Biology SL IBDP Free-Response Questions (Answered)

Topic 1

(1.2) State the functions of the following organelles of a eukaryotic animal cell: lysosome, Golgi
apparatus, free ribosomes, plasma membrane, rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Lysosome: breaks down food/ organelles/ cells with digestive enzymes

Golgi apparatus: a site that processes/ packages and releases proteins
Free ribosomes: site of synthesis of proteins that are released to the cytoplasm
Plasma membrane: controls entry/ exit of materials in cell
Rough endoplasmic reticulum: synthesis AND transport of proteins

(1.2) Distinguish between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

Eukaryote Prokaryote

DNA with proteins DNA without proteins

Has a nucleus Has no nucleus, DNA in nucleoid

Mitochondria No mitochondria

80S ribosomes 70S ribosomes

Has membrane-bound organelles No membrane-bound organelles

Larger in size Smaller in size

Reproduces by mitosis Reproduces by binary fission

(1.3) Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure of membranes

MUST HAVE:
· The phospholipid as a bilayer- double row of opposing phospholipids, tails on the inside.
· Integral protein shown crossing bilayer
· Peripheral protein shown on surface
· Cholesterol is embedded in bilayer and smaller than the hydrophobic tail

(1.3) Explain how the properties of phospholipids help cell membranes separate aqueous
environments in cells.

· The phosphate head is glycerol and phosphate and the tails are fatty acid chains
· The heads are hydrophilic and the tails are hydrophobic
· Hydrophilic heads are soluble in water while the hydrophobic tails are attracted to each
other, leading to the formation of a bilayer in water.
· The stability in the double layer is created because the heads on the outer edge are
attracted to water and the tails are attracted to each other
· The phospholipid bilayer is flexible because of the attraction of non-polar tails to each
other
· The fluidity allows the membranes to change shape

(1.4) Explain how vesicles are used to transport proteins within a eukaryotic cell.

· Proteins are synthesised by ribosomes/ rough endoplasmic reticulum

· Proteins are bound by vesicles
· Vesicles bud off from the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
· Vesicles fuse with Golgi apparatus
· Golgi modifies proteins
· Secretory vesicles formed and they move across the cytoplasm
· Proteins can be discharged to the exterior of the cell

(1.4) Outline the role of proteins in active and passive transport of molecules through
membranes

· Channel proteins allow diffusion/ osmosis/ passive transport

· Polar molecules cannot cross the hydrophobic membrane freely, needs facilitated diffusion
· Facilitated diffusion involves moving molecules through proteins down the concentration
gradient
· Aquaporins are integral membrane proteins that facilitate the movement of water
molecules (osmosis)
· Some proteins for facilitated diffusion are specific to certain molecules/ ions
· Active transport involves moving molecules through proteins against their concentration
gradient, this process requires ATP
· Some proteins in the membrane are pumps which perform active transport (eg. Sodium
potassium pump)

(1.4) Describe the process of endocytosis.

· Plasma membrane engulfs molecules via endocytosis

· The fluidity of the membrane allows endocytosis
· Plasma membrane forms pit and is pulled inwards
· Membrane pinches off and vesicle forms
· The inside of the plasma membrane becomes outside of vesicle membrane
· The vesicle moves into the cytoplasm
· Endocytosis is an active process which requires energy in the form of ATP
(1.5) Describe the origin of eukaryotic cells according to the endosymbiotic theory.

· Mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to prokaryotes

· The host cell took in another cell via endocytosis, but it did not digest the cell, allowing for
a mutualistic relationship between the two.
· Chloroplasts and mitochondria were once independent organisms

(1.6) Mitosis can only occur when the DNA of a cell has been replicated. Draw the stages in
mitosis.

Prophase- with chromatin condensed into visible chromosomes

Metaphase- chromosomes at the equator with spindle fibres present
Anaphase- sister chromatids migrating to opposite poles with spindle fibres present
Telophase- two nuclei being formed and nuclear membrane reappearing

(1.6) Outline the stages of the cell cycle.

- Interphase is the longest phase

- Interphase includes G1, S, and G2
- In the G1 and G2 phases, cells perform its normal functions such as making more
organelles
- In the S phase the DNA replicates
- Mitosis is when the nucleus divides
- Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm

Topic 2

(2.2) Describe the properties of water that make it a useful component of blood.

- Water is a polar molecule which makes it a versatile solvent because it can dissolve
substances by forming hydrogen bonds with it (example: glucose)
- Water is liquid at body temperature which allows it to transport materials within the body
(example: nutrients, metabolic waste, gases, hormones, blood cells)
- Water has a high specific heat capacity which allows water to carry heat without warming
up, and this allows blood to move heat for homeostasis

(2.3) Plants and animals both use disaccharides and polysaccharides in a variety of ways. State
one function of:

a) A named disaccharide and a named polysaccharide in plants

b) A named disaccharide and a named polysaccharide in animals
Plant disaccharide: Sucrose provides energy (is a transport form of carbohydrate)
Plant polysaccharide: Cellulose gives structure to cell wall

Animal disaccharide: Lactose/ maltose provides energy

Animal polysaccharide: Glycogen stores energy

(2.3) Describe the structure and function of starch in plants.

