databases of operational data available internally and eco- not believe possible. The graphics are almost auto-
nomic data available through subscription services. The matic. Let’s try it!
latter data focused on the auto rental, automobile, and
general economic areas. The analysis team initially set the The team saw the bumps in the data but had no idea
data mining tools on automatic to establish relationships what had caused them. At least they could see them. When
in the data. For the most part, Amy was able to verify most they tapped into the advertising plans, they noticed a
of the relationships and assumptions that were already in slight inverse relationship with sales and advertising.
the forecasting models and the RMS. Nothing new When they asked Phil about it, he said:
popped up from the artificial neural networks, clustering PHIL: Sales dropped two weeks after our new joint-
analysis algorithms, and statistical regression models. The marketing campaign began. We heavily advertised the
pricing model and the forecasting models were all right, new cars. Every national and local TV commercial
though there were some new fluctuations, and the errors prominently displayed the Spider. We have data on
were higher when the team looked into how well they had that in our marketing databases. I know you don’t
performed over the past two months as this new problem normally look at that. Here, let me bring them up.
arose. The team noticed that the neural networks outper- Hmmm! We show how much air time each commercial
formed the regression-based systems a bit, so they set up played where, and what was in them. Let me do a little
an information system and marketing group to look into slicing and aggregating here. Aha! I see. We are mostly
how they could improve the regression-based models with advertising the cars nationally. Sales are very weak in
neural networks. (This was a new opportunity, which led primary markets, but they’re also a bit weak in sec-
them to return to the intelligence phase with a new set of ondary markets. Ah! Ah! Ah! One problem we have is
issues.) distribution. We have over half the cars in the wrong
Stephanie was puzzled. She met with Michael two days places. We need to move all the Spiders from the sec-
later to discuss what she was going to do next. She also ondary markets to the primary markets. But I think we
invited the marketing team and the IS team to each send have another problem: The pricing, supply, and demand
someone to the meeting. Phil Abrams and Marina Laksey data that we are using to predict rentals don’t make
(from IS) joined the team at this point. The meeting was sense. The car officially has an “insurance” back seat, so
held in the electronic meeting center (EMC), where they it is a four-passenger car. But you’d be lucky to get a
would be able to analyze data and use the group support carry-on suitcase back there. Since we didn’t have data
system (GSS). Here’s how the meeting went: on it, someone in our group entered it as a four-seat
compact with two doors. The system thinks it is a car
STEPHANIE: Thank you all for coming today. As you ideal for a small family or a single businessperson on a
know, we are working hard on the problem—or rather budget. These rent well in the Midwest in the sec-
the symptoms—to try to get to the heart of the prob- ondary markets but badly in the convention areas,
lem. Data mining tools helped a bit, but there is some- where there are men who are going through their
thing fundamentally wrong, and we have yet to find it. midlife crises and single women who like to rent sporty
Any ideas? cars. We have a lot of analyses to do here on where we
MARINA: Stephanie, we used the data mining tools and are advertising what. I’m not sure who rents what
looked at most, if not all, of the data we normally look where, but I suspect that we can target our ads better
at. And we usually look at standard views through our once we determine our market clusters—like males in
spreadsheet-type interface. I know we have to look Nebraska, 45 years old, traveling to San Diego for
“outside the box.” First off, the four of us need to fire trade conferences. We have the data; we just need to
up our new, powerful OLAP (online analytical process- apply them better.
ing) software, DOT (Data on Time). It taps into our MICHAEL: Hold on. Before I start moving cars around,
data warehouse and other data, but it goes beyond data we need to analyze this a bit more. We’ve never had
mining by allowing us to poke about in the data. We a car like the Spider, so we need to investigate its
just got the software in two weeks ago, and I have properties and which categories of customers would
already gone through the training course. It has many ideally want it. Part of the solution jumped at us.
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But what are we trying to do? If I remember • Data accuracy. We need to change the profile of
correctly, a few years ago we ran a “try before you the Spider from a compact to a sports car. We need
buy” promotion in conjunction with our previous car to develop the RMS profile from what little data
supplier. People could rent our excess stock on we’ve got. Fortunately, we can tap into market
our off-days for half the rental rate for up to three data that our faculty consultants at The University
days. If they bought the car from a dealer in the area, of Georgia (UGA) have gathered for us in their
they got the rental price back. If not, they had fun research. One of the faculty members drives a
with the car. It worked well. We noticed that people Spider as well.
who liked the car they rented had a tendency to rent • Inventory imbalance. We have done some analysis