- Starch is a polysaccharide comprising glucose molecules

- It contains amylose which is a linear/ helical molecule
- It also contains amylopectin which is a branched molecule
- Starch is a storage of glucose or energy in plants
- Starch is also a storage form that does not draw water

(2.3) Distinguish between the structures of the different types of fatty acids in food.

- Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated

- Unsaturated fats are divided into two categories: monounsaturated or polyunsaturated.
- Saturated fats have no double C = C bond, and unsaturated fats have at least one
double C = C bond.
- Unsaturated fats come in cis-form and trans-form.
- Cis-form has hydrogen atoms on the same side of the carbon double bond
- Trans-form has hydrogen atoms on the opposite side of the carbon double bond
- The length of the hydrocarbon chains can vary

(2.5) Explain the effect of changes in pH, substrate concentration and temperature on enzyme
activity.

pH:
- Enzymes have an optimal pH, and enzyme activity increases as the pH gets closer to
the optimal level
- Extreme pH denatures enzymes by changing the structure of the active site

Substrate concentration:
- As substrate concentration increases, enzyme activity increases because the collisions
between enzyme and substrate increase
- However, there is a maximal level of enzyme activity because once substrate
concentration increases up to a certain point, all active sites are occupied.

Temperature:
- Enzymes have an optimal temperature at which they work most effectively
- Enzyme activity increases as the temperature gets closer to optimal temperature
- High temperature stops enzyme activity due to irreversible changes in structure
 - Denaturation occurs by breaking bonds that changes the shape of the active site

(2.5) Some proteins in membranes act as enzymes. Outline enzyme-substrate specificity

- Enzyme shape is specific to a particular substrate (use the lock and key analogy with a
specific example of an enzyme and substrate)
- An enzyme has a specific tertiary shape essential to its functioning
- This is known as the active site, which binds to the substrate as the active site and the
substrate are complementary due to chemical attraction between enzyme and substrate
and also physical structure
- Thus, an enzyme-substrate complex forms
- Denaturation changes the enzyme’s binding ability to a specific substrate

(2.5) Outline the action of enzymes.

Enzymes speed up biological reactions. Enzymes are substrate-specific. Enzymes lower the
activation energy of a chemical reaction. The substrate binds to the active site and an
enzyme-substrate complex is formed.

(2.8) Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic cell respiration in eukaryotes.

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Requires oxygen Does not require oxygen

Occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria Occurs in cytoplasm

Krebs cycle happens No Krebs cycle

Large yield of ATP Small yield of ATP

Produces carbon dioxide and water Produces lactate in animals, Produces

ethanol AND carbon dioxide in yeast and
plants

(2.8) Explain how carbon dioxide is produced in anaerobic and aerobic respiration.

- Glycolysis is common to both anaerobic and aerobic respiration

- Aerobic respiration uses oxygen but anaerobic respiration does not use oxygen
- A large amount of energy is released during aerobic respiration but a small amount of
energy is released during anaerobic respiration
- Cell respiration liberates six molecules of carbon dioxide per molecule of glucose

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
 - Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell
- 6-carbon glucose molecule is transformed into 2 molecules of pyruvate (pyruvate
molecule is a 3-carbon compound)
- Pyruvate is transformed into carbon dioxide and ethanol in alcoholic fermentation
- Lactic fermentation does not produce carbon dioxide

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
- Pyruvate compound transferred to acetyl coenzyme A
- Link reaction liberates carbon dioxide
- Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria
- Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) releases carbon dioxide

(2.8) Explain how glucose is used in both anaerobic and aerobic cell respiration.

- Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate

- Pyruvate is converted to lactate in humans/ animals
- Pyruvate is converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide in yeast/ bacteria/ plants
- Only a small yield of ATP is produced in glycolysis
- Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen, while aerobic respiration requires oxygen
- Pyruvate from glucose is broken down into carbon dioxide and water
- Aerobic respiration has a greater yield of ATP
- Aerobic phase of respiration occurs in mitochondria

(2.8) Many cell functions, like the synthesis of macromolecules and transport, require energy in
the form of ATP. Explain how ATP is generated in animal cells.

- ATP is a form of energy currency immediately available for use

- ATP is generated in cells by cell respiration, from organic compounds
- Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen
- Anaerobic cell respiration does not require oxygen
- Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate (one 6-carbon molecule of glucose is
broken down into two 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate)
- Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm
- Glycolysis releases only a small amount of ATP
- ADP changed to ATP with the addition of a phosphate group
- In mitochondria, aerobic respiration produces a large amount of ATP
- Oxygen is required for the mitochondrial production of ATP

(2.8) Outline the process of gas exchange necessary for aerobic respiration in a unicellular
eukaryotic organism.

- Oxygen must be taken up and carbon dioxide must be released

- Gases pass through a cell membrane via simple diffusion
 - Gases require a concentration gradient- they diffuse from a higher concentration to a
lower concentration
- Gas exchange is a passive process and does not require ATP
- A large surface area to volume ratio enables quicker diffusion of substances

(2.9) Outline the difference in the absorption of red, blue and green light by chlorophyll.

- Blue and red light are absorbed the most

- There is the greatest absorption of blue light
- Red light is absorbed in high amounts
- There is no absorption of green light because green light is reflected
- You can also draw the absorption spectrum

(2.9) Explain how the process of photosynthesis affects carbon dioxide concentrations in the
atmosphere during a typical year and the likely consequences on Earth of the yearly rises in
carbon dioxide.

Relationship between photosynthesis and carbon dioxide concentration:

- Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to make organic compounds
- More photosynthesis lowers the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere
- Annual fluctuations of carbon dioxide levels could be related to photosynthesis, and
could be caused by increased photosynthesis during the spring or summer.

Consequences:
- Raised levels of carbon dioxide could enhance the greenhouse effect, causing global
warming
- Rising ocean levels due to the melting of polar ice caps
- Changes in the climate
- Ocean acidification
- Alteration of food webs
- Loss of habitat
- Can lead to extinction

(2.9) Outline how and where energy is stored in plants.

- Energy is gained through photosynthesis

- Glucose from photosynthesis is stored as starch
- Starch is stored in chloroplast, as starch granules
- Starch can also be stored in storage roots or stem tubers
- Energy can be stored as lipids or oils in seeds
- Lipids store twice as much energy per gram as starch

(2.9) Describe how the rate of photosynthesis can be measured.

 - (State the correct equation for photosynthesis in words or symbols)
- The rate of photosynthesis can be measured by measuring the production of oxygen
(eg. Counting bubble from water plant or collecting oxygen concentration per unit time
using electronic sensors)
- Another method of measuring photosynthesis is the measure the uptake of carbon
dioxide
- Example of method: measuring pH changes with aquatic plants/ shift in carbon dioxide
concentration per unit time
- Another method of measuring photosynthesis is to measure the increase in biomass
- Example of method: measure the dry mass of the plant before and after time period
- It is not possible to measure water uptake since water is transpired, used in turgidity, and
many other chemical processes.

(2.9) Outline the effect of carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis and how
this can be measured by carbon dioxide uptake.

- There is no photosynthesis at very low/ no carbon dioxide concentration

- There is a positive correlation between increasing the carbon dioxide concentration and
the rate of photosynthesis
- At a high carbon dioxide concentration, the rate of photosynthesis reaches a plateau
- Carbon dioxide uptake is measured by a change in pH (aquatic plants) or using a carbon
dioxide sensor for terrestrial plants
- Water becomes alkaline as carbon dioxide is absorbed

(2.9) Producers extract phosphates and nitrates from soil. Outline how these ions are used in
the synthesis of organic molecules.

- Plants synthesise organic molecules by photosynthesis, using energy from light.

- These ions are attached to carbon compounds
- Phosphates are used to make phospholipids/ nucleotides/ nucleic acids
- Nitrates are used to make amino acids/ proteins
- Ions are transported from roots to leaves in the xylem

(2.9) Outline the production of carbohydrates in photosynthesis.

- Light is absorbed by chlorophyll and light energy is converted to chemical energy

- Some of the energy is used for the production of ATP
- Water molecules are split by photolysis. This produces oxygen as a waste product, along
with hydrogen ions and NADPH
- - Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air or water
- ATP is needed to produce carbohydrates or starch
(2.9) Explain the process of photosynthesis.

- Autotrophs perform photosynthesis.

- Carbon dioxide and water are required as raw materials for photosynthesis
- Light splits water molecules in a process called photolysis
- Photolysis releases oxygen as a waste product
- Light energy is converted to chemical energy
- Photosynthesis produces organic compounds (glucose)
- Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts
- Chlorophyll are photosynthetic pigments that absorb light
- Different pigments absorb different wavelengths of light
- Carbon dioxide concentration, light intensity, and temperature are limiting factors

(2.7) Explain the process of translation in cells.

- Translation is the conversion of the base sequence on mRNA into an amino acid
sequence
- The mRNA attaches to the ribosome
- Many ribosomes bind to the same mRNA
- mRNA carries codons (triplets of bases) each coding for one amino acid
- The tRNA each have a specific anticodon, and the tRNA carries a specific amino acid
- tRNA anticodon binds to the codon in the mRNA, by complementary base pairing
- A second tRNA binds to the next codon
- The two amino acids bind together and a peptide linkage is formed
- The first tRNA detaches, and the ribosome moves along the mRNA
- Another tRNA binds to the next codon, and this continues until the STOP codon is
reached, causing the release of the polypeptide

(2.7) Describe the genetic code and its relationship to polypeptides and proteins.

- The genetic code is based on sets of three nucleotides called codons

- Bases include guanine, adenine, cytosine and thymine in DNA, and adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and uracil in RNA
- Each codon codes for one amino acid
- Some codons are Start or Stop codons
- DNA is transcribed into mRNA by complementary base-pairing
- The mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids
- Each gene codes for a polypeptide
- Polypeptides can be joined to form proteins

(2.7) Outline the role of ribosomes in translation.

- Translation is the production of polypeptides

 - mRNA binds to the ribosome
- tRNA binds to the ribosome at the site where its anticodon corresponds to the codon on
the mRNA.
- Amino acids of consecutive tRNAs bind by a peptide link in the ribosomes
- The ribosome moves along the mRNA and continues with the elongation of the peptide
chain

(2.7) Outline how translation depends on complementary base pairing.

- Translation converts a sequence of mRNA nucleotides/ codons to a sequence of amino

acids.
- The bases on activated tRNAs pair with complementary bases on the mRNA
- Base pairing occurs when adenine pairs with uracil, and guanine pairs with cytosine
- Specific amino acids are attached to specific tRNA
- mRNA has codons and tRNA has anticodons

(2.7) Describe the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), including the role of Taq DNA polymerase.