them again, especially in our primary markets. We to determine what the real demand for the Spider
have a lot to look into. is, how it affects the demand for other cars, and vice
versa. We built an optimization model and solved it.
I want to recap what we have. We know that our goal is Based on our current advertising, we have deter-
to maximize net profit. This is clearly our principle of mined that by moving about 15 percent of our fleet
choice. We need to come up with criteria that describe around (and not too far), we can take care of most
the impact of alternatives and determine how they of the demand imbalance. We recommend moving
affect our bottom line. Our RMS sets prices so that we all the Spiders from secondary to primary markets
can ideally do that. We have some errors in our market- right away. We also want to move some of our mini-
ing database; we must rethink how we advertise and vans and full-size cars around. Later, we can adjust
how we distribute our stock. Okay. I’ll meet with the advertising to push some secondary market
VP team in a couple of days. I’m going to e-mail them demand.
information about what we’ve uncovered and where to • Advertising imbalance. We advertise where our cus-
find the data. First I’ll talk to Sharon so she can get busy tomers are, but they rent elsewhere, and for different
with some ideas on marketing. reasons. We need to do a better job of identifying
customer homes to determine what to advertise
where. Our analysis shows rentals are off partly
At a Meeting Two Days Later: Same Place, because we indicate that we have the Spider. Young to
Same People middle-aged men and single women want to rent it,
but we stock out where they are going. For example,
STEPHANIE: Good morning. Those of us in the trenches we discovered that middle-aged men and women
think we’ve got it! Here’s what’s going on. We from the Midwest rent compacts in the secondary
have several problems, each of which we have devel- Midwest markets, but those in the primary markets on
oped some alternatives for. We’re going to discuss the coasts want to rent the Spider. We are still analyz-
what we think are the best ones for each situation. ing effects like this and should be able to complete
Some we can implement right away; others will take the work in about a week to determine how to realign
some time. our advertising efforts.
Let’s start with our objective: to maximize profit. • “Try before you buy.” This actually is an opportunity,
Our principle of choice is profit maximization. This not a problem. When we saturate Spider demand in
part of the problem was easy. Our RMS recognizes primary markets, we should get some additional
this and adjusts prices automatically to maximize Spiders in the secondary markets and reestablish the
profit on an annual basis. There are some errors in the “try before you buy” campaign. This car will be a real
price elasticity curve for the Spider, but in general, boon in this effort. Sharon’s group has already estab-
the real question now is how to manage demand. Our lished a cooperative agreement with GMC. They’re
advertising influences demand, as does our inventory. interested, and it should boost our profitability on
We need for the right product to appeal to the right these cars by 18 percent.
customers. There are many criteria that we need to • Discount substitutes. We discovered that many cus-
measure, from quality to color to size, and customer tomers called or got on our Web site to rent the
service, car availability, etc., in terms of how they Spider. When they found out that we didn’t have
affect rentals. We are doing this, but need to do a bet- one for them, rather than rent a different car, many
ter job of it in order to track our rentals. We have a were so annoyed that they rented a car from one of
team analyzing this right now. In a few weeks, they our competitors, usually a Toyota MR-2. This hap-
will have some concrete recommendations for system pened in almost all of our primary markets. In our
upgrades to the RMS. secondary markets, people really didn’t want the
Our symptoms indicate the following real prob- Spider but instead wanted full-size cars. Because
lems and alternatives, among which we can choose: our advertising features the Spider, they “forgot”
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that we rent other cars as well. Actually, we forgot What it boils down to is that we want to be more
to remind them. Our advertising is backfiring on aggressive in balancing our stock to meet demand and
us. We should immediately discount substitutes tie this into the RMS and advertising. We also want to
for the Spider until we get the Spiders in place refine our advertising model to handle new types of
next week. cars, like sports cars, and update demand data more
• Florida theme park demand. We have a unique frequently.
opportunity here. Florida theme parks have been Michael, this is what we want to present to the VPs on
advertising heavily in Europe because the euro is Monday. Is that okay?
strong relative to the dollar. We must increase adver-
tising in Europe either with the theme parks or sepa- MICHAEL: Perfect! We have identified the real prob-
rately. Phil is confident that we can run a joint cam- lems and have good alternatives. I really appreciate
paign. Marketing will look into this and how we the completed staff work (à la Napoleon). If this
might be able to get customers to pay in advance in all works out, the end-of-the-year bonuses for this
euros. To do this, we may need to move minivans to team should be excellent. Let’s go have lunch! I’m
Florida from as far away as Tennessee. buying!