- PCR is the process by which a small sample of DNA can be amplified many times
- PCR involves repeated cycling through higher and lower temperatures to promote
melting and annealing of the DNA strands
- The mixture is heated to high temperatures to break hydrogen bonds between strands of
DNA to separate the double-stranded DNA
- Taq polymerase is an enzyme that has an optimum temperature of 75 degrees Celsius
which extends the nucleotide chain from the primers to amplify the DNA sample
- Taq polymerase can withstand high temperatures without denaturing

Topic 3

(3.1) Explain how a base pair substitution in DNA can cause sickle-cell anemia.

- Gene mutation causes the base pair substitution.

- GAG has mutated into GTG, and one codon in the mRNA differs as a result.
- Instead of GAG, GUG appears in the mRNA and is read during translation.
- GUG on mRNA binds to the complementary anticodon of a different tRNA than the tRNA
usually used.
- The new tRNA attached carries valine instead of glutamic acid, and this causes the
replacement of glutamic acid by valine on the growing polypeptide.
- The replacement alters the properties of the hemoglobin, making it sticky and resulting in
deformed red blood cells which are sickle shaped.
- Sickle-shaped red blood cells can carry less oxygen, which causes anemia.
- Sickle-cell anemia is an autosomal codominant characteristic
(3.3) Meiosis in humans produces cells that participate in fertilisation. Outline the processes
involved in meiosis.

- Meiosis results in the production of four daughter cells

- During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up
- There is the exchange of genetic material by non-sister chromatids in a bivalent
- During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes line up at the equator line of the cell
- Anaphase I: homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles
- Telophase I: chromosomes reach poles and decondense
- Prophase II: Chromosomes condense and become visible, new spindle fibres form
- Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up at the centre of the cell
- Anaphase II: Spindle fibres contract, pulling apart the sister chromatids to opposite poles
of the cell
- Telophase II: Chromatids reach the poles and unwind

(3.4) Define codominant allele, recessive allele, locus, and sex linkage.

- Codominant allele: alleles that both affect the phenotype when present in a heterozygote
- Recessive allele: an allele that produces its characteristics phenotype only when present
in homozygous state, the trait is expressed only when the dominant allele not present
- Locus: The position of a gene on a chromosome
- Sex linkage: A gene located on a sex chromosome

(3.4) Explain how males inherit hemophilia and how females can become carriers for the
condition.

- Hemophilia is due to a recessive allele on the X chromosome, and hemophilia is sex

linked
- (use the letter ‘H’ for the normal allele on the X chromosome and the letter ‘h’ for the
hemophilia allele on the X chromosome.
- Sex chromosomes in females are XX and in males, they are XY.
- Y chromosomes do not carry the hemophilia allele
- Males inherit the X chromosome from their mother, and only have one copy of the X
chromosome so the recessive trait is not masked
- Thus, males have a 50% chance of receiving the hemophilia allele if their mother is a
carrier
- The carrier is heterozygous for the gene (X^H X^h)
- The dominant allele masks the recessive allele so blood clots normally
- Females inherit one X chromosome from their father and one from their mother, and thus
hemophiliac males will have carrier daughters.

(3.4) Explain the inheritance of colour blindness.

 - Colour blindness is caused by a recessive allele
- The gene for colour blindness is located on the X chromosome/ colour blindness is
sex-linked
- X^b is the allele for colour blindness and X^B is the allele for normal vision
- A male has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome, and thus they have only one
copy of the genes located on the X chromosome
- The X chromosome in males comes from the female parent
- Any male receiving the allele from his mother will express the trait
- X^b Y is the genotype for a colourblind male
- Many more males have colour blindness than females
- Females will only express colour blindness if they are homozygous recessive (X^b X^b)
- A heterozygous female will be a carrier for colour blindness
- A colourblind female could be born to a colour blind father and a carrier mother

(3.5) Outline the use of named enzymes in gene transfer using plasmids.

- Plasmids are obtained from bacteria

- Restriction enzymes cut the plasmids at target sequences
- DNA fragments of other organisms are cut with the same restriction enzymes
- In both the DNA and the plasmids, complementary sticky ends are produced
- DNA segment is added to the open plasmid, spliced together by ligase
- DNA polymerase is added to increase the amount of DNA
- The recombinant plasmids are inserted into new cells and cloned to produce the new
genes

(3.5) Describe the application of DNA profiling to determine paternity investigations.

- The DNA from the child, its mother, and its possible fathers are used to establish
paternity for legal reasons, or for divorce, or inheritance
- This could be done also for personal reasons or for self-esteem issues for children,
fathers, or parents.
- The samples of DNA are separated by gel electrophoresis
- The pattern of DNA fragments is produced in a gel and analysed for matches between
the child with its mother and its possible father
- Half the child’s bands will match the father while the other half will match the mother

(3.5) Describe DNA profiling.

- DNA sample is amplified by PCR

- The amplified DNA is cut into fragments by restriction enzymes
- Gel electrophoresis is used to separate fragments
- Gel electrophoresis produces a pattern of bands that is the same if taken from the same
organism
 - The patterns of bands from different sources are compared
- Generally, the greater the difference in pattern of bands the less closely related the
organisms
- DNA profiling is generally used in cases of identifying paternity, or criminal investigations

(3.5) Following fertilisation, cells in the developing embryo differentiate. Outline a technique for
cloning using different animal cells.

- Diploid cells are taken from donor animal and the diploid nucleus from these donor cells
are removed.
- Egg cells are removed from the donor animal and the haploid nucleus are removed from
the egg cells
- The diploid nucleus is fused with the egg cells to form a zygote
- The resulting embryo is implanted in the uterus of the surrogate mother, and a normal
pregnancy and birth are completed
- The offspring is a genetic clone of the donor mother

(3.5) Discuss ethical issues of therapeutic cloning in humans.

- Definition of therapeutic cloning: Therapeutic cloning involves producing embryos from

which embryonic stem cells can be harvested for medical use

ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR:
- Any procedure that reduces pain or suffering can be ethically justified
- Stem cells can be used to replace organs or tissues that have been lost or damaged
thus the quality of a patient’s life can be improved
- Cells can be removed from embryos that have stopped developing and would have died
anyway
- Cells are removed at a stage where no pain can be felt by the embryo
- Therapeutic cloning could be done with embryos from IVF that would otherwise be
destroyed

ARGUMENTS AGAINST:
- Embryonic stem cells are no longer needed as adult stem cells can be used without
causing loss of life
- There is a danger of embryonic stem cells developing into tumour cells
- Every human embryo is a potential human with the right to development
- More embryos may be produced than can be used and so some would be killed
- Any procedure that harms a life can be considered unethical

(3.5) Outline a technique used for gene transfer.

- Plasmid used for gene transfer is removed from bacteria using restriction enzymes
 - A plasmid is a small circle of DNA
- Each restriction enzyme cuts at a specific base sequence and thus creates sticky ends
- The same restriction enzyme is used to cut the DNA with the desired gene
- The desired gene is added to the open plasmid, and DNA ligase is used to join the
complementary sticky ends together to form a recombinant plasmid
- The recombinant plasmid is inserted into the host cell

(3.5) Explain the benefits and risks of using genetically modified crops for the environment and
for human health.

ENVIRONMENT BENEFITS:
- Pest-resistant crops can be made resulting in less spraying of pesticides
- Less fuel is burned in the management of crops
- Longer shelf-life for fruits and vegetables which reduces the risk of spoilage
- A greater quantity can be reaped
- Increased variety of growing conditions

ENVIRONMENT RISKS:
- Non-target organisms can be affected
- Genes transferred to make plants herbicide resistant could spread to wild plants,
resulting in super-weeds
- GMOs encourage a monoculture which reduces biodiversity

HEALTH BENEFITS:
- Nutritional benefits of food could be improved by increasing the nutrient content
- Crops could be produced that lack toxins or allergens
- Crops could be produced to contain edible vaccines to promote disease resistance

HEALTH RISKS:
- Proteins from transferred genes could cause allergic reactions or be toxic
- Antibiotic resistance genes used as markers during gene transfer could spread to
pathogenic bacteria
- Transferred genes could result in unexpected problems

(3.5) Outline natural methods of cloning in some eukaryotes.

- Clones are genetically identical organisms OR a group of cells derived from a single
parent cell
- In plants, some reproduce asexually through tubers/ bulbs/ runners
- In yeast/ fungi, they reproduce through budding
- Identical twins in humans are clones because they originate from the same cell

Topic 4
(4.2) Ecologists sometimes display data from an ecosystem using a diagram called a pyramid of
energy. Describe what is shown in pyramids of energy.

- Pyramids of energy show the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next in a
community.
- The units of pyramids of energy are energy per unit area per unit time
- The bar width is proportional to the energy stored in the biomass in that trophic level
- The lowest trophic level is that of producers
- The second trophic level is herbivores
- The third trophic level are secondary consumers
- Only 10-20% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next
- The energy stored in each trophic level decreases proportionally as you go up this level
- The energy pyramid shows that there is a limit to the length of food chains

(4.2) Explain the processes by which energy enters and flows through ecosystems.

- Light energy is the initial energy source for all organisms

- Producers change light energy to chemical energy, producing glucose
- Organic compounds are used for energy, growth, repair and storage
- Energy passes as food along food chains
- Cellular respiration releases energy as ATP from food
- Energy is lost as heat during respiration
- Only around 10% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next
- Energy is lost in bones or hair which are not fully eaten
- Energy is lost as feces or urine
- Decomposers remove energy from bodies
- Energy cannot be recycled

(4.3) Discuss the processes in the carbon cycle that affect concentrations of carbon dioxide and
methane in the atmosphere and the consequences for climate change.

- Carbon dioxide is produced from respiration in organisms, or released during

combustion of fossil fuels
- Methane is produced by anaerobic respiration of bacteria
- Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water
- Carbon dioxide is converted to organic compounds by photosynthesis of autotrophs
- Carbon dioxide can be converted to calcium carbonate or fossilised into limestone
- Partially decomposed organic matter can be converted into peat/ oil/ gas
- Carbon dioxide and methane are both greenhouse gases which increase the
greenhouse effect
- Both carbon dioxide and methane absorb long-wave radiation from the earth and retain
the heat in the atmosphere
 - Increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere correlate with more
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
- Cattle production/ rice paddy/ defrosting of the tundra increases the amount of methane
in the atmosphere
- The global temperature increase disrupts climate patterns

(4.3) Describe the process of peat formation.