Application Case W2.1.3

PART 3: THE CHOICE PHASE ELENA: Hmmm. Okay. I want those data on the Spider
Monday’s Meeting: With All Vice Presidents, updated immediately—and some of them moved to
Stephanie, and Her Team where they’ll rent.
MARLA: It’s already done. I took steps right away once
ELENA: Thank you again for coming. Stephanie, Michael Michael told me what happened. After all, it’s my
tells me you’re on to something. Let’s hear what you responsibility. I already gave some updated data to IS.
have to say. They’ve adjusted the RMS. Preliminary data indicate
STEPHANIE: Well, we think we’ve discovered what to that they have improved our profitability already. In a
do. But first let me outline what the real problems are couple of markets where it was relatively inexpensive, I
and some suggested solutions and why these are appro- have moved some cars around based on the DSS
priate solutions. model’s recommendation. It worked! I think we should
make the major changes recommended by the solution
Next Stephanie essentially outlines the details from to the model. My estimates, just from these few mar-
the meeting described in Part 3 of the Running Case. kets, are that it will work just as the model predicts.
There is a little discussion to clarify a few points: SHARON: We’re looking into how to modify our market-
ing and tie it into the RMS. We’re also running models
ELENA: Amazing. I’m glad Mark recommended acquir- on how European marketing should work. We’ll know
ing DOT three months ago. Though expensive, it’s in a week what to do.
already paid off. Can you get me specifics on the bot-
ELENA: Excellent! Here’s where we stand. We’re going
tom line for each alternative?
to adjust the profile data of the Spider and all models
STEPHANIE: Not accurate ones for each just yet. Some frequently, move cars around, and discount substitutes
will take up to a couple of weeks. We do have estimates until we can get the imbalance fixed. We’ll decide on
on all of them. Here are the results in my PowerPoint what to do about the other issues after the rest of the
presentation. analysis is completed.

Application Case W2.1.4

PART 4: THE IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

The implementation of the first couple decisions was rela- cars because this could be done as routinely as when there
tively easy. Transport vehicles were rented, and cars were was a normal stockout. A customer would first be offered
moved. Discounts were easy to establish for substitute the opportunity to upgrade. If the customer turned it
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◆ W-16 Online File W2.2: Web Sources for Decision-Making Support Sampler

down, the upgrade would be offered free. This worked 95 even though the problems were not really identified in the
percent of the time, even in the case of the Spider. Sales first phase. Successful problem solving was ultimately
were up, and the company was projected to be profitable accomplished using Web-based DSS.
with these small changes.
Elena got the results of the additional analyses. They Source: This fictional decision-making case is loosely based
all made sense. She decided, with the advice of her VPs on several real situations. Thanks to Professor Elena
and the analysts, to go ahead with all the recommenda- Karahanna at The University of Georgia for inspiring it.
tions, but she held back on European marketing until a
presence in Europe could be established in major mar- CASE QUESTIONS
kets. The “try before you buy” campaign would be started
once there were 15 Spiders in each of most of the major 1. What is meant by a symptom versus a problem?
markets and 3 in each secondary market. She also Relate these ideas to the case.
approved adding new data and features to CLAUDIA. 2. Why is problem ownership so important?
When the advertising effort was refined and tied to the 3. Even though the problem was not identified at the
RMS, profits soared. Every member of Stephanie’s team end of the intelligence phase, what was?
and all the VPs involved got a generous end-of-year bonus, 4. How was the design phase performed in this case?
an extra week’s vacation, and a gift of a free GMC Spider. 5. The choice phase seemed like a combination of design,
choice, and implementation. Is this a problem?
Summary and Conclusion 6. The implementation phase seemed to involve ele-
MMS ran into new problems when it changed its fleet. ments of all the phases. Is this a problem?
CLAUDIA was not equipped to handle new cars that 7. How were new problems or opportunities handled as
were unlike others from past experience, and it did not they arose?
track events as well as trends. Simon’s (1977) four phases 8. Why do you suppose some alternatives were either
of decision making, along with feedback, were followed, modified or postponed?