- Peat is formed from dead plant material in waterlogged sites

- Bacteria are not active in these places, so organic matter is not fully decomposed
- Peat formation occurs in acidic and anaerobic conditions
- Peat formation is a very slow process

(4.4) Aquatic and other environments are being affected by a global rise in temperature. Outline
the consequences of this on arctic ecosystems.

- Global warming results in melting of the polar ice caps and the loss of ice habitats
- Raises sea level causing flooding in coastal areas, destroying coastal habitats
- The warming of habitats would change specific flora/ fauna that can be supported
- Could result in a possible extinction of species
- There could be change in migration patterns of species
- Ecological changes could affect higher trophic levels
- Increased rates of decomposition of detritus from melting permafrost
- Increased success of pest species and pathogens in infection

Topic 5

(5.2) Explain the possible consequences of overproduction of offspring.

- Overproduction of offspring leads to competition for limited resources and a struggle for
survival
- These limited resources are water/ space/ food/ mates
- Not every member of the population can survive, and the organisms which are less
adapted will either die or migrate
- Some individuals are better adapted for environmental conditions and they are more
likely to survive and reproduce. This is called natural selection.
- Overpopulation can increase the spread of disease within a population
- Waste products of the population may reach toxic levels
- The environment may exceed its carrying capacity leading to population crash

(5.2) Explain the evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

- Antibiotics are chemicals used to treat bacterial disease

 - Within populations, bacteria vary in their genetic resistance to antibiotics
- Resistance to antibiotics arises by random gene mutation
- When antibiotics are used, antibiotic-sensitive bacteria are killed
- Natural selection favours those with antibiotic resistance
- Resistant bacteria survive, reproduce and increase the allele frequency of resistant
bacteria
- The more an antibiotic is used, the more bacterial resistance develops in a population
- Genes can be transferred to other bacteria by plasmids
- Doctors use different antibiotics but resistance develops to those as well
- Multiple antibiotic-resistant bacteria evolve, and it becomes difficult to treat some
infections

(5.2) Explain how evolution may happen in response to an environmental change.

- Genetic variation exists in a population due to mutation or sexual reproduction

- Eg. Give a valid example of variation in a specific population, like Darwin’s finches on
Daphne Major
- More offspring are produced than the environment can sustain, resulting in a struggle for
survival
- Eg. Competition for food
- Those individuals with beneficial adaptations (finches with a certain beak shape) are
able to survive and best compete for those scarce resources, allowing them to pass on
their genes to the next generation. This results in the alleles for the adaptations
increasing in a population
- This is called evolution by natural selection. Evolution is a cumulative change in the
population over time OR a change in allele frequency

(5.2) Explain how the process of evolution occurs.

- Evolution is a cumulative change in a population over time OR a change in allele

frequency
- A population has variations among the individuals due to sexual reproduction or
mutations
- Certain variations give an advantage to some organisms over others in certain
environments
- Populations produce more offspring than the environment can support
- Thus, individuals of the same species compete for the same resources
- The better adapted organisms tend to survive and reproduce and pass on their heritable
characteristics to the next generation
- Natural selection increases the frequency of alleles of the better-adapted organisms
- Use a specific example
Topic 6

(6.1) State the source, substrate, products and optimal pH condition for lipase in the human
digestive system.

Source: Pancreas
Substrate: Triglycerides/ lipids/ fats/ oils
Product: Glycerol and three fatty acids
Optimal pH: 7-8

(6.1) Explain how the small intestine moves, digests, and absorbs food.

- The contraction of muscle layers during peristalsis helps moves food

- Intestinal enzymes digest macromolecules into monomers
- Pancreatic enzymes chemically digest food in the lumen of the small intestine
- Pancreatic amylase digests starch
- Bile secreted into the small intestine creates a favourable pH for enzymes and emulsifies
fats
- The mucosa layer of the small intestine contains villi, finger-like projections with microvilli
that increase the surface area for absorption
- These villi absorb products of digestion/ monomers/ mineral ions/ vitamins
- Glucose/ amino acids enter the blood capillaries
- Absorption involves active transport/ diffusion/ facilitated diffusion
- Different nutrients are absorbed by different transport mechanisms

(6.2) Explain the relationship between structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins.

ARTERIES:
- Thick walls to maintain the blood flowing at high pressure
- Elastic fibres in the walls gives the artery walls the ability to stretch and recoil
- Smooth muscle layer contracts to maintain pressure
- Narrow lumen maintains high pressure
- Smooth endothelium for efficient transport

VEINS:
- Thin walls to allow skeletal muscles to exert pressure on veins
- Thin outer layer of collagen to provide structural support
- Wide lumen allows great volume of blood to pass
- Valves prevent the backflow of blood

CAPILLARIES:
- Wall has one layer of cells allowing fast diffusion of substances
- Pores allow lymphocytes to exit
 - Extensive branching increases surface area for exchange of materials
- Small diameter allows them to fit in between cells
- Narrow diameter increases oxygen diffusion from red blood cells

(6.2) Describe the action of the heart in pumping blood.

- Both atria collect blood from veins

- Sinoatrial node (SA node) sends impulses to fibres initiating contractions
- Blood is pushed to ventricles by the contraction of atria
- AV valves are open as atria contract
- Semilunar valves are closed so that the ventricles fill with blood
- Ventricles contract
- AV valves close to prevent backflow of blood into the heart
- Blood is pushed out into the pulmonary artery and aorta
- When ventricles relax, semilunar valves close, preventing the backflow of blood

(6.2) Outline the exchange of materials between capillaries and tissues.

- Molecules move by diffusion and move down a concentration gradient

- Nutrients move into tissues
- Gas exchange takes place between tissues and blood
- Nitrogenous wastes and excess water move from cells into blood
- Endocrine organs or glands release hormones into the bloodstream

(6.2) Explain the structures and functions of arteries and veins.

- Arteries and veins have three layers in their walls- tunica externa, media and intima
- Pressure of blood is low in veins and high in arteries
- Arteries carry blood away from the heart
- The lumen of the artery is small to keep the pressure high
- Arteries have thick muscular walls with elastic fibres to withstand pressure
- Elastic fibres recoil in response to ventricular contraction
- Elastic fibres help maintain pressure between heartbeats
- Veins receive blood from capillaries
- Large lumen of veins so there is less resistance to blood flow
- Valves in veins prevent backflow of blood

(6.3) Outline how leucocytes defend the body against pathogens.

- Leucocytes can recognise pathogens

- Phagocytes engulf pathogens by phagocytosis
- Each pathogen has specific antigens
- Lymphocytes produce antibodies by reacting to specific antigens
 - Antibody joins to specific antigens, destroying them.
- Lymphocytes then copy itself thus increasing the total number of specific antibodies

(6.3) Outline the mechanisms of defence against pathogens in humans.

- Skin and mucous membranes are the first line of defence against diseases
- Skin is a physical barrier that is waterproof
- Mucous membranes contain lysosomes that destroy pathogens after trapping them
- Stomach acid inhibits the growth of pathogens
- White blood cells ingest pathogens in tissues by phagocytosis
- Lymphocytes produce antibodies that attach to specific antigens and destroys
pathogens

(6.3) Discuss the transmission and social implication of AIDS.

HIV TRANSMISSION
- Fluids from an infected person transmit HIV which may progress to AIDS
- Blood transfusions
- Sharing needles in drug users
- Sexual intercourse
- Breastfeeding
- Transmission from mother to child across the placenta

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS
- Death of parents leaving orphans
- Families become poor due to expenses in treatment
- Loss of employment
- Parents suffer discrimination
- Families and friends suffer grief

(6.3) Some blood proteins are involved in defence against infectious diseases. Explain the roles
of named types of blood proteins in different defence mechanisms.

- Clotting factors are proteins that initiate the clotting cascade

- Fibrin is a protein that permits blood clotting
- The protease thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin
- Fibrin forms a mesh that prevents the entry of pathogens into the blood
- Antibodies are specific proteins that lymphocytes make
- Each antibody corresponds to a specific antigen
- Antibodies create specific immunity
- Plasma cells produce large amounts of a specific antibody
- Immunoglobulins are antibodies against pathogens
- Enzymes in phagocytic white blood cells may digest pathogens
(6.4) Explain the mechanism of ventilation in the lungs in order to promote gas exchange for cell
respiration.

- Inhalation brings air into the lungs

- External intercostal muscles contract and move the rib cage upwards and outwards
- Diaphragm contracts increasing thoracic volume
- Pressure decreases in lungs so air rushes into lungs
- Exhalation forces air out
- Internal intercostal muscles contract and external intercostal muscles and diaphragm
relax
- Abdomen wall muscles contract and push diaphragm upwards, decreasing thoracic
volume
- Increases pressure in lungs so air is forced out
- A concentration gradient between air sacs and blood needs to be maintained

(6.4) Describe what happens in alveoli.

- Gas exchange occurs in alveoli

- Oxygen diffuses from air to blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from blood to air
- Oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells
- Concentration gradients of gases are maintained
- Type II pneumocytes secrete a pulmonary surfactant to prevent the sides of alveoli from
sticking to each other, maximising the surface area for diffusion of gases

(6.5) Membranes of pre-synaptic and post-synaptic neurons play an important role in the
transmission of nerve impulses. Explain the principles of synaptic transmission.

- A synapse is the gap between adjacent neurons

- The action potential depolarises the pre-synaptic membrane and opens voltage-gated
calcium channels in the membrane
- This causes an influx of calcium ions, which results in vesicles containing
neurotransmitter to be released into the synaptic cleft
- The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse and attaches to receptors on the
postsynaptic neuron
- This causes the postsynaptic neuron membrane to depolarise and this depolarisation
causes a new action potential
- The neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic membrane is then broken down and
reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron

(6.5) Explain how an impulse passes along the membrane of a neuron.

 - The resting potential of a membrane is - 70 mV. The inside of the membrane is negative
relative to the outside of the membrane.
- Sodium and potassium pumps maintain the resting potential
- At the resting potential, there are more sodium ions outside than inside the cell.
- At the resting potential, there are more potassium ions inside the cell than outside.
- A nerve impulse is an action potential that stimulates a wave of depolarisation along the
membrane, causing the membrane potential to become - 50 mV, resulting in the sodium
channels along the membrane opening.
- This causes sodium ions to diffuse in, causing depolarisation.
- The potassium channels then open and potassium ions move out, causing
repolarisation.

(6.5) Explain the propagation of electrical impulses along a neuron including the role of myelin.