ONLINE FILE W2.2: WEB SOURCES FOR DECISION-MAKING SUPPORT SAMPLER

In addition to these resources, Hansen (2002) is a good source of Web sites that
provide global macroeconomic and business data.

TABLE W2.2.1 Web Sources for Decision-Making Support Sampler

Web Site Content Sample Organization

home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/ An extensive bibliography on decision- Hossein Arsham, University of
opre640/opre640.htm making tools: “Applied Management Baltimore
Science: Making Good Strategic
Decisions”
mindtools.com Information about decision making, MindTools.com
decision trees, decision analysis,
and creativity
faculty.fuqua.duke.edu/ Contact point for decision analysis Decision Analysis Society home
daweb/ research: “Lexicon of Decision page
Making,” by Tom Spradlin
psych.fullerton.edu/ Applied research site; contains online Decision Research Center,
mbirnbaum/dec.htm Decision Research Center experiments Psychology Department, California
State University, Fullerton
sjdm.org References and meetings on judgment Society for Judgment and Decision
and decision making Making
smdm.org Contact point for promoting rational Society for Medical Decision Making
and systematic approaches to decision
making that improves the health and
clinical care of individuals and assists
in health policy formation
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TABLE W2.2.1 Continued

cdm.lcs.mit.edu Description of projects and references The Clinical Decision Making Group
on providing better health care at the MIT Laboratory for
through applied artificial intelligence Computer Science
dieoff.com/page163.htm “Decision Making and Problem Solving,” Brain Food, Jay Hanson
by Herbert A. Simon and Associates
sunsite.utk.edu/ncedr/ Produces and disseminates scientific and National Center for Environmental
operational advances of direct use to Decision-Making Research
subnational environmental decision
makers
iiasa.ac.at/Research/DAS/ Project on the development, testing, and International Institute for Applied
research/res98/node5.html use of Web-based systems for decision Systems Analysis (IIASA)
making and negotiations
ethicsweb.ca/resources “Applied Ethics Resources on WWW,” Centre for Applied Ethics
references and software for ethical
decision making; “A Framework for
Ethical Decision-Making Software”
scu.edu/ethics/practicing/ Articles on ethical decision making Markkula Center for Applied Ethics
decision/ at Santa Clara University
banxia.com Cognitive map bibliography and software Banxia Software, Ltd.
terry.uga.edu/mcdm/ Contact organization for researchers International Society on Multiple
Criteria Decision Making

Online File W2.3: Further Reading

For further reading on decision making, especially in advanced areas, see the following:

Baron, J. (2000). Thinking and Deciding. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,.
Connolly, T. (ed.). (2000). Judgment and Decision Making: An Interdisciplinary Reader. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Drummond, H. (2001). The Art of Decision Making: Mirrors of Imagination, Masks of Fate. New York: Wiley.
Gilovich, T., D. Griffin, and D. Kahneman (eds.). (2002). Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Goldstein, W.M., and R.M. Hogarth (eds.). (1997). Research on Judgment and Decision Making: Currents, Connections,
and Controversies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,.
Hastie, R., and R.M. Dawes (2001). Rational Choice in an Uncertain World: The Psychology of Judgment and Decision
Making. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kahneman, D., P. Slovic, and A. Tversky. (1982). Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Kahneman, D., and A. Tversky. (2000). Choices, Values, and Frames. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Koutsoukis, N.-S., and G. Mitra. (2003). Decision Modelling and Information Systems. Dordrecht, The Netherlands:
Kluwer.
Krueger, A.B. (2001). “A Study Shows Committees Can Be More Than the Sum of Their Members.” Working Paper,
Princeton University, Princeton, NJ.
March, J. (1994). Primer on Decision Making: How Decisions Happen. New York: The Free Press.
Nydick, R., and M. Liberatore. (2003). Decision Technology: Modeling, Software, and Applications. New York: Wiley.
Schneider, S.L., and J. Shanteau (eds.). (2003). Emerging Perspectives on Judgment and Decision Research. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.