- Neurotransmitter attaches to the receptor site, initiating transmission

- Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated along the axons of the neurons
- Resting potential is more negative inside the membrane. A resting potential has a
greater concentration of sodium ions outside than the potassium ions inside the axon.
- Voltage-gated channels open and the sodium ions diffuse in which causes
depolarisation of the membrane, raising the membrane potential from -70 mV to +40 mV.
- The local currents affect adjacent channels and cause an action potential
- Depolarisation is followed by a repolarisation of the neuron
- Voltage gated channels open and potassium ions diffuse out and repolarises the
membrane
- The sodium and potassium pumps restore the resting potential
- The myelin around the neuron insulates the axon and speeds up the transmission as
myelin permits saltatory conduction.

(6.6) Explain the control of body temperature in humans.

- Normal body core temperature is about 36.5-37.5 degrees Celsius

- Temperature is regulated by negative feedback, via homeostatic mechanisms
- The hypothalamus is at the centre of thermoregulation
- Hypothalamus sends impulses to the body to increase/ decrease temperatures
- The release of sweat by sweat glands in the skin if skin temperature rises
- The evaporation of water cools the body
- Heat is transferred by the blood from the body core to the surface
- If temperature rises, there is an increased flow of blood because of the vasodilation of
skin blood vessels
- If temperature drops, decreased flow of blood to skin because of the vasoconstriction of
skin blood vessels
- Shivering increases heat production in muscles
(6.6) Describe the control of blood glucose concentration in humans.

- Level of glucose in the blood is controlled by homeostasis or negative feedback

- Pancreas produces hormones insulin and glucagon
- Insulin reduces blood glucose and glucagon increases blood glucose
- In pancreas, beta cells produce insulin and alpha cells produce glucagon
- Insulin produced during high blood glucose levels
- Insulin stimulates the liver to absorb glucose
- Glucose is converted to glycogen
- Glucagon is produced if the blood glucose level is too low
- Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose
- Glucose released into the blood to return levels to normal

(6.6) Outline how leptin controls appetite.

- Leptin inhibits appetite

- Leptin is secreted by adipose tissue
- Leptin targets cells in the appetite control centre in the brain, the hypothalamus,
inhibiting appetite
- If the amount of adipose tissue increases the blood leptin concentration rises

(6.6) Outline the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle.

- FSH stimulates the development of follicles

- Follicles produce estrogen
- Estrogen stimulates the repair of the uterus lining
- Estrogen stimulates LH secretion
- LH causes ovulation
- LH stimulates the development of the corpus luteum
- Corpus luteum secretes progesterone
- Progesterone causes the thickening of the uterus lining
- Progesterone/ estrogen inhibits the secretion of LH/ FSH
- Falling progesterone levels at the end of the cycle allow for menstruation
- LH/ FSH are pituitary hormones

(6.6) Discuss the ethical issues associated with IVF.

PROS:
- Infertile couples can conceive
- Allows for children who are genetically related to them
- Decision to have children is a conscious one and parents are more likely to be
responsible
- Screening of embryos decreases chance of inherited disease
 - Increases reproductive age
- Cancer patients can harvest ova/ sperm before chemotherapy
- Production of extra embryos can be used for research

CONS:
- Potential risks from drug treatment
- IVF is against some religious teachings
- Spare embryos that are killed can be seen as unethical
- Higher risk of birth defects
- expensive
Option D

D.1 Discuss the causes and treatments of phenylketonuria.

CAUSES:
- Phenylketonuria is a genetic condition caused by a mutation
- The enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase is not present
- Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid
- Inability to convert phenylalanine into tyrosine results in a toxic buildup of phenylalanine
in the body which could cause mental disorders

TREATMENTS:
- Requires a diet rich in tyrosine supplements and low in phenylalanine
- Patient should monitor blood phenylalanine levels and monitor growth rates/ intellectual
development

D.1 Explain a method to quantify the energy content in food.

- Energy content in food is measured with a calorimeter

- Measure the initial mass/ volume of water
- Measure the initial temperature of water
- Measure the mass of the food
- Ignite the food and place it under the container of water
- Measure the final temperature of water
- Calculate the change in the temperature of water
- Energy = mass of water * temperature rise in water * specific heat capacity of water/
mass of food

D.1 Explain the possible health risks of being overweight.

- Increased risk of hypertension/ high blood pressure

- High cholesterol
- Circulatory problems like thrombosis or stroke or heart disease
- Possibly develop osteoarthritis
- Higher risks of cancers
- Gall bladder disease

D.3 Explain the importance of bilirubin in the onset of jaundice.

- Jaundice is a yellowish pigmentation of the skin/ whites of eyes

- Jaundice is often seen in liver disease like liver cancer/ hepatitis
- Bilirubin comes from the breakdown of red blood cells, and it results from the breakdown
of the heme group of hemoglobin
 - Bilirubin is released into the blood when excess is produced
- Bilirubin is normally excreted with bile, but will be released when bile ducts are blocked

D.4 Explain how electrical signalling in the heart leads to ventricular contraction.

- Cardiac muscle transmits electrical signals

- SA node initiates signal
- Signal spreads over atria and reaches the AV node
- Signal passes through the bundle of His and then the Purkinje fibres
- The signal is delayed at the AV node and this delay allows ventricles to fill as the atria
contracts
- The conducting fibres spread signal across ventricle walls and the ventricles contract